CONTENT

MEANING

❑ Comparative Politics is a combination of two

words - Comparative + Politics.
❑ Comparative: Compared with something else or
with what is usual or normal.
❑ Politics Ideas and things which are associated
with State such as – Government, Political Parties,
Pressure Groups, Public opinion, People’s
Participation, Institutions so on.
❑ So, Comparative Politics is the Comparative Study
of other Countries, Citizens, Political Systems,
Citizens, Political Parties, Pressure groups,
Governments and Political Culture so on.
DEFINITIONS
“Comparative Politics is the Study of patterns of national governments in the
contemporary world.”
……..Macridis and Ward
“Comparative Politics is the Study of the forms of political organizations, their
properties, correlations, variations and modes of change.”
…….. M G Smith
“Comparative Politics is concerned with significant regularities, similarities, and
differences in the working of political institutions and Political behavior”.
……... M. Curtis
“Comparative Politics is identification and interpretation of Factors in the
whole social order which appear to affect whatever political functions and
their institutions which have been identified and listed for comparison.”
….....Braibante
 KEY THINKERS
Aristotle Harold D Lassw ell Karl W. Deusch
Noccolo Machiavelli Gaetano Mosca Arend Lijphart
Montesquieu Gabriel Almond S M Lipset
Alexis de Tocqueville Maurice Duverger Ted Robert Gurr
James Bryce David Easton Robert Dahl
Robert Michels S P Huntington Theda Skocpol
Max Weber Giovanni Sartori Benedict Anderson
Herman Finer T H Marshall Ernest Gellner
 PHASES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

1st Phase - From Aristotle to 17th Century

2nd Phase - 18th and 19th Centuries

3rd Phase - From 20th Century to the Present

 PHASES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
1st Phase - From Aristotle to 17th Century
ARISTOTLE
❑ Aristotle wrote – Ta Politika (The Politics).
❑ In which he did comparative study of 158
Constitutions of the Greek City States.
❑ He is known as father of Political Science,
Comparative Politics and Comparative Method.
❑ He regarded Democracy as worst form of
Government.
❑ He gave the ’Cycle notion of Governments’.
❑ Finally, He argued that Mixed Constitution/
Golden Mean(Polity+Aristocracy) is the best
form of Government.
Aristotle’s Form of Government Good form

Monarchy

Democracy Tyranny

Worst form Worst form

of Govt.

Polity Aristotle Aristocracy

Worst form
Good form Good Form-
Oligarchy
 PHASES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI

❑ Machiavelli was an Italian Realistic Thinker

who is known as 1st Modern Thinker.
❑ He wrote – The Prince-1513( published in 1532) &
The Discourses on Livy (1531).
❑ He separated Ethics from Politics.
❑ He argued that ‘Politics have no relations with
Morals.’
❑ He did Comparative study between Monarchy
and Republic.
Machiavelli’s Form of Governments

Government

Monarchy Republic

Practical Form Ideal Form

Appropriate
Appropriate for
for the good
the Corrupt People
Mannered People

Machiavelli
 PHASES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
2nd Phase - 18th and 19th Centuries

CHARLES DE MONTESQUIEU
❑ Montesquieu was French Philosopher who
gave the key notion – ‘Separation of Power’.
❑ He famously wrote – The Spirit of Laws(1748).
❑ US took inspiration of ‘Separation of Power’
from his concept of Separation of Power.
❑ He also played an important role in the
development of comparative Politics. In ‘The
Sprit of Laws’- he did comparative study of
Republic , Monarchy and Despotism.
Montesquieu’s Form of Governments

Government

Superior Inferior

Republic Monarchy Despotism

Based on Virtue Based on Honor

Based on Fear
And Coercion
Democracy Aristocracy
Based on Love, Equality Based on
and Common Good Moderation/Balanced
 PHASES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
J S MILL, FREEMAN & TOCQUEVILLE
❑ In the 19th Century J S Mill, E A Freeman and
Tocqueville Played and important role in the
development of Comparative Politics.
❑ In his key work – ‘Democracy in America’(1835)
Tocqueville played an important role in the
development of Comparative Politics. He did
Study about American Democracy and
compared it with the European Democracies.
❑ Bentham, Marx, Comte, Henry Maine also
played an important role in the development
of Comparative Politics.
 PHASES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
3rd Phase - From 20th Century to the Present

❑ This Phase is a Modern and Comprehensive phase

of the development of the Comparative Politics.
❑ Several Thinker’s such as – James Bryce, Robert
Michels, Max Weber, Herman Finer, Lasswell,
Almond, Robert Dahl, Charles E Lindblom, Maurice
Duverger, David Easton, S P Huntington, Daniel
Lerner, T H Marshall, Verba, Powell, Karl Deutsch,
Arendt Lijphart, S M Lipset, Cardoso, Ted Robert
Gurr, Giovanni Sartori, Benedict Anderson, Ernest
Gellner, Robert D. Putnam are associated with 3rd
phase of Comparative Politics.
Key Thinkers of third Phase Of Comparative Politics

He wrote ‘Modern Democracies(1921) – It

was first comparative study of James Bryce
Democratization and Democracy

He wrote ‘Political Parties: A Sociological Study

of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern
Robert Michels Democracies’(1915). He argued that Social
Organizations are largely dominated by
leaders, which is called ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote ‘Democracy and the

Organization of Political Parties’ (1902).
It He did comparative study of M. Ostrogorsky
Democratic Suffrage, especially on the
Party system in Britain and the US.

In his work ‘Economy and Society’(1921). He

introduced a classification of Political forms
Max Weber based upon ‘Systems of Rule’ and ‘Rulership’. It
presented three kinds of Authority –
Charismatic, Legal & Traditional Authority.
 KEY THINKER’S

He wrote -’The Theory and Practice of

Modern Government’(1932). It focused
on governmental institutions and
Herman Finer
processes.

In his work ‘Politics: Who Gets What, When,

Harold D. Lasswell How’(1936). He introduced an idea of power and the
manipulation by ruling elites and counter-elites.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote -’The Ruling Class’(1939). This

work talks about Elite Theory. Gaetano Mosca

In his work ‘The Great Transformation’(1944). It is

Karl Polanyi based on development of market society.
 KEY THINKER’S
He wrote -’Comparative Political
System’(1956). In which he proposes a
fourfold classification of Political Systems. (1)
The Anglo-American
(2) The Continental European
(3) Pre-Industrial Societies.
(4) The Totalitarian Political Systems.
Gabriel Almond
In Other writing ‘The Politics of Developing
Areas’-(1960) he used Structural Functional
Approach to study of the Third World.

In his work ‘Politics: Who Gets What, When,

Harold D. Lasswell How’(1936). He introduced an idea of power and the
manipulation by ruling elites and counter-elites.
 KEY THINKER’S

He wrote -’Politic, Economics and

Welfare State’ (1953). In which he talks
about challenges of Politics and
Robert A. Dahl
Economics.

In his work ‘Political Parties: Their Organization and

Activity in the Modern State’(1951/1954). He identified a
Maurice Duverger correlation between a first-past-the- post election
system and the formation of a Two-Party System,
what is known as – ‘Duverger’s Law’.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote -’Political System: An

Inquiry into the State of Political
Science(1953). In which he gave System David Easton
Theory and founded Behavioral
Revolution in Political Science.

In his work ‘Political Order in Changing Societies

(1968). In this work he challenged the prevalent
S. P. Huntington Modernization Theory and drew attention to the
problem of Political Order.
KEY THINKER’S
He wrote -’Citizenship and Social
Class (1950). In which he gave the
Theory of ‘Liberal Citizenship’. He
talks about 3 kinds of rights – T H Marshall
(1)Civil Rights
(2)Political Rights
(3)Social Rights

They wrote-‘The Civic Culture (1963). It was first major

cross-national survey of attitudes to explores the role
Almond & Verba of Political Culture in maintaining the stability of
democratic regimes.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote -’The Nerves of Government:

Models of Political Communication and
Control ‘(1966). This work propounded
the theory of information, Karl W. Deutsch
communication, and control to
problems of political and social science.

He wrote-‘Political Man: The Social Basis of Politics

S. Martin Lipset (1960). This is a key work on Operation of Democracy
and Modernization Theory.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote –’Dependency and

Development in Latin America’
(1971/1979). He did study of Dependency F. H. Cardoso
in the Latin America.

He wrote-‘Why Men Rebel (1970). This talks about

Ted Robert Gurr Peoples protests and rebellion against State.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote –’Democracy in Plural

Societies: A Comparative Exploration
(1977). He talks about democracy in Arend Lijphart
different societies.

He wrote-‘State and Social Revolutions: A

Theda Skocpol Comparative analysis of France, Russia and China
(1979). He did comparative study about States.
KEY THINKER’S

He wrote –’Parties and Party

Systems (1976). A comprehensive
approach to the classification of Giovanni Sartori
Party System.

He wrote-‘State and Social Revolutions: A

Theda Skocpol Comparative analysis of France, Russia and China
(1979). He did comparative study about States.
KEY THINKER’S

In –’Imagine Communities:
Reflections on the Origin and
Spread of Nationalism (1983). He Benedict Anderson
gave the core concept – ‘Imagined
Community’.

He wrote-‘Nations and Nationalism (1983). In which he

Ernest Gellner argued that ‘Nationalism is a product of
Industrialization’.
KEY THINKER’S

In – The Third Wave of

Democratization in the Late
Twentieth Century(1991). In which
he talks about democratic S P Huntington
transitions and three waves of
democracy.
 Scope of Comparative Politics
❑ Scope of Comparative Politics is much
comprehensive. We can include several
things in the Study of Comparative
Politics. Theses are…..

Political Activities
Study of many Why’s
Political Power
Political Culture
Political Socialization
Scope of Comparative Politics

Comparative Study of Political System

Comparative Study of Governments
Study of Political Process
Study of Political Parties
Study of Groups
Comparative Study of People’s Participation
Study on Non-Political Facts
 COMPARATIVE POLITICS
REFERENCES & SOURSES

❑ Caramani Daniele -‘COMPARATIVE

POLITICS’.
❑ Gauba, O. P. – ‘Tulnatamak Raaniti Ki
Rooprekha’.
❑ Johari, J. C. – ‘Comparative Government
and Politics’.
❑ Pampa Mukherjee – ‘ Guidance and
Notes’.
❑ M A Class Notes.
What is an Approach?
“Approach is a method of
doing something of dealing
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with a problem.”
 Traditional Approaches

❑Traditional Approaches were mainly

related to the traditional view of
Politics and Government. That is

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why, Traditional Approaches are
limited in nature.
❑These Approaches believe that
studies in Political Science can’t be
Scientific.
 Traditional Approaches

❑Traditional Approaches Focus

on Values, Norms & Ideals.
❑ These Approaches dominated
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to the Political Philosophy till
second W. W.
Traditional Approaches

❑These Approaches primarily focus on….

(1) Philosophy
(2)History
(3)Law s Philosophy
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Traditional
Approaches
History Law s
1. Philosophical Approach – 18th Century

❑It is regarded as the oldest approach

to the study of Political Science.
❑The Emergence of this Approach can
be traced back to the times of the
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Greek Philosophers like Plato &
Aristotle.
❑Key Thinkers – Plato, Aristotle,
Rousseau, Hegel, Kant & Leo Strauss.
❑Era – 18th Century.
 1. Philosophical Approach – 18th Century

❑This approach firmly believes that

the values can’t be separated from
the study Politics.

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❑It is mainly focus on ethical and
normative study of Politics. That is
why it is also known as – Moral,
Normative and Idealistic Approach.
 1. Philosophical Approach – 18th Century

❑Leo Strauss was one of the main

advocate of the Philosophical
Approach.

