9-1 CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

There are three ways in which two lines can

be situated in space:
(1) They may fai l to intersect and fail to
be coplanar, like the lines Li and L3, in the
figure. In this case, they are called skew lines.
(2) They may intersect in a point, like the
lines L, and L 2 . In this case, Theorem 3- 4 tells
us that they are coplanar.
(3) They may be coplanar without intersecting each other, like the
li nes L2 and L 3. 1n this case we say that the two lines are parallel.

Definitions

Two lines a re skew lines if they do not lie in t he same plane. T wo lines
are parallel if (I ) they are coplanar and (2) they do not intersect.
We shall write Li II L2 to mean that L, and L2 are parallel. If two
segments AB and CD lie on parallel lines, then we shall say for short
that the segments are parallel, and we shall write AB 11 CD.
We shall speak similarly of two rays, a ray and a segment, and so on.

C D

For example, ifwe are given that AB II CD, we may also write AB II CD,
AB II CD, BA II CD, and so on, for twelve more similar cases.
261
262 9-1 J CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

The following theorem ena bles us to spea k of the plane co ntaining

two parallel lines.

Theorem 9- 1
Two parallel lines lie in exactly one plane.

Proof. If L 1 and L 2 are pa rallel, the n we know at o nce fro m the

definitio n that they lie in a pla ne £. We need to show t ha t they lie
in o nl y o ne pla ne.
Let P be a ny point of L 2. By Theore m 3-3 there is o nly one plane
co ntaining L 1 a nd P. Therefore there is onl y one pla ne conta ining
L 1 a nd L 2 , because every pla ne tha t contains L 2 conta ins P.

/Ill
O n the basis of the definitio n, it may not seem easy to tell wh ether
two lines a re parallel. Each o f the li nes stretc hes out infinitely fa r in
two d irectio ns, and to tell whether they intersec t, it may seem tha t we
have to look at the e ntire line in bo th cases. In some cases, h owever,
we ca n tell tha t two lines a re parallel by looking at o nly a shor t segment
of each, as the foll owing theore ms show.

Theorem 9-2
111 a plane, if two lines are hotlt p
------+..-----► l1
perpe11dicular to the same line, tlte11
tltey are parallel.
Q
------+..-----► l 2
Proof. G iven tha t L 1 _!_La t P a nd
L 2 _!_ L at Q. It is given that L 1 a nd
L 2 a re co pla na r. We need to show
tha t they do no t inte rsect.

Sup pose that L 1 intersects L 2 a t a

po int R. Then the re a re two per-
pendicula rs fro m R to L. By Theo-
re m 6-4, this is impossible. There-
fo re L 1 II L 2 . [Query : What method
of proof is being used here?]
CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM j 9-1 263

Theorem 9-2 enables us to show that parallels exist.

Theorem 9-3. Existence of Parallels
Let L he a line and let P he a point 11ot 011 L. Then there is at least
one line through P, parallel to L.
Proof. Let L 1 be the perpendicular from P
p
to L. Let L 2 be the perpend icular to L 1 at P - -- - ---I-- - - - -L2
(in the plane that contains L and P.) By
Theorem 9-2, L2 II L.

l t may seem natural to try to prove next

that the para llel given by Theorem 9-3 is
unique. That is, we might try to prove the
following.
Through a gii;en extem al point there is only one line parallel to a
gii;e11 line.

It is a fact, however, that this statement cannot be proved as a

theorem, o n the basis of the postu lates that we have so fa r. It must
be taken as a new postulate. This postulate has a long and interesting
history. For we ll over two thousa nd years, the standard textbook of
geometry was E uclid's Elements, written abo ut 300 B.C. 1n the Elements,
Euclid used a postulate which says that parallels are unique. Usually,
mathema ticians like to assu me as little as they ca n get by with, and
prove as much as they can manage to prove. For this reason, many of
them tried to turn Euclid's Parallel Postulate into a theorem. All of
them fa iled. Finally, in the nineteenth century, it was discovered that
the Para llel Postulate cannot be proved on the basis of the other
postulates.
We shall return to this q uestion later. Meanwhile, let us investigate
a li ttle fu rther the conditions under which we can say that two li nes
are para llel.
ln the figure o n the left, the line T is a trans,.;ersal of the coplanar
lines L I and L 2 . In the figure on the right, T is not a transversal.
264 9-1 j CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

Definition
A trans/jersal of two copla na r lines is a line which intersects them in two
different points.

In each of the following figures, L l and L2 are alternate interior

angles.

Note that the lines cut by the transversal may o r may not be parallel.
The labels in the figures suggest how we sho uld describe a lternate
interior angles in a definition.

Definition
G iven two lines Li and L 2 , cut by a tra nsversal Tat points P and Q.
Let A be a point of Li and let B be a poin t of L 2 , such tha t' A and B
lie on opposite sides of T. Then LAPQ and L P QB are a!temate
interior angles.

Theorem 9-4
If two lines are cut by a transversal, and one pair of alteniate interior
angles are congruent, then t!te ot!ter pair of altemate interior angles
are also congruent.

That is, if La ,....., La', then Lb ,....., Lb'. And if Lb ,....., Lb', then
La ,....., La'. The proof is left to yo u.
CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM j 9-1 265

The following theorem is a generalization of Theorem 9-2. That is,

it includes Theorem 9- 2 as a special case. Since it applies in more
cases tha n Theorem 9-2, it is more useful.

Theorem 9-5. The A l P Theorem

Gfren two lines cut by a transversal. If a pair of altemate interior

angles are congme11t, then the lines are parallel.

Proof. Let T be a tra nsversal, intersecling Li and L2 a t P a nd Q.

We have given that a pair of alternate interior angles are congruent.
By the preceding theorem, we have

(l) both pairs of alternate interior a ngles a re congruent.

Now suppose that L 1 intersects L 2 at a point R . We sha ll show that

this leads to a contradiclion of (I).

Let S be a point of Li, on the side of T opposite to R. Then LSPQ

is an exterior angle of !::::.PQR, and L PQR is one of its remote interior
angles. By the Exterior Angle Theorem,

(2) LSPQ > LPQR.

This contradicts ( I), beca use these are alternate interior angles.
Therefore L 1 does not intersect L 2 , and L, II L 2 , which was to be
proved.
266 9-1 I CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

Problem Set 9- 1

1. Given the plane figure, name a pair of alternate interior angles for
(a) L 1 and L 2.
T
(b) L 2 and L 3.
(c) L 1 and L 3.

2. In this plane figure L 2, L 4, and

L 5 in tersect a t a point. Name at
least three pairs of altern ate in-
terior angles for L I and L 3 .

Ls
3. Which of the following statements are true?
(a) If two lines do not lie in the same plane, they may be parallel.
(b) The definition of parallel lines states that the lines must rema in the
same d istance apart.
(c) If two lines are pe rpendicular to the same line at different points of
the line, they are parallel.
(d) I f two lines in a plane are intersected by a tra nsversa l, the alternate
interior angles are congruent.

4. Construct a plane figure that satisfies the following description:

M, R , Q, and S are distinct and coplanar points. R and S are o n
opposite sides of MQ such that LRMQ ~
LSQM.
What conclusio n can you make concernin g RM and QS?
CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM j 9-1 267

5. Is it possible to find two lines in space which are neither parallel nor
intersecting?

6. Given: AD bisects LCAB and CA = CD.

Prove: CD II AB.

7. Would it follow that L 1 /I L2 if

(a) mLq = 100 and (b) mLp = 80 and
mLr=100? mLr=IOO?
(c) mLs = 120 and (d) mLr = 90 and
mLp = 60? mLp = 90?

