Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 3A.
Fluid Statics
Yong Su Jung

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Pusan National University

2023

1
 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics

✓ The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

✓ The Standard Atmosphere
✓ Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
✓ Hydrostatic Force on Submerged
Surfaces
✓ Buoyancy and Stability

2
 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics

✓ The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

✓ The Standard Atmosphere
✓ Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
✓ Hydrostatic Force on Submerged
Surfaces
✓ Buoyancy and Stability

3
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

• The first objective is to obtain an equation for computing the pressure

· -

field in a static fluid.

-
-

• To do this, we apply Newton’s- second law to a differential fluid

element of mass 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉, with- sides 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, and 𝑑𝑧.
-

• The fluid element is - stationary relative to the stationary rectangular

-

-
coordinate system.
-
d

Fluid Element
dy

&
Density = ρ

X
z -

y
dz
-

-T
Volume = dV= dx dy dz

- - -
#
Mass = dm = ρdV = ρ dx dy dz
-
x
dx d .

4
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
• Two general type of forces may be applied to a fluid

Body force due to gravity:

-
𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝐵 = 𝑔𝑑𝑚
Ԧ = 𝑔𝜌𝑑𝑉
Ԧ
where 𝑔Ԧ is the local gravity vector, 𝜌 is the density, and 𝑑𝑉 is the volume
of the element. In Cartesian coordinates,

𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝐵 = 𝑔ρ𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Ԧ

dm= ρ dx dy dz

5
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
• Two general type of forces may be applied to a fluid

In a static fluid there are no shear stresses, so the only surface force
is the pressure force.

Pressure is a scalar field, 𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) : (acts in all directions)

In general, the pressure to vary with position within the fluid.

Net pressure force that results from this variation can be found by
summing the forces that act on the six faces of the fluid element.

6
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
• Let the pressure be 𝑝 at the center, 𝑂, of the element.
• We use a Taylor series expansion of the pressure about point 𝑂 to
determine the pressure at each or the six faces of the element.
• The pressure at the left face of the differential element is

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦
𝑝𝐿 = 𝑝 + 𝑦𝐿 − 𝑦 = 𝑝 + − =𝑝−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

(Terms of higher order are omitted because they will vanish in the subsequent limiting
process.)

Differential fluid element and pressure forces in the 𝑦 direction

7
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

• The pressure at the right face of the differential element is

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦
𝑝𝑅 = 𝑝 + 𝑦𝑅 − 𝑦 = 𝑝 +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2

• Each pressure force is a product of three factors: magnitude of the

pressure, area of the face, and a unit vector to indicate direction.

Differential fluid element and pressure forces in the 𝑦 direction

8
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
• Combining all such forces gives the net surface force acting on the element.
Thus
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑆 = 𝑝 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 −𝑖Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑝− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 −𝑗Ƹ
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑧
+ 𝑝− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑘෠ + 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 −𝑘෠
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
• Collecting and canceling terms, we obtain 𝑑𝐹Ԧ𝑆 = − 𝑖Ƹ
𝜕𝑥
+ 𝑗Ƹ
𝜕𝑦
+ 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Differential fluid element and pressure forces in the 𝑦 direction

9
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

• The term is called the gradient of the pressure or simply the pressure
gradient and be written 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝 or 𝛻𝑝. In rectangular coordinates

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝 ≡ 𝛻𝑝 ≡ 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ ෠
+𝑘 ≡ 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ ෠
+𝑘 𝑝
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛻 (gradient) is a vector operator
Taking the gradient of a scalar field gives a vector field.

Using the gradient, the obtained surface force can be expressed as

𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑆 = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = −𝛻𝑝𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Physically the gradient of pressure is the negative of the surface force

per unit volume due to pressure.