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❑In his key work – What is Political
Philosophy?(1957). He argued that
– ‘The Philosophy is the quest for
wisdom and Political Philosophy is
the attempt truly to know about
the nature of political things and
the right or good political order.’
 1. Philosophical Approach – 18th Century
❑Credit of resurgence of political
philosophy goes to Leo Strauss.
❑He argued that values are the core

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and inevitable part of Political Theory.
Therefore, It can’t be separated from
Politics.
❑On the other hand, He criticized to the
scientific and empirical approach of
the political science.
 Features of Philosophical Approach

1. Focus on Norms & Values

2. Idealistic in nature
3. Focus of what ought to be?
4. Limited in nature
5. Ethical and Normative
6. Study of State & Govt.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
2. Historical Approach – 17th Century
❑It is based on the development
and evolution in history.
❑It uses knowledge of history and
applies it to the understanding of
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political life.
❑Historical Approach believes that
political phenomenal
could be understand better with
the help of historical
factors like age, place and
situations.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
2. Historical Approach – 17th Century

❑Key thinkers of this Approach are…

Machiavelli, Sabine Dunning, Seely,
Freeman, Montesquieu

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Oakeshott, Lindsey.
❑ In his work ‘A History of Political
Theory’ George H. Sabine focused
on – What ought to be?
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Features of Historical Approach
1. Concerned w ith the history of a State, Nation or Country
2. Emergence in the 17th Century
3. Not concerned w ith norms and informal history
4. Focus
Limited
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oninHistorical
nature Factors – Age, Place & Situations
❑ Point should be noted that this
approach however criticized and
rejected by Charles Merriam &
David Easton.
❑ They considered it as –
HISTORICISM.
❑ The idea of ‘Historicism’ was
propounded by Karl Popper.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Karl Popper (1902-1974)

❑In his two key works – ‘The Open

Societies and its Enemies.’(1945) & The
Poverty of Historicism(1957). In which
he targeted to the HISTORICISM.
❑He also considered Plato, Hegel &
Marx as an enemies of an open
societies.
❑He argued that history and historical
changes are constructed through the
static social norms and traditions.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Karl Popper (1902-1974)

❑ He also considered Plato as a

‘Thinker of Closed Society.’
❑Popper also gave the notion of
– ‘FALSIFICATION’. In which
he argued that Science can’t
find out truth rather it can
find out that what is False?
And rejection of false is the
way to find out Truth.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

3. Legal Approach – 19th Century

❑The origin of Legalistic Approach

can be traced back to the 19th
century when the study of Politics
also included topics like Laws and
Legal System.
❑Legal Approach stands for an
attempt to understand politics in
terms of Law and Constitution.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

3. Legal Approach – 19th Century

❑Legal Approach regards state as the

creator and enforcer of law and deals
with legal institutions, and processes.
❑Key Thinkers are – Cicero, Dicey, jean
Bodin, Thomas Hobbes, Jeremy
Bentham, John Austin & Sir Henry Maine.
❑Dicey considered State as a ‘Legal Man’.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Features of Legal Approach

1. Concerned w ith formal laws of a society

2. Not concerned w ith the norms and values of Society.
3. Rejection of historical study
4. Attention on legal & constitutional framew ork of State
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
4. Institutional Approach– 19th Century

❑In Politics, an institutions of typically

referred to an organ of government
mandated by the Constitution.
❑In Political Science, an Institution is a
formal institution.
❑Institutional Approach came into being
in the 19th century due to the reaction
to the Historical and Legal Approach.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
4. Institutional Approach– 19th Century

❑In Institutional Approach, the formal

institutions of Govt. like legislature,
executive & judiciary provide the subject
matter of comparison in terms of their
powers, functions, role & mutual relations.
❑This Approach mainly deals with formal
aspects of the Govt. & Politics emphasizes
the study of the political institutions and
structure.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
4. Institutional Approach– 19th Century
❑Key thinkers of Institutional Approach
are --- Walter Bagehot, Harold Laski,
Arthur Bentley, James Bryce, Karl
Freidrick, Herman Finer & Mourice
Duverger.
❑Theorists of this approach see institutions
“As the cause of growth and
development.”
❑This approach also argues that
institutions influence competition in
political process.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
4. Institutional Approach– 19th Century
❑The roots of comparative political
analysis are in institutional analysis,
As for back as Aristotle, scholars
interested in understanding
government performance, and
seeking to improve that
performance concentrated on
constitutional structures and the
institutions created by those
constitutions.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Features of Institutional Approach

1. Emerged in the 19th Century

2. Study of formal Institutions of a State
3. Not concerned w ith norms, values and history
4. No space for Individual
5. Limited in nature
6. Analysis the rules of the political system.
7. Stress also in the study of Constitutions.
 What is Behaviouralism?

“ In Political Science, Behaviouralsim

is a movement that negate to the
institutionalism and values and it

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focused on the study of scientific
method and human behavior in

”
political science.

In Political science, Behaviouralism started by

Charles Merriam in the 1930’s in the United
States but popularized by David Easton in the
1950’s.
What is Behaviouralism?

Behaviourlism

Behaviouralism Its foundations laid by

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developed as a
Criticism of
Traditionalism
Charles Merriam in
1925 but popularized
by David Easton in 1953
 Key figure’s in Behaviouralism

G. Wallace
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A. Bentley C. Merriam V O Key Jr. G. Catlin

H. Laswell D. Truman R. Dahl D. Easton G. Almond

 Behavioral Approach
➢ In his key essay ‘The current meaning of behaviourlism’
(1967) David Easton mentioned ‘8 intellectual foundations
stones’ of behaviourlism......
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1. Regularities 5. Value Free Study

2. Verification 6. Systemization

3. Techniques 7. Pure Science

4. Quantification 8. Integration
 What is Post Behavioralism?
❑ In Political Science, Post -
Behavioralism was a reactionary
movement against Behavioralism in
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the late 1960’s led by David Easton.
❑ But, it is noteworthy that it was
not complete rejection of
Behavioralism. As Easton argued ….
“ It is actual Revolution not counter
revolution.”
What is Post Behavioralism?
❑ In Political Science, Post -
Behavioralism was a reactionary
or intellectual movement against

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Behavioralism in the late 1960’s
led by David Easton.
❑ But, it is noteworthy that it was

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not complete rejection of
Behavioralism. As Easton argued..
“ It is actual Revolution not
counter revolution.”
Why Post Behavioralism started?
1. irrelevance of Political Science

2. Over focus on Science

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3. Negation of Values

4. Over stress on Research & tools

5. Behavioralism was status quo

6. Role of Easton
❑ Post Behavioralism was
propounded by David Easton
in his presidential address to
the American Political Science
Association in 1969. In this

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address Easton gave to
slogans----

1. Relevance 2. Action
❑ In 1969, Easton wrote an essay – ‘The new
Revolution in Political Science.’(Published in – The
American Political Science Review).
❑ In which gave he the notion of ‘Credo of Relevance’.
It has 7 tenets….

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1. Substance over techniques
2. Change orientation
3. Relevant Research
4. Value Laden Research
5. Focus on Critical Intellectual
6. Action Oriented Research
7. Politicization of profession
❑ Key features of Post – Behavioralism are….
1. Reforms in Behavioralism
2. Reestablishment of values & Empiricism
3. Focus on Institutions
4. Focus on Action and Relevance
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5. Study of all Facts & reality of politics
6. Social Problems & Values Oriented Study
7. Emphasis on changes
8. Focus on What should be?
9. Political Science as an Action Science ?
10. Involvement of Intellectuals in Politics
 What is Political Culture?

❑ Beliefs, norms, values, attitudes

and orientation of people towards
politics and political system can be

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define as a political Culture.
❑ In a nutshell we can say – How much
people are aware about Political
System, Government, Interests &
Power, Identities and institutions.

Political + Culture = Political Culture

 Political Culture – Almond and Verba

o In Comparative Politics, the term

Political Culture is used by
Almond and Verba.
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o 1956 Gabriel Almond used the
term Political Culture in his essay
– Comparative Political System.
o That is why Almond known as
father of Political Culture.
 Political Culture - Almond and Verba

o In their key work – The Civic Culture:

Political Attitudes and Democracy in five
Nations(1963), they did study of political
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culture of five nations namely – UK, US,
Germany, Italy and Mexico.
o In these countries they did evaluation
of stability and instability of democracy
and Political Culture as well.
 Political Culture – Almond & Verba

Political In- Out- System as

Self
Culture puts puts a Whole

Orientation
Cognitive Parochial No No No No
Orientation
Effective Subjective No Yes No Yes
Orientation
Evaluative Participant Yes Yes Yes Yes
 Political Sociological Approach
o Emerged in the early 1930’s but fully
developed after the second W. W.
o Focus on interdisciplinary study of both
Politics & Sociology.
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o In a nutshell, we can say that- ‘Political
Sociology is the study of power and the
relationship between societies, states and
Political conflict’.
o In Political Sociology, we do study that how
Society effected from Politics? And how
Society effect to the Politics?
o Under this Approach we can include
several subjects……
1. Political Consensus
2. Political Parties and Pressure Groups
3. Social Structure
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4. Political power
5. Political Ideologies
6. Political Behavior
7. Political Socialization
8. Political Participation.
o Aristotle laid the foundation of Political
Sociology in his key oeuvre – THE POLITICS.
o THE POLITICS is known as the first work of
Political Sociology.
o Point should be noted that – Max Weber

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known as the Father of – Political Sociology.
o In Indian context, Rudolph and Rudolph
used this Approach to the study of Political
Process in India.
o Elisabeth S. Clemens wrote – ‘What is
Political Sociology’(2016)?
o Key contributors of Political Sociological
Approach are…..
[Link] [Link] Weber
[Link] 9.V. Pareto
[Link] Merriam 10.G. Mosca
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[Link] Ferguson
[Link] Lasswell
[Link] Wallace
[Link] Bentley
[Link] Marx [Link]
[Link] de Tocqueville [Link] Mannheim
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
System Approach
❑ System Analysis firstly used by the
Australian Canadian biologist Ludwig
Vonin Bertalonffsy in Biology.
❑ Talcott Parsons also used this method in
Sociology.
❑ But, David Easton was the first and
prominent American Political thinker
who developed the System Approach to
the study of Politics.
❑ Easton’s System Approach is associated
with the study of developed countries.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS
System Approach
❑ He did study of political behavior in China.
❑ According to David Easton, ‘System
Approach is also the system like other
approaches’.
❑ He is forefront of both Behaviouralist &
Post Behaviouralist Revolutions in the
Political Science during the 1950’s and
1970’s.
❑ In his key work – The Political
System(1953), He developed System
Approach.
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

System Approach
❑ Easton argued that any particular
system has to be some sub-systems
and these are interdependent and
these also have boundaries. i.e.
Political system, Economic System
are also part of Social system.
❑ He argued that – “Political System
is a process to change inputs into
outputs”
 APPROACHES OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

“Political System is that system of

interaction in any society through
which binding and Authoritative
allocation of values are made and
implemented.”

…….. Easton
Environment Easton’s System Approach Environment

The Political System

INPUTS Gatekeepers OUTPUTS

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Demands

Supports
Government
BLACK BOX
Decisions

Policies
People

Feedback

Environment Environment
 Communication Approach

o In International Relations,
Communication Theory given by Karl
Deutsch in his key work ‘The Nerves of
Government’(1963).
o Karl Deutsch mentioned three element
in Political System……
1. Innovation
2. Growth
3. Change
 Communication Approach

o In Comparative Politics,
Communication Approach developed
by Nobert Wiener & Ross Ashby.
o Nobert Wiener wrote Cybernetics(1961)
& Ross Ashby wrote An Introduction to
Cybernetics(1956), in which they also
talked about Cybernetics.
o Communication Theory is also know as
Cybernetics.
 Communication Approach
o Political Communication concerned with
that how information spreads and
influence politics, policy makers, the news
media and citizens as well.
o So, we can define Political
Communication as the connection
between politics and citizen by which
politics and citizens interacted each other.
o This kind of Relationship known as ..
o PATHOS, ETHOS & LOGOS.
 Neo Institutional Approach
o In 1984 James G. March and Johan P. Olsen
wrote an essay ‘The New Institutionalism:
Organizational basis of Politics’.
o In which they developed the term….
‘Neo-Institutionalism’.
o Earlier in 1977, New Institutionalism
originated in work by sociologist John
Meyer and Brian Rowan.
o They wrote an essay – ‘Institutionalized
Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth
and Ceremony’(1977).
 Neo Institutional Approach
o Key arguments of New Institutionalism are….
1. Scientific Study of Institutions
2. Syncretism between Old and New Approaches
3. Reapproval to the importance of Institutions
3. Study of Human Behavior in Politics
4. Focus on Relative Autonomy of Institutions
o In a nutshell, Neo Institutionalism argued
that it is necessary to the study of human
behavior to understand the institutions
betterly.
 Neo Institutional Approach
o New Institutionalism also has three branches….