8. Given a line L and a point P not on L, show how a protractor and a

ruler can be used to draw a line through P parallel to L.

9. In this figure, which lines would be parallel if

(a) mLa = 90, mLJ = 68,
mLc = 68?
Ls
(b) mLd = 90, mLb = 42,
mLc = 48?
(c) mLf = 54, mLe = 46,
mLb = 46?

10. AB and CD bisect each other at E. Prove that

ADIi CB.

A D
268 9-1 I CONDITIONS WHICH GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

11. G iven the quadri lateral □ABCD with D C

r ight angles LA and LB and AD = BC.

□
Prove that L D ,.__, L C. [Hint: D raw AC
an d B D.] Can you also prove tha t L D
and LC are right a ngles ? A B

M
12. In the figure, P, Q, and R a re three K
no ncollinea r points in the pla ne £ ,
PK ..LE a nd 7fM ..LE. Prove that
PK. II RM.

13. In the figure, A, B, a nd C are col-

linea r, AP = A Q, BP = BQ, BX =
BY, a nd CX = C Y. Prove that
PQ II XY. 0
y

14. Given: □ABCD with H the midpoint of AB, G the midpoint of DC,
AD= BC, and L A ,.__, LB.

Prove : Gli ..LDC. D

r - --
G
-+----,
C

CH ..LAB.
AB II DC.
A H B

15. G iven: [Link] in which

AP =PB = RQ,
BQ =QC= PR,
AR= RC = PQ.
Prove: m L A + mL B + mL C = 180.
Why does this 1101 prove that the sum of the measures of the a ngles of
a ny triangle is 180?
OTHER CONDITIONS T HAT GUARANTEE PARALLELISM j 9-2 269

HONORS PROBLEM

Suppose that the fo llowing two definitions arc agreed upon.

A vertical li11e is a line containing the center of the earth.
A horizontal line is a line perpendicular to some vertical line.
(a) Could two horizontal lines be parallel?
(b) Cou ld two vertical lines be parallel?
(c) Could two vertical lines be perpendicular?
(d) Could two horizontal lines be perpend icular?
(e) Would every vertical li ne be a horizontal line?
(f) Would every horizon tal line be a vertical line?
(g) Could a horizontal line be para llel to a vertical line?
(h) Would every line be horizontal?

9- 2 OTHER CONDITIONS THAT GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

Much of yo ur work in Sectio n 9- 1 dealt with a lternate interior a ngles

for two lines cut by a tra nsversa l. All eight angles formed a re important
in the study of parallel li nes, and so descri ptive names are given to
several pa irs of these angles.

Alternate interior angles : L3 and L 6

L 4 and L S
Corresponding a ngles : L I and LS
L2 and L6
L 3 and L7
L 4 and L8
Interior a ngles on the same side of the
tran sversal:

L3 and L S
L 4 and L 6

Definition
Given two lines cut by a transversal. If Lx
and Ly are alternate interior a ngles, and
Ly a nd Lz are vertica l angles, then Lx
and Lz are corresponding angles.
270 9-2 J OTHER CONDITIONS THAT GUARANTEE PARALLELISM

Definition
G iven two lines cut by a transversal. If (1) Lx a nd Ly are a lternate
interior a ngles, (2) L v a nd L w are alternate interior angles, a nd
(3) L i; and L x fo rm a linear pair, then Lx a nd L ware interior angles
0 11 the same side of the transi;ersa!.

You sho uld prove the following three theorems.

Theorem 9- 6
Give11 flllo lines cut by a transversal. If a pair of correspo11ding angles
are congrnent, then a pair of altemate interior angles are congruent.
(Remember the Vertica l Angle Theorem.)

Theorem 9-7. The CA P Theorem

Gh>en two lines cut by a tra11sversal. If a pair of correspondi11g angles
are congment, then the lines are parallel.

Theorem 9- 8
Gil•en flllo lines cut by a tra11sversal. If a pair of interior angles on the
same side of the fl•ans,,ersal are supplementary, the lines are parallel.

It looks as if the converses of Theorems 9-5, 9- 7, a nd 9-8 ought to

be true. That is, if two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then
alterna te interior a ngles o ught to be congruent, correspo nding angles
ought to be co ngruent, a nd interio r a ngles o n the sa me side of the
transversal o ught to be supplementary. It is impo rtant to no te, how-
ever, that the proof of these converses depends upon the uniqueness
property stated in the Parallel Postula te. We shall state this postulate
in the next section and use it to continue our d iscussio n of parallels.
OTHER CONDITIONS THAT GUARANTEE PARALLELISM / 9-2 271

Problem Set 9- 2
1. Given the plane figure at the right.
Name
(a) three pairs of corresponding
angles for lines L 1 and L 2
(b) two pairs of corres ponding
angles for lines L 1 and L 3
(c) two pairs of alternate interior
angles for lines L 2 and L 3

2. Prove Theorem 9- 7.

3. In the figure, AC = BC and L DCE ~ LB.

Prove that CE II AB. E

A B

M
4. Given: f:::.KMJ with KJ = MJ, CJ = HJ, and
LHCJ~ LHMK.
Prove: CH II KM.

5. In the figu re, LB a nd L D are right angles, D C

and DC = AB. Prove that AD II BC.

C2J
A

C
B

6. In the figure as ma rked, why is PQ II AB?

AC II QR ? PS II BC?
272 9-3 I THE PARALLEL POSTULATE

7. For each plane figure below, find a value for x that will make L1 II £ 2 •
T
T o
(3x + 17)

(2x + 0
48)

(a ) (b)

8. Given the plane figure with A D 1- L 2 ,

FE1- L 3 , AB= BC, and AD= BE= Li - - - - , - F - r
A _ _ ___
BF. Prove that
(a) L z II L3.
(b) L1 II £ 3.
L3 _ ___.
C.____._
E_ _ _ ___

Preparation for Section 9- 3

1. State the converses of Theorems 9-2, 9-5, 9- 7, and 9-8, carefully noting
each hypothesis and each conclusion. Do you see how each converse
d iffers from its theorem?

2. Write a statement that applies the Trichotomy Property to LA a nd L B.

3. Does the Angle Construction Postulate guarantee existence or uniqueness,

or both?

9- 3 THE PARALLEL POSTULATE

PO STU LATE 18. The Parallel Postulate

Thl'ough a give11 extemal poi11t thel'e is 011/y 011e parnllel to a give11
li11e.

Note that since we have proved tha t paralle ls exist, the postulate
needs to say o nl y that they a re unique. It is the uniqueness of parallels
that gives us the converses o f the theorems in the preceding section.
W e start with the converse of Theorem 9-5.
 THE PARALLEL POSTULATE / 9-3 273

Theorem 9- 9. The PAI Theorem

If 1'110 parallel li11es are cut by a tra11si•ersal, the11 alter11ate i11terior
a11gles are co11grue11t.

Proof. We have given parallel

lines L 1 and L 2, and a transversa l p
-------
b- ' - - - - - - -
T, intersecting them in P and Q. L1

Suppose that L a and L b are not

congruent. Let L be the line
through P for which alternate in- T
terior angles are congruent. That
is, in the figure below, L a ~ Le. By the Angle Construction Postulate,
there is exactly one such line L ; and this means also that L ,r. L,.

Then L II L 2, by Theorem 9- 5. Since L ,r. L 1 , it fo llows that there

are two lines through P, parallel to L 2 . This contradicts the Parallel
Postulate. Therefore L a ~
Lb, which was to be proved.
The proofs of the following two corollaries and three theorems follow
easily from the fo rmal definitions.