10
 Reference: Gradient
𝑑𝑓
• Ordinary Derivatives: 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
how rapidly the function 𝑓 𝑥
varies when we change 𝑥

• Gradient
Suppose, we have a function of three variables: 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
How 𝑝 changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amounts
𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑y + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
= 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠ 𝑑𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= ∇𝑝 𝑑𝒍
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
∇𝑝 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Gradient is a vector that points in the direction of maximum increase of a

function. Its magnitude gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal rate
of increase of a scalar function.
11
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
• Thus, total force acting on a fluid element
𝑑𝐹Ԧ = 𝑑 𝐹Ԧ𝑆 + 𝑑𝐹Ԧ𝐵

= −𝛻𝑝𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Ԧ = −𝛻𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔Ԧ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

= −𝛻𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔Ԧ 𝑑𝑉

• Total force per unit volume basis

𝑑𝐹Ԧ
= −𝛻𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔Ԧ
𝑑𝑉

• For a static fluid, 𝑎Ԧ = 0

𝑑 𝐹Ԧ
= 𝜌𝑎Ԧ = 0
𝑑𝑉

−𝛻𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔Ԧ = 0

12
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

• Physically significance of each term is

• Three component equations that must be satisfied individually.

𝜕𝑝
− + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 = 0 x - direction
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑝
−
𝜕𝑦
+ 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 0 y - direction

𝜕𝑝
− + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 0 z - direction
𝜕𝑧

13
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

If the coordinate system is chosen with the 𝑧 axis directed vertically

upward, then 𝑔𝑥 = 0, 𝑔𝑦 = 0, 𝑔𝑧 = −𝑔.
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
=0 =0 = −𝜌𝑔
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

It indicate that the pressure is independent of coordinates 𝑥 and 𝑦; it

depends on 𝑧 alone. Finally reduced to
𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 ≡ −𝛾
𝑑𝑧

Restrictions:
1. Static fluid.
2. Gravity is the only body force
3. The 𝑧 axis is vertical and upward

14
 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

• It gives the basic pressure-height relation of fluid statics.

𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 ≡ −𝛾
𝑑𝑧

• Most pressure gages indicate a pressure difference – the difference

between the measured pressure and the ambient level (usually
atmospheric pressure).
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

15
 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics

✓ The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

✓ The Standard Atmosphere
✓ Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
✓ Hydrostatic Force on Submerged
Surfaces
✓ Buoyancy and Stability

16
 The Standard Atmosphere

• The temperature profile of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere

• Sea level conditions of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere

17
 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics

✓ The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

✓ The Standard Atmosphere
✓ Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
✓ Hydrostatic Force on Submerged
Surfaces
✓ Buoyancy and Stability

18
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• In order to integrate the basic pressure-height relation to find the pressure
distribution, we need information about variations in both 𝜌 and 𝑔. For most
practical engineering situations, the variation in 𝑔 is negligible.

𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 ≡ −𝛾
𝑑𝑧

• Incompressible Liquids
For a incompressible fluid, 𝜌=constant.
𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 = constant
𝑑𝑧
At the----
reference level, 𝑧0 , is designated as 𝑝0 , then the pressure, 𝑝 at level 𝑧 is
found by integration:
-
𝑝 𝑧
න 𝑑𝑝 = − න 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧
𝑝0 𝑧0
or

E 𝑝 − 𝑝0 = −𝜌𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑧0 − 𝑧
𝑝 − 𝑝0 = ∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

19
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

• Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the container.

•
-
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.

20
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• Manometer (Example 3.1)
The device for measure the pressure difference between two points in a static
-
incompressible fluid by measuring the height difference between the two points.
-

Given: Gage pressure of 120 and 80 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔.

Find: The corresponding pressure in 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Assumptions:
1. Static fluid Ap =

pqh
2. Incompressible fluids. po
=
ggh-
p
-

3. Neglect air density(≪ 𝐻𝑔 density)

120-80 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 = 13.6

Governing equation: 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑝 − 𝑝0 = ∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Ap = pgh =
(13 , 6:1000) (9 81) g
(m) 0004alupa P
,
=
16 ,

Ap= (13, 6
-

1,
94) 2.
32,
2, 32
Ap-ygh
·
= =
P-Po
21
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• Manometer (Example 3.2)
Given: Inclined-tube reservoir manometer.
Find: Expression for 𝐿 in terms of ∆𝑝
General expression for manometer sensitivity (𝐿/ℎ).
Effect of parameter values on sensitivity.

Assumptions:
1. Static fluid
2. Incompressible fluids.