1. Rational Choice Theory

2. Cultural(Sociological) New Institutionalism

3. Structural New Institutionalism

 Rational Choice Theory
o Rational Choice Theory Propounded by Mancur Olson.
o Olsen wrote some key works…
1. The Rise and decline of Nations - 1982
2. Power and Prosperities: Outgoing Communist
and Capitalist Dictatorships - 2000
3. Dictatorship, Democracy & Development - 1993
 Rational Choice Theory

o Rational Choice Theory believes that

human being is a rational creator.
o All human being want increase their
benefits and interests.
o Rational Choice Theory argued that
choices of an individual also effected
by the Institutions.
 Cultural(Sociological) New Institutionalism

o Cultural New Institutionalism

approach argued that for the
understanding of Institutions we
must have understanding about
Society, Cultures and Values as well.
o Individual behavior also effected
from Social Values and Cultures.
o The idea of Cultural New
Institutionalism is propounded by
Elinor Ostrom.
o In 2009, she got Nobel Prize in
economics and became 1st women
who got Nobel Prize in Economics.
o She wrote some key works …..
1. Governing the Commons - 1990
2. Institutional Incentives and Sustainable
Development - 1993
3. Understanding Institutional Diversity - 2005
4. The Future of the Commons - 2012
 Structural New Institutionalism

o The notion of Structural New

Institutionalism is given by Theda
Skocpol.
o Structural New Institutionalism
argued that for the understanding of
Politics we must have knowledge
about different-different structures.
o Focus on the study of Structure.
 Structural New Institutionalism

o Theda argued strong Structures are

very important to the strong and
stable state.
o Theda gave example of USSR and
argued that in 1991 USSR was
collapsed because USSR had weak
political structures while China didn't
collapse because China had strong
political structures.
 Structural New Institutionalism

o In her key work ‘States and Social

Revolutions(1979) she did
comparative study of French, Russian
and Chines Revolution.
o Her other works are….
1. Protecting Soldiers(1992)
2. Diminished Democracy(2003)
 Structural Functional Approach

o In comparative Politics, Almond &

Powell used this Approach.
o Earlier, in Sociology this method also

Saar Success
is used by Talcott Parsons.
o Rajni Kothari also used this approach
for the studying of Indian Politics.
o Structural Functional Approach is
associated with study of developing
nations.
 Structural Functional Approach
o Structural Functional Approach
argued that all political systems,
including Third World Systems,
Saar Success
could most fruitfully be studied
and compared on the basis of how
differing structures performed
these functions and the various
political system.
 Structural Functional Analysis
Environment Environment
P
INPUTS O OUTPUTS
L
Functions Structures I Functions Structures
Family, Church T 1. Rule Making Legislative
1. Political Socialization School and I

Saar Success
Recruitment

2. Interest Articulation
Peer Groups
Interest Groups
C
A
L
2. Rule Application

3. Rule Adjudication
Executive

Judiciary
3. Interest Aggregation Political Parties S
Y
4. Political S
Communication Mass Media
T
E
Environment Environment
M
 Political Economy Approach
o The term Political Economy is coined
by French Economist Antoine de
Montchretien in 1615.
o Later, Political Economy used by
classical Liberalists such as – Adam
Smith, Thomas Malthus and David
Ricardo.
o Karl Marx Popularized this term in
the 19th century. But, Marx said that
Economy is primary and politics is
secondary.
Marx on Political Economy
 Dependency & Political Economy
o In the 1960’s Political Economy further
Developed by the Latin American Marxists
like as – A G Frank, Raul Prebisch, Hans
Singer, Immanuel Wallerstein and Samir
Amin.
o They criticized to the Modernization
Theory and argued that under
modernization Capitalist Countries
exploited to the poor countries and poor
countries are entirely dependent on
Capitalist or Industrialized Countries, that
is know n as Dependency Theory.
o Some important w orks of Dependency theorists are….
Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America(1967) – A. G. Frank
Crises of Advanced Capitalism (1981) – Raul Prebisch
New International Economic order & Cultural Values (1970) – Raul
Prebisch
Unequal Development (1974) – Samir Amin
Imperialism and Unequal Development (1975) – Samir Amin
Capitalism in the age Globalization (1997) – Samir Amin
Rich and Poor Countries (1978) – Hans Singer
World System and Political Economy

o The core notion World System Analysis is

propounded by Immanuel Wallerstein.
o Wallerstein argued that “World System
is called World Economy and world
Economy is a Capitalist or Market
Economy”.
o He gave World System Theory Model in
which He argued that Core Countries
exploit to the Periphery and Semi-
Periphery Countries and Semi-Periphery
Countries exploit to the Periphery
Countries.
 High Profit Value-Added Goods

Semi
Core Periphery
Periphery

Low Wage Labor and Raw Material

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar
• Ideological Orientation of B. R. Ambedker
• Debate - Ambedkar Anti – Nationalist
• Abolition of caste
• Dalit Revolution
• Compare Gandhi and Ambedker
• Compare Ambedkar & Marx
• Constitutional Democracy
 Introduction
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was born on 14 April, 1891 in Mahar caste. The Mahar caste was one of the
'untouchable' castes.

Ambedkar is the tallest leader of Dalits in India.

To mobilise his followers he established organisations such as the Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha, Independent
Labour Party and later All India Scheduled Caste Federation.

He led a number of temple-entry Satyagrahas, organized the untouchables, established many educational
institutions and propagated his views from newspapers like the 'Mooknayak', 'Bahishkrit Bharat' and
'Janata’.

He has written extensively on various social and political matters. 'Annihilation of Castes', 'Who Were the
Shudras', 'The Untouchables', 'Buddha and His Dharma' are his important writings.

Dhananjay Keer- No other Dalit leader could achieve that Ambedkar could Achieve for his community.
 Ideological Orientation of B. R. Ambedker
Dr Ambedkar described himself as a 'progressive radical' and occasionally
as a 'progressive conservative' depending upon the context of
demarcation from liberals, Marxists and others as the case might be.

01. Liberalism upheld a narrow conception of freedom

• It tolerated huge accumulation of resources in a few hands and the deprivation and
exploitation that it bred.
• He thought that liberalism is insensitive about social and political institutions which,
while upholding formal equality, permitted massive inequalities in the economic, social
and cultural arenas.
• He argued that liberal systems conceal deep inequalities of minorities such as the
conditions of the Blacks in U.S.A. and Jews in Europe
02. Ambedkar identified certain crucial areas on which he was in
tune with Marxism.
• He argued that the task of philosophy is to transform the world, as Marx suggested in
his theses on Feurbach, and he saw the central message of the Buddha as demanding
the same.
• There is conflict between classes and class-struggle is writ large in social relations, He
argued that a good society demands extensive public ownership of the means of
production and equal opportunity to everyone to develop his or her self to the fullest
extent.
• He rejected the inevitability of socialism without the intervention of human agency
concretely working towards it; the economic interpretation of history which does not
acknowledge the crucial role that political and ideological institutions play and the
conception of the withering away of the state.
• He decried the strategy of violence as a means to seize power and called for resolute
mass action to bring about-a good society
03. Critical of the Brahmanical ideology
• Brahmanical ideology has been the dominant ideological
expression in India.
• He argued that it reconstituted itself with all its vehemence by
defeating the revolution set in motion by the Buddha.
• It subscribed to the principle of graded inequality in organising
social institutions and relations.
• It Defended the principle of birth over the principle of worth;
undermined reason and upheld rituals and priest-craft. It reduced
the shudra and the untouchable to perpetual drudgery and
ignominy
04. Ambedkar was a bitter critic of Gandhi and Gandhism.
• He attacked Gandhi's approach to the abolition of untouchability, an approach that denied
its sanction in the shastras and which called upon caste Hindus to voluntarily renounce it and
make reparations for the same.
• Ambedkar felt that rights and humanity cannot be left to the mercy and prejudices of
people who have developed a vested interest in undermining them.
• He did not demarcate the caste system and varna system, as Gandhi did, but saw both of
them as upholding the same principle of graded inequality.
• Even if untouchability is abolished through the Gandhian appeal to conscience, which
Ambedkar did not think possible, untouchables will continue to occupy the lowest rung of
society as a layer of the shudras.
• He saw Gandhi not merely caving in to Hindu orthodoxy but reformulating such orthodoxy
afresh.
• Gandhi was dispensing moral platitudes to untouchables and trying to buy them with
kindness while letting others to promote their interests, without hindrance.
• He rejected the appellation 'Harijan' that Gandhi had bestowed on untouchables and poured
scorn an' it.
Ambedkar rejected many central notions as propounded by Gandhi such as
Swaraj, nonviolence, decentralisation, Khadi, trusteeship and vegetarianism.

He felt that an uncritical approach to Panchayat Raj will reinforce the

dominant classes in the countryside handing over additional resources and
legitimacy to them to exploit the social classes and groups below them.
Certain sections of Indian political class & intellectuals call Ambedkar Anti –
Nationalist
• Arun Shourie in his book ‘Worshiping false Gods’ has called Ambedkar Anti – National. He has given
following reasons.
• Ambedkar opposed Purna Swaraj resolution of 1929. On 8th August, 1930 Ambedkar held that depressed
classes should be grateful towards British for improving their status
• Ambedkar directed Dalits to stay away from Gandhi’s Harijan Sevak Sanghs and to stay away from INC.
• Ambedkar called Poona act as Himalayan Blunder. He wanted separate electorate for Dalits. Ambedkar
criticised Quit India movement as Mad venture of Gandhi
• Ambedkar supported Jinnah’s Demand for Pakistan.
• Ambedkar wanted Britishers to stay. Ambedkar joined the defence Advisory committee formed by British
as well as viceroy’s executive council which was set up to gain legitimacy for British efforts.

Like, Sir Syed Ahmed khan, Ambedkar also emerged as the leader of the community
rather than leader of Nation.

Ambedkar himself held that between interest of Dalits & Interest of Nation, I will give
preference to interest of Dalits,
Wrong to call Ambedkar Anti – National
• According to Arundhati Roy & Christophe Jaffrelot on the status of Indian as a
Nations, Ambedkar’s approach was a practical as that of Jyotibha Phule. It was
difficult for Ambedkar to accept & society divided by castes as a Nation.
• The concept of Nation according to Ambedkar is based on Trinity of liberty,
equality & Fraternity. There can be no nations without Fraternity However it
does not mean that there was no desire in Ambedkar for India to emerge as a
Nation.
• In his Speech to Constituent Assembly in December 1946 he held that “I know
we are divided politically economically & socially. We are a group of warring
camps, I myself is a leader of one such camp. However, I am convinced that they
will come when we will forget these differences & emerge as a Nation”
• Ambedkar believed that Sooner we accept that we are not a nation better it is
At least we will start thinking how to become a nations by understanding the
reasons by which are not a Nation.
Ambedkar’s main work revolves around abolition of
caste.
• His most important work on issue of Abolition of caste is
“Annihilation of caste” (book)
• Ambedkar’s analysis of caste can be discussed under following
heads:
[Link] of caste
[Link] of Varnas & Untouchability.
[Link] of Hinduism/Brahminism
[Link] with Gandhi.
[Link] for separate electronic & Compensation.
01. Ambedkar was not satisfied with explanation related to caste system found
in religious texts.
• He attempted the scientific understanding of origin to caste on basis of Anthropological Researches. His
important works in this issue include
• Caste in India
• Who were Shudras
• Origin of untouchability

02. Ambedkar also rejected the theory of Aryan invasion. As per theory of
Aryan Invasion:
• Upper caste has been the Aryans whereas.
• So – called ‘Untouchability were the original inhabitants often mentioned as Dasas or Dasyus.
• There is no such historical evidence. It means all castes in India had common origin.
03. He rejected the view of Manu Samriti according to which different varnas
originated from different parts of Viraat Purush as mentioned in Rig Veda
also.
• In Manu Samriti, untouchable are mentioned as Chandals. Chandals are those who are the
offspring of Shudra father and Brahmin mother. This shows the pollution of Brahmins by
Shudras.
• The entire concept of untouchability is based on Purity & Pollution.