Corollary 9-9.1 . The PCA Corollary

If two parallel li11es are cut by a transversal, each pair ofcorrespo11di11g

angles are congmeut.

Corollary 9- 9.2
If two parallel li11es are cut by a tra,m•ersal, tlze i11terior a11gles 011 t/ze
same side of the tra11sversal are supplementary.

Restatement. Given Li I/ L 2,
with a transversal T. Then L b
and L d are supplementary and
La and Le are supplementary.
T
274 9 -3 I T HE PARALLEL POSTULATE

Remark: 1f you use an indi rect proof for either of the preceding
corollaries, yo u are working too hard. Remember the definition of
corresponding angles and the Vertical Angle T heorem.
T he next theorem, fo r which you sho uld use a n indirect proof, is
necessa ry in proving the two theorems that follow it.

Theorem 9- 10
In a plane, if a line intersects one of t,110 parallel lines in only one
point, then it intersects the other.
L

◄◄----~-""/
'--------•
7
L1

-------------► L2

Restatement. Given l 1 II L2 and L inte rsecting l 1• The n L inter-

sects l 2.

Theorem 9-11
In a plane, if t wo lines are each parallel to a third line, then they are
parallel to each other.

T he sa me theorem ho lds fo r the case in which the three lines are not
co planar. (See Corollary 10-4.2.) But t he theorem cannot be proved
in the general case by the methods of this chapte r.

Theorem 9- 12
In a plane, if a line is perpendicular to one of t wo parallel lines it is
perpendicular to the other.

A quick proof of this t heorem is

suggested by the figure on the
right. (An a ngle is a right angle if
and o nly if it is congruent to an
angle with which it forms a linear
pair.) T
THE PARALLEL POSTULATE j 9-3 275

Problem Set 9- 3
I. Prove Corollary 9- 9.2.
C

2. Prove Theore m 9- 10.

3. Given the figu re with L C DE ~ L A and

L ..l it 8. Prove that L ..l DE.

A 8

4. Given : Quadrilateral □EASY with right y s

□
angles L E, LA, and L S.
Prove: EY ..l SY.

E A

5. Prove that a line parallel to the base of a n isosceles triangle and inter-
secting the other two sides of the tria ngle at d ifferent poin ts forms
a nother isosceles tria ngle.

6. lf AB II be and mLBAD = 115, what

is m L ADC? If a lso AD II BC, wha t is
m L BCD?

T
7. G iven : In the figure, RT = RS, PQ II RS.
Prove : PQ = PT.

8. In the figure, Lx ~ Ly and La~ Lb.

Prove th a t LI II L3.
276 9-3 THE PARALLEL POSTULATE

9. Given the figure with L 1 II L 2 and T 1 II T 2 •

Prove that L x ,..._, Ly.

10. Given that AC and DB intersect at E, with A-E-C and D-E-B, such that
AD = BC and AD II BC. Prove that AC a nd DB bisect each other at E.

p
11. Given 6 PMN, MX bisects L M, NX bisects
LN, and QR, through X, is parallel to MN.
Prove that 6 QM X a nd 6 RXN are isos-
celes.

M N

12. Given 6ABC. Prove tha t if A lies on a line parallel to BC, then mLA +
mL B + m LC = 180.
13. Given the same hypothesis as that of Problem 11. If PM = IO, MN =
15, and PN = 17, what is the perimeter of 6 PQR?
14. Prove: If two parallel Jines a re cut by a tra nsversal, then the bisectors of
any two corresponding angles are parallel.
15 . Prove: In a pla ne, if the sides of a n angle are parallel to the sides of a n-
other angle, the tw o angles are either (a) congruent or (b) supplementary.
(Note: The figu re shows only two cases, but similar, easy proofs may
be given for all o ther cases. For a hint, see Problem 9 of this problem set.)

(a) a = b. (b) a +b = 180.

16. In 6 ABC the bisector of L A intersects BC at D. The perpendicular

bisector of AD intersects AC at G. Prove that GD II AB.
17. In 6FGH th e bisector of L F and the bisector of LG intersect at C. The
line through C and parallel to FG intersects FH at A and GH at B. Prove
th at the perimeter of 6ABH equals the sum of FH a nd GH.
TRIANGLES j 9-4 277

18. If Theorem 9- 9 is taken as a postulate

instead of the Parallel Postulate, then
.__+-,.:::::::.,1....,;,,,_ _ _ L,
the Parallel Postulate can be proved as a
theorem. Li

Given a li ne Land a point P not on

L. Then there is at most one line
L 1, containing P and parallel to L.
[Hint: Does a = c = b?] T

19. Show tha t if Theorem 9-12 is taken as a -----=~+-,=---- L1

postulate, the Parallel Postulate follows Li

as a theorem.

9-4 TRIANGLES

Theorem 9- 13

For every triangle, the sum of the measures of the angles is 180.

Proof. Given t::, ABC, let L be the line thro ugh B, parallel to AC.
Let Lx, Lx', Ly, L y', and Lz be as shown in the figure.

·re::
== A C
.. t

STATEMENTS R EASONS

1. m Lx= mLx'. I. The PAI Theorem

2. mLy = mLy'. 2. The PAI Theorem
3. mLABD = m L z + m L y'. 3. Angle Additio n Postulate
4. m Lx' +
m LAB D = 4. Addition Property of
mLx' + m L z + m Ly'. Equality
5. mLx' + mLABD = 180. 5. Supple men t Postula te
6. mLx' + m Lz + mLy' = 180. 6. Transitive Property
7. mLx + mLz + mLy = 180. 7. Steps I, 2, a nd 6

From this theorem we get some very important corolla ries.

278 9-4 I TRIANGLES

Corollary 9- 13.1
Gi,,en a correspondence between two triangles. If two pairs of cor-
responding angles are congruent, t!ten t!te t!tird pail' of corresponding
angles are also congrnent.
B'

~
B

~
A C A' C'

Corollary 9-13.2
The acute angles of a rig!tt triangle are complementary .

Corollary 9- 13.3

For any triangle, t!te measure of an exterior angle is the sum of t!te
measures of t!te t,110 remote interior angles.

Obviously, we used the Parallel Postulate to prove Theorem 9- 13.

This was not just a matter of conve nience; in fact, the theo rem cannot
be proved witho ut using the Parallel Postu late. It was discovered in
the nineteenth century that the re is a kind of geo metry (now called
hyperbolic geometry) in which Euclid's Parallel P ostulate fa ils to hold.
H yperbolic geometry is not o nly a respectable branch of mat hematics
but a useful one in physics. In hyperbo lic geometry, Theorem 9-13 is not
onl y un provable but actually false. And many other peculiar things
happen. For exa mple, in hyperbolic geometry, scale models are im-
possible, beca use no two figures ever have exactly t he same sha pe
unless they have exactly the sa me size.
Euclidean geometry is, ho wever, an excellent approximation o f
physica l space ; a nd it is, of course, the kind of geometry that every-
body sho uld st udy first.
TRIANGLES I 9-4 279

Problem Set 9-4

1. If two an gles of a triangle have the following measures, what is the

measure of the thi rd angle?
(a) 64 and 59 (b) 26 and 134 (c) k a nd 2k
(cl) 11 and v (e) 90 and 11 (f) 60 + a a nd 60 - a

2. The measures of the angles of a tria ngle are in the ratio of I : 2 : 3 .

Find the measure of each a ngle.

3. The measure o f one angle of a tria ngle is 25 more than that of a seco nd
angle, a nd the meas ure of th e third angle is 9 less than twice the measure
of the second angle. Find each measure.

4. l n the figure shown, determine the

measure o f each a ngle.