Governing equation:
𝜌
𝑝 − 𝑝0 = ∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝐻2𝑂

22
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
Applying the governing equation between point 1 and
2: O
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = ∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

Let’s eliminate ℎ1 . The volume displaced from the

-
·
reservoir must equal the volume that rises in the tube,
-
so
Volume /
2

&
2
ot 𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝑑2 L 𝑑 Try , En
ℎ = 𝐿 or ℎ1 = 𝐿
In 4 1 4
= >
𝐷

~
-
↑

-
-
Substitute into the governing equation with ℎ2 = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, which gives

non-
2 2
𝑑 𝑑
∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑔 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐿
𝐷
= 𝜌𝑙 𝑔𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
𝐷 ???
∆𝑝
Thus 𝐿= 𝑑 2
𝜌𝑙 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+
𝐷

-
The sensitivity is Aprpen Color sensitivity
·

O 𝑠=
𝐿
ℎ
=𝜌
𝜌
𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+
1
𝑑 2
𝐷
=
1
𝑆𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+
𝑑 2
𝐷
since ℎ =
∆𝑝
𝜌𝑔

D- ? E) U PLE ENE
23
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

• Rules of thumb

1. Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous region of the

same liquid are at the same pressure.
2. Pressure increases as one goes down a liquid column

To find the pressure difference ∆𝑝 between two points separately by a

series of fluids,
∆𝑝 = 𝑔 ෍ 𝜌𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝑖
where 𝜌𝑖 and ℎ𝑖 represent the densities and depths of the various fluids,
respectively.

24
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• Multiple-Liquid Manometer (Example 3.3)
Given: Multiple-liquid manometer as shown
Find: Pressure difference, 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 , in kPa

Assumptions:
1. Static fluid
2. Incompressible fluids.

Governing equation:
𝜌
∆𝑝 = 𝑔 ෍ 𝜌𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝐻2𝑂
𝑖

25
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
Applying the governing equation, working
from point 𝐵 to 𝐴
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = ∆𝑝
= 𝑔൫𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑑5 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑑4 − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑3 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑑2
− 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑑1 ൯

Beginning point 𝐴 and applying the equation

between successive points along the
monometer gives

𝑝𝐶 − 𝑝𝐴 = +𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑔𝑑1
𝑝𝐷 − 𝑝𝐶 = +𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑑2
𝑝𝐸 − 𝑝𝐷 = +𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑3
𝑝𝐹 − 𝑝𝐸 = −𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑑4
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐹 = −𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑑5
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐶 + 𝑝𝐶 − 𝑝𝐷 + 𝑝𝐷 − 𝑝𝐸 + 𝑝𝐸 − 𝑝𝐹 + (𝑝𝐹 − 𝑝𝐵 )
= −𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑔𝑑1 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑑2 − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑3 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑑4 + 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑑5
= 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝑔 −𝑑1 + 13.6𝑑2 − 0.88𝑑3 + 13.6𝑑4 + 𝑑5
= 25.33 𝑘𝑃𝑎
26
 Pascal’s Law

• Pressure applied to a confined fluid

increases the pressure throughout by the
same amount

• In picture, pistons are at same height:

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹2 𝐴2
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 → = → =
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐹1 𝐴1

Lifting of a large weight by a small force 𝐴2

• Ratio is called ideal mechanical
by the application of Pascal’s law 𝐴1

advantage

27
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

⑨
• Gases : density will vary appreciably with altitude
-
Thus, pressure variation in a compressible fluid can be evaluated by
integrating equation below if the density can be expressed as a function of
𝑝 or 𝑧. -narenboim
-
O
The ideal gas equation of state,
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑧
= −𝜌𝑔
p
cron
pacamp
- been
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
P
=
JRT
A linear temperature variation with altitude is assumed for new variable 𝑇.
𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧
z
- -
> blogem
Then, roboe
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 =
𝑝𝑔
− 𝑑𝑧
𝑅𝑇
= −
𝑝𝑔
𝑅 𝑇0 −𝑚𝑧
𝑑𝑧 notemne
-
28
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
𝑝𝑔
𝑑𝑝 = − 𝑑𝑧
𝑅 𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧
Separating variables and integrating from 𝑧 = 0 where 𝑝 = 𝑝0 to elevation 𝑧
where the pressure is 𝑝 gives