04. Ambedkar has also explained the origin of Shudras as per his theory.

• There were only 3 Varnas – Brahmin, Kshatryas & Vaishyas shudras were originally Kshatriyas.
However they were those Kshatriyas who did not accept the hegemony of Brahmins
• Hence Brahmins stopped Upanayan Sansadhar for this group unanaya Sansadar is linked to
purity hence it was believed that they remain polluted.
AMBEDKAR’s Explanation of Untouchability

He has used the term ‘Dalits’ it comes from Marati word ‘Dal’ which
denotes Broken & Ambedkar calls Dalits as Broken men. According to
him, there used to be tribunal way of life & tribal wars.
• Gradually some tribes started settled life. When settled life started, Agriculture stated.
This started the practice of cattle rearing & not killing cattles for food as it was not
needed. Initially, the main wealth used to be cattle but now it become land.
• There were certain tribes which remained nomadic. These tribes continued to remain
dependent on cattle even for food.
• Many of such tribes were defeated & got scattered. Thus they became Broken &
became weak. Settled tribes did not include these tribes within their Society. Since
they lacked land, they were made dependent on the settled tribes.
• There was a contract between those who were living in the village and those who were
settle on outskirts of village. Those on outskirts will ‘Watch & ward’ the security of
people in the village and in return will get food & shelter.
01. In Manu Smriti, they are mentioned as ‘Antyaj’ meaning
‘Born in the last’.
• Ambedkar does not accept the explanation & suggested that they were called
Antyaj because they were living outside the village or in the end.
• According to Ambedkar, these (many of these) tribes has accepted Buddhism.
Brahmins targeted them because of anger because these tribes insisted on
remaining Buddhist.
• Hence, Ambedkar believed that practice of untouchability is also because of
Anger & Rivalry between Brahmins and Buddhists.
• He even mentions that originally Beef eating was not prohibited. But to regain
the lost space, Brahmins stopped eating non – veg food. This made them claim
Brahmins as PURE he even mentions that Exogamy was not prohibited among
Varnas. This practice was later started by Brahmins to show their exclusiveness.
02. According to him, there is a no pure blood on the sub – continent.
• Intermixing of blood has already taken much before even the origin of caste system.
• He does not consider untouchable as a part of Hindu society since they have been socially
segregated, they should also be politically segregated. According to him, any amount of
economic equality will not help. No upliftment is possible without rejection of Hindu social
order.
03. Hinduism as a religion & caste system as a social order has ruined Dalits.
• He even believed that the social order will ultimately ruin Hindus themselves. It will ruin India
itself.
• It is because of caste system where person’s status is based on Birth, Hinduism cannot be
‘Missionary Religion’ Hinduism cannot go for conversions like Islam or Christianity.
• He held that Hindus cannot form a Nation. They are segmented communities & waring tribes.
• He held that Hindus are losers in the race. They will continue to lose to other religions.
• Thus, caste system is not just responsible for the exploitation of Dalits but is responsible for
the Weakness of India as a Nation.
04. According to him, Hinduism is nothing but Brahminism. It is the
hegemony of Brahmins.
• The core idea of Hinduism is endogamy. Hence, without ending endogamy caste
system can’t end. Hence, biggest anger of Brahmins is against inter caste marriage.
According to him, Hinduism is not a religion but madness. He held that, I had no
choice but being born as Hindu.
• However, it is in my capacity not to die as Hindu. The Religion which force poor to
remain poor; uneducated to remain uneducated, which allows man to touch excreta
of cow but not touch fellow human being is nothing but madness.
• In other societies, inequality is social. In Hinduism, there is Justification of inequality
even in philosophy’
• According to him, Hindus are not bad people. Their main problem is they are blindly
following religion. Hence, even Hindu social reforms would not be successful. There is
nothing in Hinduism except caste system. One cannot reject caste being Hindu.
• Annihilation of caste required rejection of Hinduism Hence. he held that there is a
need to put dynamite on Vedas & Manu Smriti.
05. On the issue of conversion
• There was disagreement between Gandhi’s & Ambedkar
• Gandhi, if person is born in a particular religion, there is a Divine will. One can accept
good things from other religion but one should not leave one’s religion
• Ambedkar – Wanted to convert. He even explored conversion in Islam & Christianity. But
ultimately found spiritual satisfaction in Buddhism.
• On issue of Varna system, there was disagreement here too.
• Gandhi varna system is division of labour it is a feature of even advanced societies
However, Gandhi rejected caste system can untouchability.
• Varna exist as caste, Caste is not division of labour but division of labours. It is also not a
sensible economic system profession is not based on Merit but on Birth. Gandhi’s
impracticality is evident as he himself was not observing his varna dharma.
• Hence, abolition of caste & Varna as same Ambedkar criticised Harijan Sevak Sanghs
formed by Gandhi. He compared it with Pootna (the mythological character sent to kill
Krishna by nursing poison in form of milk.
 DALIT REVOLUTION
Ambedkar has analysed the relevance of Marxist mode of revolution in Indian –
Situation. He found that it was not appropriated.
• The Basic structure of Indian society is not economic rather Ideological. Brahminism forms the Basic
Structure & hence, just Economic upliftment will not give them a life of Dignity. Hence. he Suggested
Annihilation of caste by putting Dynamite on Vedas & Manu Smriti.
• Thus, Dalits will have to go for building Counter Hegemony. He was influence by Liberal scholars like
John Dewey, a lawyer by profession, Ambedkar had faith in constitutional methods.
• According to him, Society in India is more exploitative & hence the state can work for Dalits. He favoured
State led Affirmative action.
• In this context also, his view was different from Gandhi. Gandhi favoured Panchayati Raj was against
state led model. Ambedkar found Gandhi’s approach too idealistic held that Indian villages are ‘Den of
Ignorance where caste system is more entrenched.
• Modernists like Nehru, Ambedkar preferred State led approach. Ambedkar knew that change in status of
Dalits required the emergence of Consciousness among Dalits themselves.
• Hence, he brought magazines, newspaper, establishment societies for generating awareness.
Ambedkar’s mantra for Dalits “Agitate, educate & Organise”
 Compare Ambedkar & Marx
Ambedkar was influenced by Marx’s idea of social Justice which aimed at ending
the exploitation of poors.
• However, he felt that Marxist methods are not so relevant in Indian Situation (Brahminism – Basic
Structure
• He disagreed with Marx on 2 Basic issue

01. Marx’s concept of Religion – Ambedkar did not agree that all religions
are opium of masses’. Buddhism is not opium of masses. Perhaps, Marx did
not know about Buddhism
• Buddhism as a religion has lot for nourishment for human soul untouchable can embrace Buddhism as
it will provide untouchable a source of Inspiration.
• Spiritual Satisfaction and creation of world Brotherhood.
02. Marx’s concept of state –
• He did not agree with Marx’s view that state is in instrument of exploitation.
• Society is more exploitative than state & hence he preferred Affirmative
• Action By State
• If Gandhi was “Father of nation” Ambedkar was “father of Constitution”. The 2
leaders has similar aims though as Saint & Ambedkar as Doctor.
 Constitutional Democracy
• Rule of law as a bond uniting people and according equal participation of
people in collective affairs was quite central to his imagination.
• He was deeply sensitive to the interface between law on one hand and
customs and popular beliefs on the other.
• He felt that customs may defend parochial interests and popular beliefs
might be deeply caught in prejudices and may not uphold fairness. They
may not be in tune with the demands of time, morality and reason.
• But if law upholds freedom and democracy then it could be placed at the
service of common good. Given the long-drawn prejudices and denial of
justice in public culture he thought that the role of the state based on law
and democratic mandate is crucial.
• He envisaged a democracy informed by law and a law characterised by
sensitivity to democracy. Law upheld reason and morality but without the
authoritative injunctions of law, the former had no teeth.
Such a stress on democracy and law made Ambedkar to strongly stress the autonomy of the state.
State needs to transcend the parochial interests galore in society which often tend to reduce the
state as an instrument of their purpose.

He argued that ascriptive majorities which are permanent, and not amenable for political dissolution
and reconstitution, too can be considered as parochial interests. They can undermine rights but at
the same time pretend that they are upholding constitutional democracy.
 M. N. Roy
• Ideational Journey of M.N. Roy
• Roy's Marxism
• Humanist Critique of Marxism
• Radical Humanism
• Human behaviour and
rationality
 Introduction
Narendranath Nath Roy (1887-1954), whose original name was
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya had the unique distinction of having
worked with Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin.

He began his political life as a militant nationalist, believing in the

cult of the bomb and the pistol and the necessity of armed
insurrection.

The futility of this path made him a socialist and then a communist.
He joined the Communist International, but was thrown out of it as
he differed from its aim of being a movement all over the world.
 Ideational Journey of M.N. Roy

Roy passed through three phases in his career.

• In the first phase, which lasted up to 1919, he was a national
revolutionary, struggling arms for the terrorists of Bengal. He believed
that revolutionary methods is the way to achieve freedom to India.
• In the second phase, Roy was a Marxist engaged in active communist
movement first in Mexico and then in Russia, China and India.
• In the last and final phase, Roy emerged as a radical humanist,
completing his journey from Nationalist to Communism and from
Communism to Radical Humanism.
• Marxism and Radicalism constitute the characteristics of his philosophy
 Roy's Marxism
Roy's baptism as Marxist began in Mexico in 1917 where he accepted Marxism as a
philosophy for excellence. He accepted all the major tenets of Marxism and , sought to
interpret the Indian situation along Marxist lives.

01. Capitalism was drawing its main strength from modern European capitalism and so
long as the latter was not deprived of this source of super profit, it would not be easy for
the European working class to overthrow the capitalist order.
• Thus, he concluded that the revolutionary movement in Europe was absolutely
dependent on the course of revolution in India and other Asian Countries.
• In order to overthrow foreign capitalism, it was advisable to make use of the co-
operation of the bourgeois nationalist elements, but only in the initial stages. The
foremost task was to form a communist party to organise peasants and workers and
lead them to revolution
02. Roy gave a Marxist interpretation to Indian history.
• Its main features were gradual decay of the rural economy, steady rise of capitalism, the
conquest of India by the British bourgeois to capture new markets, to find new fields of
exploitation and export of capital.
• The 1857 uprising was the last effort of the de-throwned feudal potentates to regain their
power;
• Indian National Congress was the organisation of intellectual bourgeois to carryout their
political struggle and to facilitate economic development. Colonial exploitation prevented the
normal economic development of India and the working class was too backward to fight for
socialism.
He remarked that the Indian traditions of leadership lend themselves to
authoritarianism.
• Leader is considered infallible: The presence of a charismatic leadership indicates the fascist
tendency in the Indian politics. One may with Roy that India lacks a democratic tradition and
the existence of peculiar social structure and the tendency to hero worship makes for
authoritarian tradition. His veiw about the Fascist danger in the Indian politics has proved to be
true.
03. Roy does not identify Marxism with communism
• Marxism is a philosophy while communism is a political practice. Roy
believed in socialisation of the process of production.
• When labour is performed collectively, its product must be collectively
owned. Private property must cease to be an economic necessity
before it can be abolished.
• Roy rejects the dictum that dictatorship of the proletariat is necessary
to achieve communism.
• He believes that a revolution cannot be made to order in an
industrially backward country like India, the establishment of
proletariat dictatorship cannot be envisaged. In India such a thing
cannot happen; nor did he agree with the idea of 'withering away of
the state'
04. Roy foresaw two things in establishing socialism in India-
Agrarian revolution and building up of modern industry under the control of a
really democratic state.
• Roy did not consider socialism an immediate issue for India. Socialism was not a matter of desire for
him, it was a matter of necessity. Socialism becomes a historical necessity when majority feels a
necessity for it.