5. Given that L A ~ L D and L B ~ LE, ex pla in why you can o r cannot

concl ude tha t
(a) LC~ L F.
(b) AB ~ DE.

6. For the figure as marked, what is

mLB? mLACB?

A B
T s
7. For the figure as marked, what is m L R? 70 °

60°
p Q R
8. The measure of o ne angle of a triangle is five times tha t of a second a ngle,
and the measure o f a n exterior angle at the third vertex is 120. Find the
measure of each angle of the tria ngle. s

9. ln the figure, PR ..l_ RQ, ST ..l_ RQ, and

SQ ..L PS. Pro ve th at L P :::= LQ.
280 9-4 J TR IANGLES

10. In 6A BC, LA CB is a right an gle and C

~
CD 1- AB. Prove that L A ~ L BCD.

A D 8

11. Why is t he Parallel Postulate essential to the proof of Theorem 9-13?

12. G iven : T he figure
Prove : a+ b = x + y.
[Hint: D raw MH. ]

G H

13. Prove : I f the bisector o f a n exteri or angle of a triangle is parallel to a side

o f the triangle, the tria ngle is isosceles.
14. Prove: If a line containing a vertex o f an isosceles triangle is para llel to
the base of the triangle, it bisects each exterior a ngle at the vertex.
8
15.

Consider the th ree triangles shown here . What seems to be true for DE
a nd AC in each case ? H ow does DE compa re with AC in each case?
What a re D a nd E ? D o your answers so fa r suggest a n important prop-
erty of tria ngles? Write a conjecture concerning DE and AC and D E
and AC. Can you fi nd an example to prove the conjecture false ? Can
you prove th at it is true ?

16. In 6 ABC, L C is a right a ngle, and Mis a point o f the hypo tenuse such
t hat AM = CM. Prove t hat M is equid istant from A, B , and C.
17. Given: In 6PQR, L R is a right angle, R

~
QT = QV, and PS= PV.
Prove : x = 45.
[Hill(: Let mLP = a. W rite fo rmulas
p V Q
for ot her a ngle measures.]
18 . In 6 ABC, A C = BC. D is a point of BC with C-B-D, and E is a poin t
of AB with A-E-B such that BD = BE. DE intersects AC a t F. Prove
that mL CFE = 3(m L D).
QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE I 9-5 281

9-5 QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE

From Section 5-10 we recall some definitions about quadrilaterals.

Definitions

Let A, B, C, and D be four points of the same plane. If no three of

these points are collinear, and the segments AB, BC, CD, and DA
intersect only at their end points, then the union of these four segments
is called a quadrilateral. The four segments are called its sides, and the
points A, B, C, and D are called its certices. The angles LDAB,
LABC, LBCD, and LCDA a re called its angles.

Both figures below satisfy this definition of quadrilateral.

□ABCD is called convex but O QRST is not. To see how the dif-
ference between these quadrilaterals can be described, draw each line
that contains a side and notice where the other two vertices lie.

Definition
A quadrilateral is convex if no two of its vertices lie on opposite sides
of a line containing a side of the quadri lateral.

Thus □ QRST is not a convex quad rilateral, because Q and R lie

on opposite sides of sf.
282 9-5 J QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE

Definitions

Two sides o f a quad rila teral are opposite if lhey d o no t intersect. Two
of its a ngles a re opposite if they do not have a side of the quadrilateral
in commo n. Two sides are co11secutiue if they have a co mmon end
point. Two a ngles a re co11secutiue if lhey have a side o f l he quad rilate ral
in common. A diago11al o f a q uad rilateral is a segment j oining two
no nconsecuti ve vertices.

A
',,
A c___ _ _ _ ___::,i O

Th us, in D A BCD, the foilowing pairs of sides a nd a ngles are o ppo-

site: AB and CD, BC and AD, LA and LC, LB and LD. A few
of the consecuti ve pairs are: AB and BC, BC and CD, L D a nd L A,
LA a nd LB. T he diago nals of □ABCD are AC and BD.

Definition

A parallelogram is a q uadrilateral in
which both pairs o f opposite sides a re
para! lei.

Definition

A trape::oid is a q uadrilate ral in which o ne a nd only o ne pair o f opposite

sides a re parallel. The parallel sides are called the bases of the trapezoid .
The segment joining the midpoints of the no npa rallel sides is called
the median.

Note t ha t under these definitio ns, no para llelogram is a trapezoid.

T he proofs of the following t heorems are straightforward.
QUADRI LATERALS IN A PLANE I 9- 5 283

Theorem 9-14
Each diagonal sepamtes a parallelogram into t11•0 congruent triangles.

That is, if □ABCD is a parallelogram, then 6. ABC •......, [Link].

Theorem 9-15
In a parallelogram, any t,110 opposite sides are congruent.

Corollary 9-15.1
If t1110 lines are pamllel, then all points of each line are equidistant
from the other line.
p Q
l1
I I
-1- ? -1- ?
I I
• D □ I l2
l JI l 2

We recall, fro m Sectio n 7- 6, tha t the distance between a line a nd a n

external po int is defin ed to be the length of the perpendicular segment
fro m the point to the li ne. We sometimes refer to Co rollary 9- 15.1 by
saying that "parallel lines a re everywhere eq uidistant."

Definition

The distance between 11110 parallel lines is the distance fro m any point of
one to the other.

Theorem 9-16
111 a paml/elogram, any t1110 opposite angles are congruent.

Theorem 9- 17
111 a parallelogmm, any two consecutive angles are supplementary .

Theorem 9-18
The diagonals of a pam llelogram bisect each other.
284 9-5 , • QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE

Given that □ABCD is a parallelogram, the preceding theorems

enable us to draw various conclusions about its properties. We now
consider the converse problem: what do we need to know about
O ABCD to conclude that it is a parallelogram?

Theorem 9- 19

Given a quadrilateral in which hot/, pairs of opposite sides are con-

gruent. Tlten tlte quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Theorem 9- 20

If two sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and congment, tlte11 tlte

quadrilateral is a parallelogmm.

Theorem 9-21

If tlte diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect eacl, other, tlten the quadri-

lateral is a parallelogram.

The following theorem is not obvious, and neither is its proof. We

shall give the proof in full.

Theorem 9- 22. The Midline Theorem

The segment between the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to tlte third side and half as long.
8

E
D ~ - --1-+1---'---..:....- x--1-H- - -7 F
I
I
I
V I
A C

Restatement. Given t:,ABC. If D and E are the midpoints of AB

and BC, then DE 11 AC and DE = ½A C.

