Chapter1

MEASUREMENTS AND
EXPERIMENTATION
All the quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly are called
physical quantities.

Fundamental quantities

The physical quantities which are independent of other physical quantities

and are not defined in terms of other physical quantities are called
fundamental or base quantities.

Mass, length, temperature, luminous intensity, electric current and

amount of substance are the seven fundamental quantities. Besides these
there are two more physical quantities known as supplementary quantities

Supplementary quantities

 Plane angle

 Solid angle

Derived quantities

The physical quantities which can be derived from the fundamental

physical quantities are called derived quantities.

Eg: Velocity, acceleration, linear momentum etc. ….

All physical quantities other than the seven base quantities are derived
quantities.

Measurement of Physical Quantity

The measurement of a physical quantities is a process of comparing the

quantity with a standard amount of the physical quantity of the same kind
called its units.

Magnitude of a physical quantity can be expressed as the product of

numerical value of the physical quantity and size of unit.

Q=nu
Q=magnitude of a physical quantity

n=numerical value of the physical quantity

u=size of unit

Physical units

The Standard amount of a physical quantity chosen to measure the

physical quantity of same kind is called a physical unit.

The essential requirements of physical quantities are as follows

1. It should be of suitable size

2. It should be easily accessible

3. It should not vary with time

4. It should be easily reproducible

5. It should not depend on physical conditions like pressure, volume,

temperature etc.….

Fundamental units

Those physical units which can neither be derived from another unit nor
be further resolved into more simpler units are called fundamental units or
base units.

Derived units

The units of measurement of all other physical quantities which can be

derived from fundamental units are called derived units.

System of Units

It is the complete set of units for both fundamental and derived physical
quantities.

[Link] FPS System: in this system, the unit of length is foot, of mass is
pound and of time is second

[Link] CGS System: in this system, the unit of length is centimeter, of

mass is grams and of time is second.
[Link] MKS System: in this system, the unit of length is meter, of mass is
kilogram and of time is second

[Link] International System of Units (SI Units) : SI Units is used for

scientific measurements

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Luminous intensity candela cd

Electric current ampere A

Amount of substance mole mol

Angle Radian rd

Solid angle steradian st-rd

Prefixes used for big measurements

Prefix Symbol Meaning

deca da

hector h

kilo k

mega M

giga G

tera T

peta P

exa E

zetta Z
yotta Y

Prefixes used for smaller measurements

Prefix Symbol Meaning

deci d

centi c

milli m

micro μ

nano n

pico p

femto f

atto a

zepto z

yoeto y

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1. Small letters are used for symbols of units.

[Link] do not take plural form.

[Link] initial letter of a symbol is taken in capital letter when the unit is
named after a scientist.

[Link] full name of a unit always begins with a small letter even, if it has
been named after a scientist.

[Link] unit: It is the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun

[Link] year: It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.

[Link] second: It is the distance at which an arc of length 1

astronomical unit subtends an angle of 1 second of arc.

[Link] or micrometer: 1μm = m

[Link]: 1nm = m
[Link] unit: 1Å= m

[Link]: 1 fm = m

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[Link] (g): one gram is the one thousandth part of a kilogram.

[Link](mg): one milligram is one-millionth part of a kilogram or it is

one thousandth part of a gram

[Link]: It is one hundred times a kilogram

[Link] tonne:it is one thousand times a kilogram

[Link] mass unit (a.m.u) = The mass of atomic particles such as proton,
neutron and electron is expressed in a unit called atomic mass unit .

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[Link] (1ms) = s

[Link](μs)= s

[Link] = One minute is the duration of 60 seconds, 1min = 60s

[Link](h): One hour is the duration of 60 minutes ,1h = 60 × 60 s =

3600s

5. Day: The time taken by the earth to rotate once on its own axis is called
a day.

1 day = 24 hours = 24×60 min = 1440 min = 24 ×60×60 s = 86400s

[Link] month: A lunar month, also known as a synodic month, is the

period of time it takes for the Moon to complete one full cycle of its
phases, from new moon to new moon.

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Vernier Callipers

Vernier calliper is a device used to measure accurately upto 110th of

a millimeter.
Vernier callipers are measuring instruments used to measure lengths with
a high degree of accuracy. They are commonly used in industries such as
manufacturing, engineering, and science.

Construction:

• A Vernier calliper consists of a main scale and a Vernier scale that slides
along the main scale.

• The main scale has a fixed jaw and a movable jaw, while the Vernier
scale has a Vernier arm that extends from it.

• The jaws of the calliper are used to hold the object being measured,
while the Vernier arm is used to measure the object's length.

Principle of operation:

• To measure an object's length using a Vernier calliper, the object is

placed between the jaws of the calliper, and the movable jaw is adjusted
until it just touches the object.

• The reading on the main scale is noted down first. This reading gives the
integer part of the length being measured.

• The Vernier scale is then used to determine the fraction part of the
length being measured.

• The Vernier arm is moved until one of its markings aligns exactly with a
marking on the main scale. The number on the Vernier scale
corresponding to this alignment gives the fraction part of the length being
measured.