The introduction of the mechanical means of production on a large scale, the

abolition of precapitalist restrictions on production, and the attainment of certain
minimum economic level are the historic pre-conditions for establishing socialism.
• A socialist India could not be build overnight. The problem of transition to socialism in India had two
parts viz.,
• (1) achievement of free Indian democracy and
• (2) Transformation of the social order into a socialist democracy. Roy gave precedence to political
freedom over economic freedom and socialism.
 Humanist Critique of Marxism
01. Roy denounced the theory of class struggle
• According to Roy, Marx's theory of class struggle has subordinated individual
consciousness.
• He was also critical of Marx giving too much predominance to the working class. To
him, polarisation of capitalist society into the exploiting and the working class never
takes place.
• The middle class does not disappear. It is the middle class which produces
revolutionaries. Lenin recognised this fact, but failed to recognise the middle class
as a class.
• Society could never survive without some kind of social cohesive force and as such,
class struggle cannot be the only reality.
• Roy considered the proletariat as the 'most backward stratum of the society'. He
gave a place of pride to the middle class and the individual.
02. Denounced the theory of dictatorship of the proletariat as this
would establish totalitarianism.
• Revolutions cannot bring about miracles. What was needed was a judicious
synthesis of rationalism and romanticism.
• As a radical humanist, he thought that revolution was to be brought about not
through class struggle or armed violence, but through proper education. Revolution
would not bring about any sudden change.

03. Marxian economic interpretation of history is flawed

• For Roy, the biological urge of self-preservation preceded the economic motive of
earning a livelihood.
• He criticised the Marxian dialectics, The evolution of democracy to socialism was a
continuous process, and not a dialectical process.
04. Roy did not regard surplus value as a peculiar feature of
capitalism.
• The creation of surplus value and the accumulation of capital were also
necessary in a socialist society.
• The only difference between a socialist society, unlike a capitalist society
was that the surplus value was not appropriated by a particular class.
 Radical Humanism
Roy became an exponent of "New Humanism". He distinguished this from other
humanist philosophy and termed it radical. Though Roy is influenced in his approach by
the scientific materialism of Hobbes, Ethics of Spinoza and Secular politics as
propounded by Locke, he reconciled all these to propound a rational idea of freedom
with the concept of necessity.

Radical Humanism grew out of dissatisfaction with exiting major philosophies.

• Parliamentary Democracy – Inadequate as it does not give opportunity to masses for direct
participation in governance, hence there is a no real freedom until & unless there is Radical
democracy.
• Fascism – To be rejected as it subsumes / Submerges man under collective ego of Nation.
• Communism – Also not liberating as it subsumes man under collective Ego of class.
• Hence, we need a philosophy which gives real importance to Man as an individual & which aims to
achieve (freedom of the man).
 Human behaviour and rationality
Roy's idea revolves around Man. "It is the man who creates society, state and other
institutions and values for his own welfare. Man has the power to change them for his
greater welfare and convenience.
• His belief lies in "Man as the measure of everything". As a radical Humanist, his
philosophical approach is individualistic. The individual should not be subordinated
either to a nation or to a class. The individual should not lose his identity in the
collective ego of such notions.
• Man's being and becoming, his emotions, will and ideas determine his life style. He
has two basic traits, one, reason and the other, the urge for freedom.
• The reason in man echoes the harmony of the universe. He states that every human
behaviours, in the last analysis, is rational, though it may appear as irrational.
• While rationality provides dynamism to a man, he urge for freedom gives him
direction. The interaction of reason and freedom leads to the expression of
cooperative spirit as manifested in social relationship.
 Freedom and Man
Roy's radical humanism culminate into cooperative individualism. Roy's conception
of human nature become the basis of society and state. He attributes their origin
to the act of man for promoting his freedom and material satisfaction.

• Real liberation from all sorts of tears This includes:

• Freedom from foreign rule
• Political freedom
• Economic freedom
• Social freedom
• Freedom from religion

According to him freedom does not lie in choosing religion but freedom lies in
Man’s Capacity to reject Religion. Thus Radical humanism aims to literate man
even from supernatural fears. It targets against superstition.
The freedom will come from promotion of Scientific Rationality. He looked at Science
as liberating force. He believed that there should be promotion of scientific education

Hence, he believed that intellectual revolution / mental revolution has to precede over
political /economic revolution
Ethics is a set of principles which society found appropriate for the
conduct of social life.
• He rejects the view that religion is source of ethics. It is the Reason – source of Ethics.
Those social practise, cultural values which do not appeal Rational at present need to be
Rejected
• Society should be based on secular Rationality. Thus, Radical Humanism as a philosophy
has 3 components
• Freedom
• Reason
• Ethics / Morality

Radical Humanism aims to establish Human Society in harmony with

Principles of Nature.
• Radical humanism rejects metaphysics, it believes in Science. It also rejects duality
between matter & idea (Attack on Marxist approach). According to him, ideas emerge
during man’s struggle for survival but later on become independent reality on its own.
Radical humanism supports intellectual revolution.
• Human brain is most important means of production. It produces the most important thing –
Ideas. The crisis of Modern civilisation is lack of faith in Innate Rationality of man.
• Like Protagoras, he also believes that man is a measures of amount of freedom it gives to
man. It is natural for man to be rational. Man can’t survive without being rational.
• Radical humanism suggest the need for cultural renaissance. It suggest constant Research,
constant Examinations of our values in light of Modern Scientific. Knowledge Radical
humanism rejects ignorance, blind faith, Fatalism (doctrine of Karma).

Radical humanism has 2 features:

• 01. Critical – Criticising the existing irrelevant modes of technique.

• 02. Constrictive – creation of order which give highest importance for Human freedom.

Ultimate aim of Radical Humanism. Creation of cosmopolitan Union of Free

persons linked to each other with reason & humanity.
 Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
1. Philosophical foundation of Aurobindo’s Political
Thought
2. Criticism of Moderates
3. Phases of Aurobindo’s Political philosophy
4. Criticised Indian National Congress
5. Concept of Nation and Theory of Spiritual Nationalism
6. Context of theory of Nationalism
7. Aurobindo’s Concept of Nation
8. Final Goal - Swaraj
9. Evolution of Human Society
10. Critical Evaluation
 Introduction
The closing decades of the nineteenth and the dawn of the twentieth centuries led to
emergence of religio-cultural nationalism emerged as a powerful force in opposition to
the western inspired liberalism and the British rule.

Two Aspects:
• Ramkrishna Paramhamsa and Swami Vivekananda in Bengal and Swami Dayanand
Saraswati in Punjab led a revival of interest in lndian tradition.
• An other aspect of this movement was its radical political outlook. These two
aspects reinforced each other. Sri Aurobindo represents the best example in this
tradition of a leader who provided a spiritual foundation to lndian nationalism.
• According to Rabindranath Tagore, world will come to know the essence of India
through writings of Aurobindo.
• He is a great synthesiser. He has synthesised all philosopher systems of East & West
an integrated Philosophy.
Philosophical foundation of Aurobindo’s Political Thought
Aurobindo's writings reflect diverse influences. Of these, the lndian tradition of idealism in
philosophy seems to have impressed him the most. The great European philosophers
from Homer to Goethe influenced him the maximum during his formative period,
• Study of Geeta, Upanishads and Vedanta had a deep impact on his political thinking.
• As Romain Rolland said, Sri Aurobindo was "the highest synthesis of the genius of Asia
and the genius of Europe".
• He tried to integrate the materialist trend in western philosophy with the idealist
tradition in Indian philosophy.
• Vedantic philosophy as propounded by Ramakrishna and Vivekanand also influenced
Aurobindo's thinking.
He was also inspired by the remarkable vitality and diversity of the Indian intellectual
tradition. He believed that the writings of the Vedantic sages and the Buddha reflect the
genius of the lndian mind.
 Criticism of Moderates
He was dissatisfied with view of early Nationalist on British Raj.
• Early nationalists like S.N. Banerjee & Dadabai Naoroji considered British rule as ‘Blessing in
disguise, They believed British as source of modernisation, hence they should stay in India
• They were fearful that if more direct resistance & aggressive attitude is taken, British will leave
India. Hence they proposed mild Constitutional methods (Prayer, petitions, Protests within
Legislature).
• They had great faith in British’s Sense of Justice- they wanted Swaraj within British Raj. They
wanted Dominion Status for India like other colonies.

Response of Aurobindo Ghosh

• He was written a series of articles ‘New Lamps for old’ in the newspaper ‘Indu Prakash’. In
these articles, he has criticised the approach of Early Nationalist:
• Foreign rule is never a blessing, not even a blessing in disguise, Foreign rule will stop the natural
growth of a nations. Foreign rule is nothing but evil.
• Aurobindo was the first person who talked to about the goal of ‘Purna Swaraj’. He wanted
complete independence & not Dominion Status.
According to, Aurobindo, emergence of India as a Nation has a divine Mission & is for the
Benefit of Humanity and not spirit has chosen India to spread its message. India cannot
spread its message. India cannot spread the message from state of Slaver.

Since, Universal spirit is with India, India is bound to emerge as a free nation. Hence,
entire International community should support Rise of India as a Nation. Hence need to
change strategy, He had not faith in constitutional methods.
• British govt. in India is not constitutional but a Despot. They are not answerable to
Indians. Hence Constitutional methods won’t work, only Direct Action is the option. If
can be of 2 types-
• Armed Resistance
• Passive Resistance
• Aurobindo was not against the use of force. However, he believed that choice of
Strategy depends on Situations. In Indian situation, armed resistance may not be the
best. Hence, go for passive resistance
Type of program in Passive Resistance
• Strike at the very recite of British colonialism as India is a main source of raw material for
British industries and market for British products. Hence, he suggested SWADESHI &
BOYCOTT
• He was the main inspiration behind the Swadeshi movement in Bengal
• He suggested to boycott British Ports & British admin to convince Indian that they can
live without British Institutions
• He also proposed National Education. He was convince that British schools are meant
only for the production of Loyalists. Hence Passive Resistance – Swadeshi & Boycott is
the only viable option.
 Phases of Aurobindo’s Political philosophy
Early phase- (1883-1910)
• Problem of current political importance in the early phase of his political activity. His political
thought at that time consisted of
• His views on the Indian National Congress and the British rule in India.
• The Concept of Nation and the Theory of Spiritual Nationalism. a His programm of action -
Theory of Passive Resistance etc.,
• His objective was to mobilize the masses for the fight against the foreign rulers and his ultimate
goal was full freedom for the country.

Later phase, i.e. from 1910 onwards

• Aurobindo dramatically withdrew from politics in 1910 and moved to Pondicherry, following the
persistant calls from his inner self through mystic experiences
• Political ideas now expressed in the wider context of humanity and its spiritual future.
• Evolution of Human Society
• Nature of Human Unity
Criticised Indian National Congress
i) its aims and objectives,
• He declared that " The Congress was to us, all that is to man most dear, most high and most sacred." But
at the same time, he did not hesitate to express his disillusionment and dissatisfaction about its working.
• About the aims and objectives of the organization, he thought that the Congress did not have a clear cut
goal of national freedom. The leaders of the Congress were wasting time on trifles like certain
administrative reforms, which were totally inadequate to meet the need of the time.
• Their demands, he delivered were 'shamefully modest.’

ii) its composition

• About the composition of the Congress, he thought that the Congress was a middle class organization
and therefore, did not represent the Indian masses.
• The newly educated middle class leadership was only interested in gaining power and a place in the
Indian polity. He emphasised the need for converting the national movement into a mass movement by
including in it the vast numbers of the proletariat.
• He believed that the emergence of the Indian 'proletariat' on the horizon of the national movement
would be an important key to the solution of the problem of transforming the Congress into a truly
national and popular body.
iii) the motives of the leaders and the methods adopted by them for the
realisation of their aims and objectives.