Proof. Let F be the point, on the ray opposite to ED, such that
EF = DE. We now have the situation described by the marks in the
figure. The notation below is tha t of the figure.
QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE J 9-5 285

STATEMENTS REASONS

I. EF = DE. I. Point-plo tting Theorem

2. EB= EC. 2. D efinitio n of midpo int
3. Lx ,..._, Ly. 3. Ve rtica l Angle Theorem
4. t:::.EFC ,..._, t:::.EDB. 4. SAS
5. Lv ,..._, Lw. 5. D efinitio n o f congruent triangles
6. TB 11 ci. 6. The A IP Theorem
7. AD= DB. 7. Defini tio n of midpoint
8. DB= FC. 8. D efinition of congruent triangles
9. AD= FC. 9. Transitive Property
10. □ADFC is a I0. Theorem 9-20
parallelogram.
11. DE II AC. 11. Definition of a parallelogram
12. DF = DE + EF = 2DE. 12. Definition of between, Step I, and
Addition Property of Eq ua li ty
13. AC= 2DE. 13. Theo re m 9-15 a nd Transitive
Pr o perty
14. DE = ½AC. 14. Multiplica tion Property o f
Equa li ty

Problem Set 9- 5

1. Which of the following pairs name the same quadrilateral?

(a) □AECD, □ CDAE (b) □ADEC, □ CADE
(c) □AECD, □CADE (cl) □ BCDA, □ ADCE
(e) □ BCDA, □EAD C (f) □DACE, □CABD

2. The measure of o ne angle of a parallelogram is 45. What a re the measures

of the other a ngles?
D C
3. Given a parallelogram □ABCD with (6x - 27)0
111LB = 4x + l5 a ndm L D = 6x - 27.
Find the measures of the four angles.
Which theorem d id you use?
(4x + 15)
0

A B

4. Two consecuti ve a ngles of a para llelogra m have measures (x + 30)

and (2x - 60), respectively. Determine the measure of each angle of the
parallelogram .
286 9-5 I QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE

5. In the figure, □ABCD and □AKRS are parallelograms. What is the

relationship of LD to LR? of LR to LC? Prove your answer.
C
D C

A
17· I
K 8 A I<. 8

6. In the figure on the right above, DAKMJ and DBMJK are parallel-
ograms. If KJ = KM, prove that LABC is isosceles.
7. Prove Theorem 9-14.
8. Prove Corollary 9-15.1.
9. Prove Theorem 9-17. D C

~
10. Given a parallelogram and one diag-
onal. Prove that if segments from
opposite vertices are perpendicular to
the diagonal, the segments are parallel A B'
and congruent. •
S R

~
11. □PQRS is a parallelogram.
PW= PS and RU= RQ.
p 0
Prove that □SWQU is a parallelogram.
R
12. In 6PQR, A and Bare midpoints of PQ
and RQ, respectively. If RP = 16,
mLP = 58, and mLQ = 38, what are
AB and mLABR?
p A 0

13. Given any triangle, 6ABC, with the midpoints of the sides, P, Q, and R.
Prove that the perimeter of 6PQR is one-half the perimeter of 6ABC.
14. In 6GHK, S, T, and Vare midpoints of sides. If the perimeter of 6STV
is 28½, what is the perimeter of 6GHK?
15. (a) Do the diagonals of a quadrilateral always intersect each other?.
(b) Sketch a quadrilateral □ABCD in which Band Dare on the same
side of diagonal AC.

16. Prove: In a convex quadrilateral the sum of the measures of the angles
is 360.
QUADRILATERALS IN A PLANE I 9-5 287

17. Prove: In a non-convex quadrilateral the measure of the angle whose

interior does not intersect the interior of the quadrilateral equals the sum
of the measures of the other three angles of the quadrilateral.

18. Given an isosceles triangle and a point P, of the base, other than its end
points. If through P a parallel to each congruent side is drawn, then
(1) a parallelogram is formed, and (2) the perimeter of the parallelogram
equals the sum of the lengths of the triangle's congruent sides.

C
19. In the plane figure, □ABCD and
□BEFC are parallelograms. Prove F
that □AEFD is a parallelogram.

20. The diagonals AC and BD of the paral- D C

~
lelogram □ABCD intersect at M. Prove
that if X and Y are points on opposite
sides of the parallelogram such that XY
contains M, then M bisects X Y. A B

21. State and prove the Quadrilateral Midpoint Theorem suggested by

the figures given, where P, Q, R, and S are midpoints. [Hint:
Introduce a diagonal of DAB CD.]
C D C

Q
B
C

B A P B

22. Prove: The segments joining the midpoints of opposite sides of any
quadrilateral bisect each other. [Hint: See Problem 21.]

23. A trapezoid is isosceles if its non- D C

~
parallel sides are congruent. Prove the
Isosceles Trapezoid Theorem: The
base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are
congruent. [Hint: See Corollary 9-15.1.] A 8

24. Prove that the diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent. Is the
converse true?
288 9-6 j RHOMBUS , RECTANGLE, AND SQUARE

25. Prove : If two consecutive angles of a trapezoid are congruent, but not
supplementary, the trapezoid is isosceles.

26. Prove that if □ABCD is a parallelogram, then D is in the interior of

LABC.

27. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram intersect each other. [Hint:
Use Problem 26 above and the Crossbar Theorem, Problem 7, p. 206.]

9- 6 RHOMBUS, RECTANGLE, AND SQUARE

Definitions
A rhom bus is a parallelogram all of whose sides are congruent.
A rectangle is a parallelogram all of whose angles a re right angles.
A square is a rectangle all of whose sides are congruent.
D 8 C

A 8
DA D
0
As before, we leave the proofs of the following theorems to you.
A B

Theorem 9- 23

If a parallelogram ltas one rigltt angle, tlte11 it ltas four rigltt angles,
and tlte parallelogram is a rectangle.

Theorem 9- 24

111 a rltombus, tlte diagonals are perpendicular to one another.

[Hint: See Corollary 6-2.1.]

Theorem 9- 25
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each otlter am/ are per-
pendicular, tlteu tlte quadrilateral is a rltombus.
RHOMBUS, RECTANG LE, AND SQUARE I 9-6 2 89

Problem Set 9-6

1. Prove Theorem 9-23.

2. Explain how Corollary 6-2.1 is used to prove Theorem 9-24.

3. Prove: The diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.

4. □A BCD is a rectangle and P, Q, R, Sare the midpoints of its sides.

If the diagonal AC has length 15, what is the perimeter of □PQRS?

5. F or each of the statements below, indicate whether it is true or false.

(a) Every rectangle is a trapezoid.
(b) Every rhombus is a square.
(c) Every square is a rectangle.
(d) Every square is a para llelogram.
(e) Every rectangle is a square.
(f) Every square is a rhombus.
(g) The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.
(h) The diagonals of a rectangle are perpendicular to each other.
(i) The diagonals of a square are perpendicular and bisect each other.
(j) If the diago na ls of a quadrilateral are perpendicular, the quadrilateral
is a rhombus.

6. Prove: The diago nals of a rhombus bisect the angles of the rhombus.

7. Given: .6ABC with AC= BC; P, Q, C

and R a re midpo ints.

Prove : O PQCR is a rhombus.

A p

8. G iven : □MPQS is a rh ombus. G,H, s K 0

JV
/ , and Kare midpoints.
Prove : □GHIK is a rectangle.

M H p
290 9-6 I RHOMBUS, RECTANGLE, AND SQUARE

9. For which of the four quadrilaterals-parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus,

square-can each of the following properties be proved?
(a) The diagonals bisect each other.
(b) The diagonals are congruent.
(c) Consecutive angles are congruent.
(d) The diagonals bisect the angles of the quadrilateral.
(e) The diagonals are perpendicular.
(f) Opposite angles are congruent.
(g) The diagonals are congruent and perpendicular.
10. Would the following conditions for a quadrilateral be sufficient to prove
that it is a parallelogram? a rectangle? a rhombus? a square? Consider
each item separately.
(a) It has two pairs of parallel sides.
(b) Three of its angles are right angles.
(c) It is equilateral.
(d) Its diagonals are congruent and perpendicular.
(e) Each pair of consecutive angles is supplementary.
(f) Two sides are parallel.
(g) Its diagonals bisect each other.
(h) Its diagonals are congruent, are perpendicular, and bisect each other.

11. Given: □PQRSis a square. J, K, L, M

separate the sides into segments,
as in the figure, of lengths a
~S□
a J b:

and b.
a M
Prove: □JKLM is a square.
P b
b L a Q

12. A quadrilateral in which exactly one diagonal is the perpendicular

bisector of the other diagonal is called a kite. Prove that a kite has two
pairs of congruent sides, but that its opposite sides are not congruent.