𝑝 𝑧
𝑑𝑝 𝑔𝑑𝑧
න = −න
𝑝0 𝑝 0 𝑅 𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧
𝑝 𝑔 𝑧
𝑙𝑛𝑝 𝑝0 = ln(𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧) 0
𝑚𝑅

𝑝 𝑔 𝑇0 − 𝑚𝑧 𝑔 𝑚𝑧
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 1 −
𝑝0 𝑚𝑅 𝑇0 𝑚𝑅 𝑇0

𝑔Τ𝑚𝑅 𝑔Τ𝑚𝑅
𝑚𝑧 𝑇
𝑝 = 𝑝0 1− = 𝑝0

#
𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑔Τ𝑚𝑅
𝑝 𝑇
=
𝑝0 𝑇0

29
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
• Pressure and Density Variation in the Atmosphere (Example 3.4)
Given: Denver: 𝑧 = 1610 m, 𝑝 = 630 mm Hg, 𝑇 = 27℃
Vail Pass: 𝑧 = 3230 m, 𝑇 = 17℃

Find: Atmospheric pressure at Vail Pass.

Percent change in air density between Denver and Vail.
Assumptions:
1. Static fluid
2. Air behaves as an ideal gas.
3. (a) 𝑇 varies linearly with altitude
(b) 𝜌 assumed constant as 𝜌0
(c) 𝑇 assumed constant as 𝑇0
(d) adiabatic atmosphere 𝑝/𝜌𝑘 =constant

Governing equation:
𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑧

30
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

*
(a) 𝑇 varies linearly with altitude
𝑝
=
𝑇
𝑔Τ𝑚𝑅

𝑝0 𝑇0
Evaluating the constant 𝑚 gives -

𝑇0 − 𝑇
𝑚= = 6.17 × 10−3 ℃/𝑚
𝑧 − 𝑧0
and

j
𝑔
= 5.54
𝑚𝑅
Thus
𝑔Τ𝑚𝑅 5.54
𝑝 𝑇 273 + 17
= = = 0.829
𝑝0 𝑇0 273 + 27
and
𝑝 = 522 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 69.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
The percent change in density is given by
𝜌 − 𝜌0 𝜌 𝑝 𝑇0
= −1= − 1 = −0.143 or − 14.3 %
𝜌0 𝜌0 𝑝0 𝑇
31
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

(b) For 𝜌 assumed constant as 𝜌0

𝑝0 𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑝 = 𝑝0 − 𝜌0 𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑝0 − = 𝑝0 1 −
𝑅𝑇0 𝑅𝑇0
∆𝜌
𝑝 = 513.3 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 69.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎 and =0
𝜌0
(c) 𝑇 assumed constant as 𝑇0
𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑔𝑑𝑧
𝑅𝑇

j
and
𝑝 𝑧
𝑑𝑝 𝑔
න = −න 𝑑𝑧
𝑝0 𝑝 𝑧0 𝑅𝑇
−𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑝 = 𝑝0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 0.831𝑝0
𝑅𝑇
For 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇0 ,
∆𝜌 𝜌 𝑝
𝑝 = 523.8 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 69.8 kPa and = 𝜌 − 1 = 𝑝 − 1 = −16.9 %
𝜌0 0 0

32
 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

(d) For an adiabatic atmosphere 𝑝/𝜌𝑘 =constant, (where 𝑘 is ratio of specific

heat=1.4)
𝑇 𝑘/(𝑘−1)
𝑝= 𝑝0 𝑇 = 0.888𝑝0 = 559.5 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 74.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
0

and
∆𝜌 𝜌 𝑝 𝑇0

j
=𝜌 −1=𝑝 − 1 = −8.2 %
𝜌0 0 0 𝑇

• The assumption of a linear temperature variation with altitude is the most

reasonable assumption.
𝑝
Assumption (a) Linearly varing 𝑇 (b) 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 (c) 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 (d) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝜌𝑘

𝑝 [𝑘𝑃𝑎] 69.6 69.4 69.8 74.6

∆𝜌 [%] −14.3 0 −16.9 −8.2

33