• Regarding the motives of the Congress leaders, his observation was that they were not
sincere leaders.
• They were timid and afraid of displeasing their rulers. He believed that these defects in
the organization had adversely affected the national movement in the country.
• He felt that the Congress leadership had not perceived the British rule correctly and
therefore, instead of boldly asserting their goal, the leaders relied on the sense of
justice and benevolence of the British rulers. They resorted to futile petitions and
requests in the annual sessions of the Congress.
He therefore stressed the need for a broad based organization that could channelize I the
entire power of the country to free it from foreign rule. Thus, his insistence on enthusing
the masses with the spirit of independence was one of the first efforts to give a mass
character to the freedom movement.
 Concept of Nation and Theory of Cultural/Spiritual Nationalism

• Aurobindo's concept of nation was deeply

Civilisation Aspect
influenced by Bankim Chandra-a great
Bengali novelist. Greek civilization Aesthetic, Beauty
• He believed that the nation is not just a aspect
piece of land nor a mass of human beings. It
Roman civilisation Morality & Ethics
is neither a figure of speech nor the creation
of mind. It is something more than a aspect
geographical unit or a figment of peoples British civilisation Materialistic aspect
'imagination.
Italian/ Fascist Evil Aspect
• India was always a nation & will be forever.
Nation Universal Sprit – God – Human Indian civilization Spiritual aspect
Unity= Cultural Nationalism. (Nearest to God)
• Reveals itself in difference forms – every
civilization is an expression of an aspect of
universal spirit.
 Context of theory of Nationalism
Colonial masters have thrown the challenge of Identity of India as nation. They held that
India is not a Nation, it is nothing more than ‘Geographical expression’. National response
came in 2 forms
• Liberals Early Nationalist – They accepted that India is not a nation but India is a ‘Nations in making’ (S.N.
Banerjee)
• Extremists – Extremist leaders like Tilak, B.C. Pal, and Aurobindo rejected the approach of both colonial
masters & early nationalists.
• They had established that India is a nation . India was a nation from the beginning.

AUROBINDO – had applied the concept of German scholars which held that nation in
natural & Nation has a spirit. He suggested that old men of India (moderates) need new
lamps to see the sprit of India as a Nation.
• He held that it is irrelevant to understand Indian Nationalism through the western Ideas put forward by
colonial masters. To Understand Nationalism, we have to look at ‘Historical processes’ which one taking
place within India. Moderates are unable to see the spirit of nationalism among youth.
• To meet the spirit, we need a ‘ Bold theory of Nationalism’. He also warned Moderates to stop praising
British. If we continue to praise British, it will weaken the morale of those who aim to fight British.
 Aurobindo’s Concept of Nation
He has spiritualised the concept of nation ,
• Inspired by German scholars, he held that every nation is a reflection of one or the other dimension
of the Universal sprit
• In this way, he also established that ultimately. All human are part of the universal spirit.
• This, in his theory of Nationalism, we can also see the idea of Human Unity or integral view of
Humanity. Thus, he represented the civilization values of India.
• The value of Vasodeva Kutumbakan. This idea was also expressed by Vivekanand when he addressed
Americans as ‘Brothers & Sisters. Thus, Aurobindo never believed that the idea of nation is against
the idea of cosmopolitism.

According to him, aim of every nation, should be to-

• Seek its own fulfilment
• Be aware of its own potentiality
• It will be foolishness if we imitate others. It means every nation has a specific purpose to expressing
an aspect of universal sprit & each Nation should understand & develop its own destiny.
 Final Goal - Swaraj
India's liberation from foreign domination was the final goal for Aurobindo. 'Swaraj', i.e., self rule by
Indians was not merely of economic and political nature.
• It was necessary for India to perform its spiritual mission dedicated to the upliftment of
humanity.

He advocated independence for India for the following reasons:

• Liberty being the first indispensable condition of rational development intellectual, moral,
individual and political-is in itself a necessity of national life. Hence it was worth striving for its
own sake.
• In the process of development of human beings, spiritual and moral advance is more important
than material advance.
• Aurobindo was of the opinion that India with her spiritual development was destined to take
the lead for the progress of the world and for this reason too lndia must be free. India must
have swaraj to live well and happily.
• For this Indians should not live as slaves but as free people to work for the spiritual and
intellectual benefit of the human race.
The concept of nationalism which dominated his thought and activity in the early phase
was just a stepping stone to move in the direction of the unity of humankind. This unity
of humankind was regarded by him as a part of nature's eventual scheme and as the
inevitable goal of human development.

Aurobindo believes in the ideal of Gita. According to Gita :

[Link] should follow the law of one’s own being (i.e.) Human, pig, lion
[Link] one follows one’s own Dharma (Duty, Natural potentially) it leads to Rebirth.
But when one leaves own Dharma & follow other’s Dharma, it only leads to
‘Successful Suicide’
 Evolution of Human Society
Aurobindo argues that, in the course of its development. human society has to pass through three
stages.

01. Stage of spontaneity

• The forms and activities of community formation. The traditions and customs and institutional setup
are the result of natural organic growth.
• Natural instincts and environmental needs play an important part in its formation.
• The people believe in certain symbol which are imaginative and instinctive in nature.
• The people belonging to the same race or kinship follow identical symbols which become a religion for
them.
02. Stage of consciousness

• People become intellectually self conscious and start thinking about this life and its problems with the
help of intelligence and creative power.
• Predominantly psychological and ethical in nature.
• In this stage intellectuals get importance and come forward as the initiators of the age of reason and
revolt or progress and freedom.
[Link] that represents both the triumph and failure of reason.
• Human beings in collectivity begin to live more deeply and purposively.
• Life of human beings at this stage will be governed by a sense of unity, sympathy,
spontaneous liberty and the spirit of individual and communal existence.
• From here humankind has to advance towards the realization of spiritualised
society. This is the ideal towards which the process of evolution of society points
out.
• In this spiritual society, 'nation' as a regulating mechanism will have no place. It
will not be worshipped by people as their God or their larger self.
• No clashes or conflicts on the basis of separate identities as nations. There
would be unity within the nations as group but there would also be ultimate
unity and oneness of the humankind. The primary responsibility of achieving this
unity was entrusted by Aurobindo to India.
 Nature of Human Unity
It will not be a mechanical unity established under the iron law of the
state or any organization because such kind of mechanical unity will
negate the diversity of various groups, individuals or races.
• There would be no suppression of individual life or the life of smaller community.
• The future society will be a society of complex oneness, a world society in which present
nations will be intrinsic parts of the whole.
• The national societies would continue to function as cultural units but their physical
boundaries will have no relevance as they would look beyond them to realise the vision of
the unity of mankind.
• He was not only hopeful but certain about the achievement of world unity and peace.
• Mankind's aspiration for peace and unity had become a reality to some extent in the form
of the establishment of the League of Nations in 1920 and the United Nations in 1945.
• He was also aware of the practical limitations of such organisations in the face of the
realities of international politics, but firmly believed in the emergence of united world.
 Critical Evaluation
01. Theory of Nationalism: Spiritual or Religious?
• It argued that attempt to mobilize the masses on an emotional basis and
detracting their attention from real issues like poverty, economic exploitation,
inequality which are inimical to the progress of the individual as well as .the
community.
• It was an appeal to Hindu religious sentiments in the garb of the cultural
heritage of the land.
• To associate religion with politics, though in the name of spirituality, is a
dangerous proposition in a multireligious, multicultural plural society like India.
• It is argued that in the ultimate analysis, this exercise has resulted in increasing
the strife between the Hindus and the Muslims-two major religious communities
in India, which finally resulted in the partition of the country.
02. Emphasis on Political Issues
• Critics point out that Aurobindo paid less attention to the issues of social
reform, which were perhaps more important and urgent.
• The defence of the radicals in this regard was that it was a matter of giving
preference in the light of circumstances existing at that time.
• In this context, Aurobindo had a very clear approach. He stated that,
"political freedom is the life breath of a nation, to attempt social reforms,
educational reforms, industrial expansion, the moral improvement of race,
without aiming first and foremost at political freedom is the very height of
ignorance and futility.“
03. Sri Aurobindo : An Anarchist Terrorist
• Because of his advocacy of force or violent means in the fight against foreign rule,
he is criticised as an anarchist as well as a terrorist in his approach and action.
• He did not disapprove of the use of violence on moral and spiritual grounds. But
he did not approve of blind terrorism against individuals in the manner of a violent
anarchist.
• His advocacy of violent means and association was a reaction against the
increasingly intolerant and uncivilised way of the British rulers
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh
movement.
• Political though of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
• First phase spanned up to 1887, and
• the second phase started after 1887
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was even opposed to
political agitations.
• Critical Analysis
 Introduction
He belonged to an Elite class among Muslims. His family had been in service of Mughals.

He has witnessed the Decline of Mughal power in India. This was the time when Muslim
community in India was passing through the phase of depression.

He was concerned about the state of his community

• He believed that the upliftment of community is possible only with modernisation of

Islam.
• Islam as a religion is most compatible with science and Rationalism.
• He started publishing a magazine title Tehzeeb – Ul – Akhalaq, through his magazine
he started denouncing the outdated customs & Traditions among Muslims
He founded a ‘society for scientist research’ in Ghazipur (UP) later on society was shifted
to Aligarh.

He also founded a Journal for the promotion of scientific research known as Indian
Institute Gazette.

He was convinced that the upliftment of Muslims is possible only when they will adopt
scientific learning.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Aligarh movement.
• This movement aimed at spreading modern education and creating political
consciousness among the Indian Muslims.
• The first national awakening among the Muslims found expression through
this movement.
• The Aligarh movement aimed at spreading Western education among the
Muslims without weakening their allegiance to Islam.
• The Aligarh movement was based on the liberal interpretation of Quran. It
strived to harmonise. Islam with modern liberal culture.
• He sought a reinterpretation of the Islam by employing tools of modern
scientific research. He proposed not only ijtihad (reinterpretation) but a
modern Ilm-ul-Kalam (structure of knowledge), a new conceptual
framework to review the relevance and significance of Islam in modern age.
 Political though of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

The political thought of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan can be divided into two phases: First
phase spanned up to 1887, and the second phase started after 1887.

01. First phase spanned up to 1887

• During the first phase Sir Syed Ahmed Khan stood for Hindu-Muslim unity. Expressing
the need for Hindu-Muslim unity he said that for "centuries we have been living on
the same soil, eating the same fruit on the same land ..... breathing the air of the
same country."
• In 1873, he declared that religion should not be an obstacle for nationalism.
• He advocated separation between religious and political matters. According to him
the religious and spiritual matters were not linked with mundane affairs.
As a member of the Viceroy's legislative council he strove for the welfare of both
Hindus and Muslims. In 1884, he made it clear that "by the word qaum, I mean
both Hindus and Muslims. What we see is that all of us, whether Hindus or
Muslims, lie on one soil, are governed by the one and the same ruler, have the
same sources of benefit and equally share the hardships of a famine".

He was not a religious bigot or Hindu baiter. He worked closely with the Hindus in
the scientific society and the Aligarh British lndia Association.
02. The second phase started after 1887
• Surprisingly during the second phase Sir Syed Ahmed Khan changed his views,
during this phase imperialist thought found expression in his writings.
• They were based on the "emancipatory", "democratic" and "progressive"
characterisation of the British rule.
• Unlike before he opposed the application of principles of representative and
parliamentary government. He held that the western form of democracy and
nationalism would not operate in India.
• He said that in a country like lndia which was complex and full of diversities of
castes, religions and races, the system of representative form of government would
not satisfy the principles of equality.
• Democracy believes in the rule of the majority which would lead to the domination
of the more educated and numerous Hindus over the less educated and less
numerous Muslims.
• Therefore, Congress demand for a representative form of government would hurt
the Muslims most.
He said that so long as the religious, castiest and racial differences exist In India, the
western model of democracy could not be established.
• He felt that if the western model of democracy was adopted in lndia, "the large community would
totally override the interests of the smaller community."