13. Given a parallelogram □ABCD, with AD > AB. The bisector of LA

intersects BC at G, and the bisector of LB intersects AD at H. Prove
that □ABGH is a rhombus.
14. In the convex quadrilateral □ABCD, AD is the shortest side and BC
is the longest side. Prove that LD > LB. [Hint: Draw a diagonal.]
Is this theorem true if □ABCD is not required to be convex?
SOME THEOREMS ON RIGHT TRIANGLES J 9-7 291

15. Prove the Opposite Angles Theorem: I f in BCD, L A =

LC and
LB = L D , then □A B CD i s a paralle l ogram . [Hint : Introduce a
diagonal and use vari ables for angle measures. App ly Theorem 9- 13.]

9-7 SOME THEOREMS ON RIGHT TRIANGLES

Our knowledge of qua drila terals gives us so me information about right

tria ngles.

Theorem 9- 26

The median to the hypotenuse of a right triangle is half as long as the

hypotenuse.
D B
p;, __ --- --- --- -------
Proof. Given 6 ABC, with LC 1 ,,
a right a ngle and M the mid point : ........... , ...
of A B. T a ke a point D o n CM :
such tha t □ADBC is a parallelo- 1
gram. (H ow do yo u find such a i:::
A= - - - - - - - - - - - --=
c
point?) Then D A DBC is a rec-
ta ngle. (Why?) Then C D = AB. (Why?) Therefore CM = ½AB,
which is what we wanted.

The theorem below tells us something a bo ut the sha pes of certain

special tria ngles.

Theorem 9-27 The 30-60-90 Triangle Theorem

If au acute angle of a right triangle has measure 30, then the opposite
side is half as long as the hypotenuse.

Proof. G iven 6 A BC, with a right B

a ngle a t C a nd with m L A = 30.
Let M be the midpoint of the hypot-
enuse AB. Then by Theorem 9-26
?
we know that A M = MB = M C,
as indicated in the figure.
Now m L B = 60. (Why?) There-
A C
fore r = 60, by the Isosceles Tri-
angle Theorem.
But r + +
s 60 = 180. Therefore s = 60, and 6 MBC is equi-
angular. Therefore 6 MBC is equilateral. Therefo re BC= MC =
½AB, which was to be proved.
292 9-7 j SOM E THEOREMS ON RIGHT TRIANGLES

We sometimes refer to this theorem by saying that " in a 30-60-90

triangle, the hypotenuse is twice as lo ng as the shorter leg."
The converse of this theorem is also true.

Theorem 9-28
If one leg of a right triangle is half as long as the hypotenuse, then the
opposite angle has measure 30.
B

Proof. Given [Link], with a right

angle at C, and BC = ½A 8. Let M
be the midpoint of AB. Then
AM = MB = BC. By T heorem
9-26, MC = MB. (We have now
justified all the marks in the figure.) A C
Since [Link] is equilateral, it is
equia ngular. Therefore m L B = 60. By Corollary 9-13.2, mLA = 30,
which was to be proved.

B
Problem Set 9- 7

1. In [Link], L C is a right a ngle, AB= 16,

a nd CD is a median. W ha t is the length of D

CD?
2. In [Link], L C is a right angle, AC = 6,
a nd the length of median CD is 5. Wha t is C A
AB?

3. In [Link], L H is a right a ngle and GH = ½GK. What is m L K? Wha t

theorem did you use?
4. In the fi gure, RQ = 2RP. What is the measure o f L R?
N
R

G
p Q K V Y M

5. In 6. KMN, L M is a right a ngle and mLK = 30. RS, T V, a nd XY a re

each perpendic ular to KM. If KR = 6, KT = 10, KX = 13, a nd KN =
16, wha t are RS, TV, XY, a nd MN? What theore m did yo u use ?
SOME THEOREMS ON RIGHT TRIANGLES j 9-7 293

6. In the figure, AC ..l AB and AD ..l BC. If

BC = 12, what is AB? What is DB?

C A

7. In an equilateral triangle ~GHK, the altitude GM has length 9. Through

M, perpendiculars are drawn to the other two sides. Prove that these
perpendicular segments are congruent, and find their length.
8
8. In the figure, AD is a median,
BC= CE, and mLGCE = 30.
If AD = 6, what is KM?

9. Prove the converse of Theorem 9-26:

In a triangle, if a median is half as long as the side which it bisects,
then the triangle is a right triangle and the side is its hypotenuse.
Given: ~ABC, median AD, AD = ½BC. C

~
Prove: ~ABC is a right triangle, and BC
is its hypotenuse.
[Hint: Prove x + y = 90.]
A 8

10. In the figure, Fis the midpoint of AE, and E

LABE, LACE, and LADE are right
angles. Prove that Fis equidistant from A,
B, C, D, and E.

11. ~PQR is isosceles, with PR = QR = a. L is any line through R, but

not containing P or Q. X and Y are two points of L at distance a from R.
Prove that XP ..l YP and XQ ..l YQ. C

~
12. In any right triangle, the altitude to the hypot-
enuse separates the hypotenuse into two seg-
ments. Prove that in a 30-60-90 triangle, the
A D 8
lengths of these segments are in the ratio 1 : 3.
294 9-8 j TRANSVERSALS TO MANY PARALLEL LINES

13. In the figure, 6.A BC is equilateral, A

AD .l Eat D, and P and Qare the

midpoints of AC and AB, re-
spectively. Prove that 6.P DQ is
equilateral.

9- 8 TRANSVERSAL$ TO MANY PARALLEL LINES

: ~,/ _: ::
__
Definitions Aj T
If a transversal intersects two lines
L 1, L 2 in points A and B, then we
say that L I and L 2 intercept the seg-
ment AB on the tra nsversal.

Suppose that we have given three

lines L1, L2, L 3 and a transversal
intersecting them in points A, B, and
C. If AB = BC, then we say that
the three lines intercept congruent
segments on the transversal.
We shall show that if three parallel lines intercept congruent seg-
ments on one transversal, then they intercept congruent segments on
any other transversal. Our first step is to prove the following theorem.

Theorem 9- 29

If three parallel lines intercept congruent segments 011 one transversal

T, tlten tltey intercept co11gme11t segments 011 every transversal T'
w!ticlt is parallel to T.

T T'

Proof. First we observe that □AGED a nd □ GHEE a re parallelo-

grams. (Why?) We have given AG = GH. By Theorem 9-15,
AG = DE and GH = EF. Therefore DE= EF.
TRANSVERSALS TO MANY PARALLEL LINES I 9-8 295

We can now prove the theorem in the general case. You should be
able to fill in the details in the proof.

Theorem 9-30

If three parallel lines intercept co11grue11t segme11ts on 011e transversal,

the11 they illtercept congrue11t segme11ts 011 a11y other tra11sversal.

Restatement. Given L1 II L 2 II L3 and transversals T1 and T2, with

AB = BC. We must prove that DE= EF.

Proof. By Theorem 9-29, we already D G

L,
know that DE= EFif T2 II T1. There-
fore we consider the case that T2 and T1 L,

are not parallel. b

(1) First introduce transversal TJ
through E and parallel to T1. T3 inter- T, TJ T2
sects Li at G and L 3 at H.
(2) We now know that GE = EH. (Why?)
(3) Also, [Link],...._, [Link] [Link],...._, [Link]. (Why?)
(4) Therefore, t:,.GDE,...._, t:,. HFE(Why?) and DE= EF, which is what
we had to prove.
Theorem 9-30 extends to any number of parallel lines as Corollary
9- 30. 1 shows.
Corollary 9- 30.1

If three or more parallel lines intercept co11grue11t segme11ts on one

transversal, the11 they i11tercept co11grue11t segme11ts 011 a11y other
tra11sversal.