Least count:

• The least count of a Vernier calliper is the smallest measurement that

can be read off the instrument. It is given by the distance between two
consecutive marks on the Vernier scale divided by the number of divisions
on the main scale between these marks.

• For example, if the distance between two consecutive marks on the

Vernier scale is 0.1 mm and there are 10 divisions on the main scale
between these marks, then the least count of the calliper is 0.01 mm.
Overall, Vernier callipers are highly useful tools for accurately measuring
lengths, and are commonly used in a wide range of industries and
applications.
The minimum measurement that vernier callipers can take is called its
least count.

Least count (LC)=

Determination of Zero error

If the instrument is perfect, the zero mark of the vernier scale should
coincide with the zero mark of the main scale when jaws are made to
touch each other.

In such situation, the instrument is free from any error. However due to
wear and tear of the jaws and some manufacturing defects, zero error
rises.

The zero error is equal to the distance between the zero of the main scale
and the zero of the vernier scale.

There are two kinds of zero error possible:

[Link] zero error: If the zero mark of the vernier scale is on the right of
the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to be positive.

[Link] zero error: If the zero mark of the vernier scale is on the left of
the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to be negative.
Correction due to zero error

To get the correct reading, the zero error with its proper sign is always
subtracted from the observed reading.

Correct reading = Observed reading – Zero error (with sign).

Measurement of length of an object by vernier callipers

The following steps are involved in measurement of length of an object

with a vernier calliper.

(i)Join both jaws of vernier callipers together.

(ii)Find the least count and zero error of the vernier callipers.
(iii)Move the jaws away and place the object between the jaws.

(iv)Tighten the screw to fix the vernier scale of the ends.

(v)Note the reading on main scale (MSR).

(vi)Note the division N on vernier scale which coincides with any division
on main scale.

(vii)Use the formula MSR+(N×LC) = Length

Now introduce the zero correction

Correct reading = Observed reading – Zero error

True length = Observed length – Zero error (with sign)

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Pitch of a screw

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the screw along its axis in
one complete rotation of its head.

Least count of a screw

The least count of a screw is the distance moved by it in rotating the

circular scale by one division.

L.C. =

A screw gauge works on the principle of a screw.

PART FUNCTION

Circular scale Helps to read length correct up to

0.01 mm

Main scale To read length correct up to 1mm.

Thimble To mark circular scale

Ratchet To advance the screw by turning it

till the object is gently held between
the stud and spindle of screw.

Pitch of a screw gauge

The pitch of a screw gauge is the linear distance moved by its screw on
the main scale when circular scale completes one full rotation.

Least count of a screw gauge

The least count of a screw gauge is the linear distance moved by its screw
along the main scale when the circular scale is rotated by one division on
it .

L.C. =

Zero error in a screw gauge

Positive zero error: If the zero mark of the circular scale is below the base
line of the main scale, the zero error is said to be positive.

Negative zero error: If the zero mark of the circular scale is above the base
line of the main scale, the zero error is said to be negative.

Backlash error

Due to wear and tear of the threads of the screw, it is observed that on
reversing the direction of rotation of the thimble, the tip of the screw does
not start moving in opposite direction at once, but it remains stationary
for some part of rotation. The error caused due to this effect is called
backlash error.

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A simple pendulum is a basic mechanical system consisting of a mass

(called the bob) attached to a string or rod of negligible mass, which is
fixed at a pivot point. The bob is free to swing back and forth under the
influence of gravity.

Some important terms related to simple pendulum

Oscillation: One complete to and fro motion of the bob of pendulum.

Period of oscillation or time period: This is the time taken to complete one
oscillation.

Frequency: It is the number of oscillations made in one second.

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the bob from its mean position
on either side.

Effective length of a pendulum: It is the distance of the point of oscillation

from the point of suspension.

Relationship between time period and frequency

f=

Measurement of time period of a simple pendulum

[Link] up the simple pendulum by suspending the bob from a fixed point
using a string or rod of known length.

[Link] that the pendulum is free to oscillate without any interference or

obstructions.

[Link] the pendulum bob slightly from its equilibrium position and
release it.

[Link] a stopwatch or a timer to measure the time taken for the pendulum
to complete a certain number of oscillations, preferably several complete
oscillations.

[Link] the total time measured by the number of oscillations to

calculate the average time period of the pendulum.

Graph showing the variation of square of time period ( ) with the length
(l) of a pendulum.

If a graph is plotted for the square of time period ( ) taken on Y-axis

against the length l on X-axis, it comes out to be a straight line inclined to
X-axis.
Factors affecting the time period of a simple pendulum

[Link] time period of oscillation is directly proportional to the square root

of its effective length

[Link] time period of oscillation is inversely proportional to the square root

of acceleration due to gravity.

[Link] time period of oscillation does not depend on the mass or material
of the body suspended.

[Link] time period of oscillation does not depend on the extent of swing on
either side (i.e., on amplitude).

Expression for time period of a simple pendulum.

The time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by the

following relation:

T=

T = time period

l = effective length of pendulum

g= acceleration due to gravity.

Seconds Pendulum
A pendulum with a time period of oscillation equal to two seconds, is
known as seconds pendulum.

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