Two-nation theory
• According to this theory Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations which had separate economic,
political and social interests and different cultural and historical background, and who cannot form a
single nation and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was averse, to the process of elections.
• ln 1888 he said that the system of election would, put the legislation into the hands of "Bengalis or
Hindus of Bengali 'type', a condition of utmost degradation" and the Muslims would become slaves of
Hindus.
• He rejected the applicability of the Self-government in India, which in his opinion would result in the
"maltreatment" of Muslims.

He even opposed the freedom of speech and the press. He openly supported the
Lyttous attack on the freedom of press
Reason for Change
• Language controversy in Awadh UP: - Until now, Urdu in Persian script has
been the official language. By this time, there was a growth of movement for
Hindi.
• The Hindi supporters felt that Hindi has become the language of masses.
Hence, Hindi should replace Urdu as official language.
• The controversy took ugly between. Neither Muslims were ready to accept
Hindi nor were Hindus ready to continue Urdu as official language. The entire
controversy disappointed Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
• He came to the conclusion that neither Muslims nor Hindus with agree with
each other. He even assumed that, with passing time, more & more
controversial issues will emerge & hence co – existence will not be possible.
• In interest of peace, it is bettu of both live as separate communities. This
because of such thinking he has been called as originator of 2 Nation theory.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was even opposed to political
agitations
• He argued that they would tantamount to sedition and being anti-
government or at least it would arouse the suspicion of disloyalty in the
official mind.
• He exhorted Muslims to shun politics and remain non-political and non-
agitational or politically passive and "complete a breach" between the
Muslims and the Bengal-dominated Congress.
• He sought to establish Anglo-Muslim alliance to arouse the Muslim feelings
against the Congress.
 Criticism
During his lifetime and in contemporary times, Sir Syed was criticized for encouraging
communal divisions between Hindus and Muslims. He is identified by historians as one of the
earliest advocates of the Two-Nation Theory—that Hindus and Muslims were distinct and
incompatible nations.

Historians argue that Sir Syed was emotionally unable to accept the prospect that an
independent India's Hindu-majority would come to rule Muslims, who had been the erstwhile
colonial rulers.

He also feared that Hindu culture would diminish the Perso-Arabic nature of Muslim culture,
which had enjoyed a dominant status under Muslim rulers for centuries.

His condemnation of Indian nationalists and profession of the incompatibility of Muslims and
Hindus widened the socio-political gulf between the communities that had emerged with the
Urdu-Hindi controversy.
Sir Syed was intensely criticized by religious Muslims who regarded his liberal
reinterpretation of Islamic scripture as blasphemy.

Supporters of Sir Syed contend that his political vision gave an independent
political expression to the Muslim community, which aided its goal to secure
political power in India.

Sir Syed's ideas inspired both the liberal, pro-British politicians of the Muslim
League and the religious ideologues of the Khilafat struggle.
 BUDDHISTS’ POLITICAL THOUGHT

• Features of Buddhist
Political thoughts
• 01. Origin of state
• 02. Origin of King
• 03. Democratic Nature
of the Buddhist Sangha
• 04. The Principle of
Righteousness
• Buddhism foreign policy
• Ideas on Ashovadana
 Introduction
At the core of Buddha’s political philosophy is the notion that “human life is precious,
endowed with freedom and opportunity.”

The preciousness of life is Kantian “dignity,” manifest in what Martin Buber calls “I-Thou”
relations. For Buddha: All is sacred; the only ‘profane’ is not to know that.

Buddha’s political philosophy is therapeutic, because Buddha’s entire philosophy

is paideia. This finds echo in Plato. Two-thirds of Plato’s Republic is devoted to
education.

A “just” pedagogy – a paideia which does justice to evolving beings – is a pilgrimage of

centering; nourished by dialogue and debate; manifest in creative talent, “giving birth to
beauty in time.”
Many kings approached Buddha to understand meaning of GOOD Governance & ideas of
interstates Relations.

Buddhism is other worldly religion in comparison to Hinduism known as Protestantism of

East, Challenged some of the Brahminical traditions like caste system. Buddhism can be
considered as Egalitarian, Socialist, and Republican & Rationalist tradition.

Buddha, like Aristotle, was less concerned with the form of government than its
consequence. Monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, or any combination thereof – its measure
is benevolence: the social virtue it serves.

Buddha gave advice to many kings. He recommended universal health care, anticipating
Jesus: “Feed the poor; heal the sick.”
According to Upinder kaur, Buddhist texts overemphasize on compassion.
• In Kantian terms: Wisdom without compassion is like concepts without percepts. Kant
articulates the Buddhist challenge: The task – individual and collective – is to move “from an
age of enlightenment to a more enlightened age.”
• Buddhism asserts (with echoes in Rousseau, Blake, Wordsworth, and Emerson) that joy and
compassion constitute our “natural attitude”; that unity has primacy over separation; that
interbeing – universal brother-sisterhood – is the quantum field sustaining the dance of
diversity.
• Buddhism has been called “the rational religion” because it balances meditative depth and
equanimity with Socratic gusto of scrutiny and debate. It has been called “religion without
God” because it is, at heart, more existential than theological.
 Features of Buddhist Political thoughts
01. Origin of state
• If Hindu Political thought associates origin of state with ARJAKTA, Buddhism political
thought associates it with fall of man/ corruption.
• Corruption comes into existence because of the emergence of materialism.
• Like Hinduism which revolves around concepts of Dharma, Buddhism also revolves
around concept of Dhamma Duties)
• One of the important source to understand Duties of State is Ashokan edicts.
* Buddhism promoted the idea of Deliberative Democracy by organising the councils
as well as maintaining the tradition of debates within sanghas.
• Unlike Hinduism which is patriarchal, Buddhism gives equality of status to women.
Though, initially women were not allowed to join Sanghas, but later they were
admitted.
02. Origin of King
• Buddhism represent Republican traditions
• King is called as MAHA Sammat (consensus). It shows that king has been elected by the council.
• The ideal of Kingship, theory of state is found in Buddhist literature like Jatakas.
• If in Hinduism, King acquires land; in Buddhism, king wins hears
• Buddhism presents the idea of philosopher king.

Qualities of the king.

• The king-ship arose out of a contract between the subjects and the one chosen
• by them. The sovereign rights of the king were limited to the protection of subjects and
punishment of wrong-doers and he was bound by the law.
• The people, according to Jataka evidence, maintained their rights and privileges for a long time.
They derived their importance partly from their numbers and partly from their organisations.
• Buddhism king resembles Plato’s Philosopher King.
• People have chosen the NOBLEST of all (not strongest)
• King embodies Wisdom.
• King has a source of Knowledge
03. Democratic Nature of the Buddhist Sangha
• Prof. Rhys Davids is of the opinion that the Buddhist Sangha was
founded upon democratic principles.
• According to him, the Buddhist Sangha “was a kind of republic in
which all proceedings were settled by resolutions agreed upon in
regular meetings of its members which were held subject to the
observance of certain established regulations and the use of certain
form of words.
• These forms and resolutions passed were called as Kamma Vacas”.
• The democratic nature of the Buddhist order is further illustrated by
the fact that in addition to the rules and resolutions, we further
learn from the Mahavagga and the Culavagga, that
The democratic nature of the Buddhist order is further illustrated by the fact that
in addition to the rules and resolutions.
• 1) The Buddhist Sangha had a body of rules regarding the form of resolutions to be moved in the
Assembly
• 2) There was a rule of quorum
• 3) In cases of difference of opinion it was decided by the votes of the majority
• 4) Complicated matters were referred to the decision of committees
• 5) Definite rules seem to have existed regarding such matters as the votes of the absentees.

However, there is nothing to prove that the procedure in the Buddhist Sangha
which was basically a religious order was reflected in the ‘Ganasangha’, which
was a political sangha. But in any case, the political ideas envisaged by the
Buddhists were a distinct one and differed greatly from the political thought of
either the Dharmasastras or the Arthsastras. It is evident in the Buddhist theory
of the origin of the state
04. The Principle of Righteousness
• In the Buddhist literature, danda does not have a central role. Dharma is to be upheld in more
positive ways.
• The principle of righteousness is different from the Brahminical conception of dharma. It is
closer to the Western conception of virtue.
• According to Brahminical literature, there is a different set of ethical principles for the king.
What is adharma to the ordinary people becomes a dharma to the king, when he is engaged
in protecting the social order. This is called Rajadharma.

Both the Bhagavadgita and the Mahabharata give detailed accounts of the
concept of Rajadharma as distinct from dharma to be practiced by the
ordinary citizens.
• Buddhists too consider the primary purpose of the state to safeguard the social order. But this
order is understood more in moral terms and dharma must be the standard for all the king’s
activities.
• Righteousness is an ethical doctrine as well as a mental discipline.
In Buddhism, there is a total application of the principle of righteousness in guiding both internal
as well as foreign polices. Righeousness is the king to righeous king.

• The king is bound by same set of ethical principles as are his subjects.
• The king, by example causes the happiness or misery of his people.

Political righteousness, thus conceived, rises almost to the level of a cosmic principle of creation.
It might appear to be an exaggerated version, but one cannot deny that the conduct of the king
influences the behaviour of his subjects considerably.

The principle of political righteousness is extended to include the concept of world ruler or
chakravartin. The attributes of this ruler comprise not only the universal supremacy and
successful administration at home and abroad, but also and above all righteousness.

The principles of righteousness means; right views, right intention, right speech, right actions,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindedness etc.
 Buddhism foreign policy

It is based on peace & Non – violence ; Chakravarthi Samrat wins other by DHAMMA
Chakra

Upinder Kaur, in her recent book, political violence in ancient India’s mentions major
sources 3 to understand Buddhist idea of Kingship & strategist

[Link] Buddhacharita;
[Link];
3. Jataks
According to her, Buddhist political discourse is much more heterogenous than we usually
imagine. There are some texts like Buddhacharita which have much in common with Hindu
texts.
Ashvagosha belongs to Bahushrutiya School. Ashvagosha has projected shuddhodhana
(Budha’s father) as Ideal king. Ideal king is atmajit (central over passions), CALM,
generous, learned, truthful & is loved by people rather than feared in the kingdom of
ideal king rain comes at proper time.

Women give child Birth Painlessly; Kingdom is free from famine, disease & Dangers

Ashvagosha belongs to Bahushrutiya School. Ashvagosha has projected shuddhodhana

(Budha’s father) as Ideal king.
Ideal king is atmajit (central over passions), CALM, generous, learned, truthful & is loved
by people rather than feared in the kingdom of ideal king rain comes at proper time.

Women give child Birth Painlessly; Kingdom is free from famine, disease & Dangers
Ideal king of Paternalistic, Benevolent, he does not give death Penalty – Punishment
aims at Reformation. The most important characteristic is compassion.
He does not aim to harm others; King is ascetic (saint) King is a symbol of Sacrifice.

• Ideal king crushes the Swollen Pride of enemies with battle of virtue rather than
war.
• According to Ashvaghosa, Suddhodhana is ideal king, yet he had a flow – he loved is
son more than Dhamma.
• He wanted his son not to term ascetic & forces his son to remain indulged in
sensual pleasers.
Ashvaghosa mentions Buddha as Sarvat Siddha. His qualities surpassed the qualities
of the ideal king. His potential surpassed the quality of good governance and created
scope for MOKSHA for all he represents KARVA, NISCHAYA, PARAKRAM, TEJAS,
ATMAVATTA, control of sould.
Ashvaghosa mentions that KINGSHIP is ‘Dangerous Delusion’ for a kingdom
is charming get full of dangers; like Golden Caste in fire; like food mixed with
poison; like lotus pond filled with crocodiles.

Hence rational king prefers to leave his job. Kingship destroys calm/peace. If
you want peace, you will loose kingship. If you want kingship you will not
have peace. Like day & Night; hot & cold, they are incompatible.
 Ideas on Ashovadana
Buddha is a renouncer; Ashoka is a moreover role model for kings. Ashoka is a better
example of Philosopher king.