That is, given that A1A2 = A2A3 = A3A4 = ···, it follows that B1B2 =
B2B3 = B3B4 = • • •, and so on. This follows by repeated applications
of the theorem that we have just proved.
296 9-8 I TRANSVERSALS TO MANY PARALLEL LINES

Proble m Set 9- 8

l. Given: AB = BC,
AP II BQ II CR,
PX II QY II R Z .
Prove : XY = YZ.
Must AC and XZ be coplanar for
the proof to hold?

2. Prove the Bisects-Parallel-Bisects Theorem:

If a line bisects one side of a triangle a nd is parallel to a second side,
then it bisects th e third side.

C
3. In th e figure,

DE ii AB, £F Ii AC,
a nd Dis the midpoint of AC. Prove tha t
[Link] ~ [Link]. B

[Hi,11: Use th e theore m of Problem 2.)

4. Show that the media n of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases.

5. Prove tha t th e median of a tra pezoid bisects each diagonal o f th e trape-

zoid. [Hint : Use the resul t of Problem 4.)

/'',,.,\
6. Prove the Median of a Trapezoid Theorem: D C

The median of a trapezoid is one-half

the sum of the bases.

Restatement. Given a trapezoid □ABCD A B

with median EF, as in the figure. Then

EF = ½(A B + CD).

7. □ABCD is a trapezoid wit h AB II DC. EF is the media n.

(a) If AB = 12 and DC = 7, then EF = ? D C
(b) If AB= 19 and DC= 13, then EF =?
(c) If DC = 6 and EF = 14, then AB = '?
(d) If AB = 27 a nd EF = 18, then DC = ? A B
THE MEDIAN CONCURRENCE THEOREM 9 -9 297

9- 9 THE MEDIAN CONCURRENCE THEOREM

Definition

Two or more lines are concurrent if there is a single point which lies o n
all of the m. The co mmon point is called the point of concurrency.

Of course, it is easy for two liries in the same_pla ne to be concurrent.

This is what we expect, when we draw two lines at random : if two lines
happen to be parallel, a nd we rotate one of them even a little bit, they
become concurrent.

But for three lines to be co ncurrent is a no ther matter. We normally

expect three lines in a pla ne to contain a tria ngle.

If they happen to be concurrent, and we move o ne of them even a little

bit, the chances a re that the lines will not be concurrent any more.
Under certain conditi ons, however, we can show that three lines must
be conc urrent. The following theorem shows that this is true for the
t hree media ns of a triangle.
298 9-9 I THE MEDIAN CONCURRENCE THEOREM

Theorem 9-31. The Median Concurrence Theorem

The medians of every triangle are concurrent. Their point of con-

currency is two-thirds of the way along each median, from the vertex
to the opposite side.

Restatement. In t::, ABC, let D, E, and F be the midpoints of BC, AB,

and AC respectively. Then the medians AD, BF, and CE intersect in a
point P such that AP = ¾AD, BP = ¾BF, a nd CP = j CE.

A
~ E B

Proof. ( 1) As shown in the fig ure o n the right a bove, let Li, L 2 , L 3,
L.i, and La be parallel lines, dividing BC into four congruent segments,
with L 3 = AD. Let P be the point where the medians AD and CE inter-
sect.
(2) Since L i, L 2, L3, L.1, and L, d ivide BC into four congruent seg-
ments, it follows that L i, L 2, and L3 divide BD into two congruent
segments. By Theo rem 9- 30, L i, L 2 , and L 3 divide AB into two cong ruent
segments. Therefore L 2 intersects AB at E.
(3) Now L2, L3, L.1, and La divide GC into three congruent segments.
(Why?) By Theorem 9- 30, L 2, L 3, L-1, and L , di vide CE into three con-
gruent segments. Therefore CP = ¾CE. Thus what we kno w so far is:
(4) The medians CE and AD intersect at a point P such that C P = j CE.
By exactly the same reasoning, using
lines parallel to BF, we get :
(5) The medians CE and BF inter-
sect at a point P', such that CP' =
j CE.
But by the Point-Plotting Theorem,
this means that P = P'. T herefore
all three medians intersect in the same
point P, and CP = jCE.
F inally, we need to show that AP = } AD a nd BP = j BF. T his is clear
from a n inspection of the fo llowing figure.
THE MEDIAN CONCURRENCE THEOREM I 9-9 299

The parallel lines divide AC, BC,

and CE into six cong rue nt segments, so
that Plies on M a. The refore the lines
divide AD and BF into three congruent
segments, with P two-thirds of the way
up on each media n.
The point of intersectio n of the medians has an important application:
it is the center of gravity o f the triangle. This means that, fo r example, a
piece of a board cut in a tria ngular sha pe wo uld balance on the po int
of a pin placed precisely at the po int o f intersection o f the three media ns.
This point is called the ce111roid of the triangle.

Problem Set 9- 9
1. In the fi gure o n the ri ght AD and CE are C
media ns. If AD = 15 and CE = 12, wha t
are AP and CP?

2. AD a nd CE are medians. If PE = 2 and

PD = 3.5, wh a t are CP a nd AP? What are A=.._ _ _.,___ _ _...,., 8
CE and AD? E

3. In ,0,, M NK o n the left below MS a nd N R a re med ia ns. If MS = 15,

NR = 18, and MN= 2 1, what is t he perimeter of 6 PRS?
N

4. 6RSV on the right a bove is equila te ral and Sand Tare midpoints of
sides PR a nd PQ, respecti vely. If the perime te r of 6 RSV is 12, wh a t
a re R T and Q S?
5. Prove tha t the length o f the segment whose e nd poi nts arc ( I) the
centroid of a tri a ngle and (2) the midpo int of a side of the trian gle
is one-third the le ngt h of the med ia n to that side. B

6. Gi ven the figure with midpoints £, F, G,

H, and K. AF = AG and CE = CH. Prove
that 6 EPF '.:':::'. 6 HQG.

D
300 CHAPTER REVIEW

Th e ci rcumference of the earth at the equator is about 40,065 meters.

In the third century B.C. a Greek mathematician, Eratosthenes, measured
the circumference of the earth in the following way.

Earth
0
Eratosthenes (276-194 s.c.)

It was observed that at Aswan on the Nile, at noon on the summer sol-
stice, the sun was exactly overhead. That is, at noon on this day, a vertical
pole cast no shadow at all, and the bottom of a deep well was completely
lit up. .,
In the figure, C is the center of the earth. At noon on the summer solstice,
in Alexandria, Eratosthenes measured the angle marked L a on the figure,
that is, the angle between a vertical pole and the ray from the top of the
pole through the tip of its shadow. He four)d that this was an angle of about
7 degrees 12 minutes, or about 1/50 of a complete circumference.
Assuming that the sun's rays are parallel, it follows that L a ::::::: Lb.
Th erefore the distance from Aswan to Alexandria must be about 1/50 of
the circumference of the earth.
The distance from Aswan to Alexandria was known to be about 5000
Greek stad ia. Eratosthenes concluded that the circumference of the earth
must be about 250 000 stadia, which is equiva lent to about 39,682 km.
Thus Eratosthenes' error was well under two percent.

CHAPTER REVIEW

SET A

1. Indicate whe ther each statement is true or false.

(a) In a p lane, if a li ne is parallel to one of two parallels, it is parallel
to the ot her.
(b) The d iagonals of a rhombus bisect the angles of the rhombu s.
(j;,)' If the median to the hypotenuse of a right tri a n gle is 7 cm long, the
hypotenuse is 14 cm lo ng.
(cl) Every parallelogram is a trapezoid.
CHAPTER REVIEW 301

, _fe) If two lines are cut by a transversal, the corresponding angles are
congruent.
(f) Either diagonal of a parallelogram forms, with the sides, two con-
gruent triangles.
(g) The diagonals of a rhombus are congruent.
@ If one leg of a 30-60-90 triangle is 8 cm long, the hypotenuse is 16 cm
long.
(i) Two lines are either parallel or intersecting.
(j) In a plane, if a line intersects one of two parallel lines in only one
point, then it intersects the other.
2. Complete each statement.
(a) If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the interior angles on
the same side of the transversal are _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(b) If two angles of a triangle are congruent to two angles of another
triangle, then _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(c) The acute angles of a right triangle are _ _ _ _ _ _ __
r,(g) The hypotenuse of a 30-60-90 triangle is of length 13. The leg
'.:":- opposite the _ _ _ angle is congruent to the ____ to the
hypotenuse, and the length of each is _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(e) If three or more parallels intercept _ _ _ _ segments on one
transversal, then _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(f) The Parallel Postulate establishes the _ _ _ _ of a line which
contains a point and which is to a line which does not
contain the point.

3. For each example, select the one choice which makes the statement true.
(a) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the quadrilateral
isa _ __
(i) rhombus (ii) square (iii) parallelogram (iv) rectangle
(b) The figure formed by joining the consecutive midpoints of the sides
of any quadrilateral is _ __
(i) a rectangle (ii) a parallelogram
(iii) a rhombus (iv) none of these
(c) The bisectors of the opposite angles of a nonrhombic parallelogram
are _ __
(i) parallel (ii) co1linear (iii) perpendicular (iv) skew
(d) The bisectors of the interior angles on the same side of a transversal
to two parallel lines are _ __
(i) parallel (ii) perpendicular
(iii) intersecting, but not perpendicular (iv) skew
302 CHAPTER REVIEW

4. Would the following conditions about a quadrilateral be sufficient to

prove it a trapezoid? a parallelogram? a rectangle? a rhombus? a square?
Consider each item separately.
(a) All four sides are congruent. (b) Only two sides are parallel.
(c) Two sides are congruent. (d) Its diagonals bisect each other.
(e) Its diagonals are congruent and bisect each other.
(f) It is equiangular.
(g) Its diagonals are congruent and perpendicular.
(h) It is equilateral and equiangular.
(i) Every two opposite angles are congruent.
(j) Each diagonal bisects two of its angles.

5. Indicate, using the letter A, S, or N, whether each statement is true in ALL

cases, true in SOME CASES and false in others, or NOT true in any case.
(a) Line segments in the same plane which do not intersect are parallel.
(b) If two lines are cut by a transversal, the rays bisecting a pair of
alternate interior angles are para11el.
(c) The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.
(d) The diagonals of a quadrilateral are parallel.
(e) The opposite angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.
(f) A square is a rectangle.
(g) If a diagonal of a quadrilateral forms with the sides two congruent
triangles, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(h) If a median of a triangle is half as long as the side it bisects, the
triangle is a right triangle.
(i) If two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and the other
two sides are congruent, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(j) If two opposite angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, the quad-
rilateral is a rectangle.

SET B
C
1. Given the figure with D and Ethe mid-
points of AB and AC.
(a) If mLA = 33 and mLC = 45,
what are mLCBF and mLCED? A F
(b) If BC = 6, then what is DE?
(c) □ DBCE is a _ _ _ _ _ __
 CHAPTER REVIEW 303

2. If in [Link], AB = 12, BC = 9, AC = 13, and P, Q, and R are the

midpoints of the sides, what is the perimeter of [Link]?
M Q K
3. Given: □GHKM is a parallelogram and
MQ = HP.
Prove: GK and PQ bisect each other. ~
G p H

4. In the figure, □ DEBF is a parallelogram D C

and AE = CF. Prove that □ABCD is a
parallelogram. IJ§!f:Sl
A 8

5. Prove: If the bisectors of two consecutive angles of a parallelogram

intersect, they are perpendicular.

6. Given AC II BD. The bisectors of LCAB

and LDBA intersect at P, and
AB= 2PB.
Find x and y.

7. Why is the following reasoning invalid?

By Theorem 9-11 we know that in a plane, two lines parallel to the
same line are parallel to each other. Therefore, if AP II L and
BP II L and AP, BP, and L are coplanar, then AP II BP. This
proves that two intersecting lines may, in fact, be parallel!

8. Determine the measure of each angle

in the figure given here.

9. Prove: In a plane, if a line is perpendicular to one of two intersecting

lines, it is not perpendicular to the other line.

10. Given: La ;-...., Lb

Lp;-...., Lq.
Prove: Lx is a right angle.

(
304 CHAPTER REVIEW

11. In 6MPK, LK is a right angle and mLP = 30. If KH 1- MP,

HR 1- MK, RQ 1- MP, and MP= 80, find MQ.

12. Prove: If a trapezoid has two nonparallel sides each congruent to one of
the parallel sides, then the diagonals bisect the angles at the other
parallel side.
13. When a beam of light is reflected from a smooth surface, the angle
formed by the incoming beam with the surface is congruent to the angle
formed by the reflected beam and the surface.
In the figure, mLABC = 90, mLBCD = 15, A
and the beam of light makes an angle of 35°
with RA. Copy the figure and complete the
path of the light beam as it reflects from AB,
from BC, from DC, and from AB again. At
what angle does the beam reflect from AB the
second time?
B s
14. Prove either the truth or falsity of the following statement.
If a quadrilateral has one pair of parallel sides and one pair of
congruent sides, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

E
15. In the figure, ED II BC, ED = BC, and P,
Q, and R are midpoints. Prove that QD A D
bisects PR. [Hint: Introduce PQ and EB.]

16. Prove either the truth or falsity of this statement.

If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are congruent and perpendicular,
the quadrilateral is a square.
17. Prove either the truth or falsity of the following statement.
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are congruent and bisect each
other, the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
CHAPTER REVIEW 305

18. In the figure, AC ..L AE, and the bisectors

D p
of L DCB a nd L EBC intersect at P.
Find mLP and show your reasoning. c

A B f

19. Prove : If each diagonal of a quadrilateral bisects two angles of the

quad rilateral, the quadrilateral is a rhombus.

20. The diago na ls of □ABCD a re per-

pendic ular at M, and P, Q, R, Sare
midpoints of the sides. Prove tha t
twice the sum MP+ MQ +MR+
MS equals the perimeter of
□ABCD. B

C
21. Prove : The sum of the lengths of the per-
pendiculars from a ny point in the base of
an isosceles triangle to the congruent sides
eq uals the altitude to either congruent side.
[Hint: Let a parallel to AC through P meet
BT at Q. Show RP + PS = BT.] p
A B

22. Let !::, MPQ be isosceles, with MP = MQ. Through any point A be-
tween M a nd Q draw a perpendicular to PQ, meeting P Q at B and
meeting PM at C. Prove that !::,MCA is isosceles.

23. In any triangle /::,A BC, a line through A is perpendicular to the bisector
of L B at K. Another line through K is parallel to BC a nd intersects AB
a t M. Prove that M is the midpoint of AB. Can you a lso prove that MK
bisects AC.?

24. !::, ABC is a triangle with G and H the midpoints of A C and BC. On
the ray opposite to H A take R such that HR = HA. Simila rly, on the
ray o pposite to GB take S such that GS = GB. Prove that R, C, and S
are collinear a nd that CR = CS.
S C R

~ A B