Ashoka is addressed as Priyadassi (king love by the people); Devanamapiya loved by god.
The ideals of kingship are provided by Ashoka.

It is edicts give first Hand account of his own views. As per Ashoka.
• King should live as per Dhamma
• King should server humanity
• He should promote toleration among different religions
• He should forbid cruelty towards animals
• He should go for Dhamma Vijay
• He should send Messengers of peace
• Should follow polity of non –Aggression towards neighbours
 Kautilya
• Importance of Kautilya’s
Arthashastra
• Prominent ideas of Arthashastra
• State of relations between two countries
• Mandal Siddhaant
• Shadgunya Neeti (6 gold Policies)
• Relevance of Rajamandala and Shadguna
Siddhanta
• Type of War
• Kautilya’s views on corruption
• Compare Kautilya and Machiavelli
 Importance of Kautilya’s Arthashastra
Kautilya defines State craft as Arthashastra ‘Arth’ denotes material well – being according
to him, the most important objective of the king is the secure the material well-being of his
people.

In his words: “Material well-being is supreme, attainment of all other goals Dharm, Kama,
Moksh depends on material well being”.

In ancient times, land was the main source of securing material well – being. Hence, the
main idea of Arthashastra was how to acquire the land
• It is material for a state to go for acquiring land.
• The 1st land to be acquired is the land of Neighbour,
• Hence Neighbour ae Natural Enemies. Hence, the relation between 2 states are the
Relations of war.
• Thus, Arthashastra deals with ART of War like SUN TZU, the Chinese strategist planning,
Balance of power, geopolitics
Commonalities between Sun Tzu and Kautilya on Warfare
Arthashastra can be considered as the “ First textbook in geopolitics”

Geopolitics – Science of Capturing land.

• According to concept of geopolitics is an organism like any organism, state has to grow. If state does not grow / expand ,
state will perish/decay

It is unfortunate that policy makers in India have overlooked the wisdom found in Arthashashtra.

However, since the beginning of 21st century, with HINDU RIGHTIST PARTY coming to power, there is
a change in the approach of South Block. We are rediscovering the ancient Indian wisdom.
Prominent ideas of Arthashastra

State of relations
Mandal
between two Saptanga theory
Siddhaant
countries

Shadgunya Neeti
4 ulpayas Type of wars
(6 gold Policies)
State of relations between two countries
According to Kautilya, the relations 2 states are relations of WAR, where the
strength of Lion prevails.

Thus Kautilya is a realist who believes that inter- state relations are the struggle for
power.

According to Realist wisdom, interstate relations or international politics is a state

of war. Nations are either in the war or in the preparation for war. Hence in such
situation, state can rely only on Power.

Kautilya belongs to the School of “offensive realism”. He believes in Power

realisation rather than defence. For them “offence is the best defence”
 Mandal Siddhaant
Raja Dharma – Kshatriya Dharma (i.e.) War after coronation, King has to
start for expedition.
• In ancient India, there was tradition of different YAGNAS
• Example: Aswameda, Yogna; Rajasuya Yogna (after victory)
• According to Kautilya, King should have the desire to become “Chakravarthi Samrat”. He
addresses the king as ‘VIJIGISHU’ cone who aspires for victory

Mandal Siddhaanth is based on the concept of Geopolitics.

• According to Geopolitics, State is organism. Organism has to grow for that, it has to expand
• If it does not expands, it will Perish
• Thus states are expansionists by Nature
Neutral status:
• It is in context of war. If other countries accept the status of nay country as neutral, then that country has to give
equal access to its territory to both parties in war.
• Example: Nepal aspires for Neutral status. Nepali’s demand is against India’s national interest. If UN recognises
Nepal as neutral, in case of INDIA – CHINA war, both will have access to its territory. At present, only India can
use its territory during war under the agreement – 1950
• According to Kautilya, King should try to bring Neutrals in favour

MADHAYANA (Buffer Status)

• They are smaller states / terrible between 2 Major Powers.
• Their purpose is to avoid 2 major powers coming into state of direct confrontation.
• Example: Nepal is ideal Buffer zone between INDIA & CHINA.
• According to Kautilya, king should try to bring buffer state in his favour.
• Example: India has brought Nepal under its control by 1950 agreement however, India lost strategic advantage
when CHINA occupied TIBET. TIBET was also an ideal Buffer Zone.

Max Weber: Kautilya is more Machiavellian than Machiavelli’s Mach’s prince is harmless
compared to Kautilya king. Mach didn’t write explicit things.
 Shadgunya Neeti (6 gold Policies)
Vijigishu can adopt following options depending on situation.
• Sandhi (treaty) - if enemy is strong, go for Sandhi example: Shimla
Agreement
• Vighra – Breack the Sandhi when you become strong
• Aasana (to sit ) – stationing of forces near enemy territory – Build pressure
• Yana (Movement) – exercises near enemy territory
• Samashriya (objective) – Join hands with those who have similar objectives
Example: QUAD (to contain CHINA)
• Dvaidhbhava (Dual policy) – Friendship with one, enmity with other don’t go
for war at 2 fronts at same time, instead make friendship with one enemy for
the time being.
01. Sandhi
• Sandhi (making peace with strong enemy) has been advised for a weaker nation with strong
enemy.
• When you enemy is stronger than you, don’t confront with him and rather make peace on
terms and conditions of your enemy {i.e. surrender troops, treasury or territory}.
• Sandhi will thwart the strong enemy and will give enough time to get strong enough to
overthrow the strong enemy.
• Thus, this policy is based on “opportunism” and seeks time to become strong and wait for
enemy to get weaker.

02. Vigraha
• Vigraha (policy of hostility) has been advised for stronger nation with relatively weaker enemy.
• There can be two dimensions of policy of hostility viz. Defensive and Offensive. Kautilya says
that policy of Vigraha is advisable only when you are sure that you should be either repel
attack of enemy or are strong enough to ruin enemy or seize his territories (in such case go
ahead with Yana).
• In this policy, Kautilya has hinted some kind of cost-benefit analysis and says that if cost
appears more than benefit, then Sandhi is preferred over Vigraha.
03. Asana
• The Asana is basically a stance of keeping quite. It is to wait for enemy to get weaker
either by plunging itself in some difficulties or getting involved in war at some other
front.
• Asana also includes secret efforts to weaken the enemy or some kind of proxy war in
modern terms.
04. Yana
• Yana {March or Expedition} is direct manifestation of a policy of Vigraha and is to be
followed when you are sure that you shall ruin the enemy and win over him.
05. Sansraya
• Sansraya means seeking shelter with another king. If a king is weak and threatened to
be attacked by a powerful enemy, it’s better to seek protection from another King or
another place / fort etc.
• This policy corresponds to status of Protégé in modern sense.
06. Dvaidhibhava
• Dvaidhibhava refers to the double policy of Sandhi with one king and Vigraha with
another at a time.
• It is suggested for a King who is strong enough to fight but may not win without
getting additional strength of an ally.
• Apart from the above Shadgunas, Kautilya has mentioned four tactics to overcome
the opposition viz. Saman (Conciliation), Dama (Gifts), Bheda (Dissension) and
Danda (Force).
 Relevance of Rajamandala and Shadguna Siddhanta
In Arthashastra, Kautilya has made arguments about power, governance, statecraft etc.
without any reference to any religion or divinity, which makes him eligible as true
founder of what we call realpolitik.

However, above description makes it very clear that Kautilya suggests a state to act in
order to enhance its power and self-interest. There does not seem to be any moral /
ethical or religious obligation in his policy.

War and peace are solely on basis of profit. Many criticize this policy of Kautilya as
ruthless realpolitik, intrigue, deceptive and immoral.

Despite of criticism, the policy holds relevance because Kautilya said something which
has always been actually practiced by states everywhere.
 Type of War
Kautilya
mentions 3 PARAKRAM YUDDHA – Direct /
major open war
types of
war. Type KOOT YUDDHA – Guerrilla war
of war
depends
on
situation of TUSHNIM YUDDHA – Proxy war
VIJIGISHU.
Saptanga Siddhaanth (Sapta Prikriti)
It explains the 7 LIMBS of the state,
which also means 7 elements of
sovereignty.

It is an example of ORGANIC THEORY

OF STATE.

Kautilya takes SYSTEMIC VIEW OF

STATE.
01. King: king is the Nabhi of state centre

• It is difficult to replace a personality. King plays the most important role.

• If king is strong & other elements of sovereignty are weak, the strong &
smart king can convert the elements of weakness into elements of
strength
• If other elements are strong but if king is weak, it will lead to overall
weakness.
Though king is central, yet Kautilya writes that a single wheel cannot the chariot. It
means king cannot run the state alone but will require help of other. Thus Kautilya
emphasizes that king should not be arrogant & give adequate recognition to other
elements. State is a system of interdependence. He also reminds the king that
kingship is a duty – Dharma.
02. Amatyas (Senior ministers)
• They are mostly [Link] most important among them in the AMBASSADOR, who is
the representative of king/state
• King should choose him very carefully. He should be trusted person & well versed in
Shastras.
• He should be handsome, He suggests that king should have Atleast 3 amities. 2 can
conspire against, even them one will stay with king
• King should have constant vigil on amatyas King can challenges the power of king.
• He even suggest king should keep on testing Integrity of Amatyas from time to time.
• He gives different suggestion, King can send his spy to amatya who can tell that queen is on
love with amatya & is waiting him at palace & in case amatya plans to kill the king, queen
will provide all help.
03. Durg : Fort
• Mauryan Empire is known for different types of forts. Kautilya mentions about forts on hill, water,
deserts.
• Fort are the symbols of Defensive & offensive capabilities of state. Hence king should be
constriction fort.

04. JANPAD:
• Places where common man lives, operates, and conducts Business & various activities. It is very
important as it provides ECONOMIC resources.

05. Bala : Military strength

• According to him, army should be comprised of Kshatriyas. He believes in hereditary basis of
recruitment.
• However, if need arises, other varnas can also be incorporated. Even w.r.t. king, Kautilya is not
particular about varna.
• He mentions that king can be of any varna but preferably Kshatriya
06. KOSHA: treasury.
• It should be sufficient to the extent that not only the king is able to fulfil
his routine obligations, he is able to meet any sort of emergency.(War,
natural calamity)

07. MITRA : ALLY

• Friends only have symbolic importance. As there is no permanent friends/
enemy & it is difficult to identity who is real friend/ who is pretending)
• They are symbol of strength of King. Everyone wants to be the friends of
the strong. Hence if a country starts loosing friends to enemy, it is a
serious concern example: Maldives going to China, also SL, NEPAL
• In politics, perception of strength is crucial
 Relevance of Saptang theory in mandal Siddhanth
Before starting expedition, VIJIGISHU has to calculate the strength of the enemies as well as his own. The 7
dements are the determinants of power.

King has to make assessment of 12x7 = 8A elements of sovereignty (12 kings x 7 elements) to take
calculated risk Mandals.

Kautilya’s Statecraft on internal administration.

Internal & external all interdependent.

Even for internal admin, Kautilya advices the use of spies to check rebellion.

Kautilya has given special emphases on problems of Corruption on administration

 Kautilya’s views on corruption
Corruption is inevitable part of administration.

According to him ‘henry on the tongue – It is not possible not to taste it’ public officials
handle so much resource that they themselves do not realise when they have
committed the act of corruption i.e. Embezzlement of Public funds.

In his words, ‘fish swimming in water will itself not realize when it has drank the water’

Even when corruption is inevitable, yet it is not desirable because it makes state weak
internally & externally.

Corruption weakens the capacity of the state to achieve the material welfare of its
people. This weakens the morale of PPL.
The biggest problem is detection of corruption. According to him, it is easy to detect the
movement of birds flying in the sky but it is not easy to detect when the officials have
committed corruption Kautilya mentions difference ways in which officials commit
corruption. In his words, ‘There are 40 ways of embezzleent’.

Example:
• Officials can play with weights & measures
• Officials can take money out from treasury but enter it later in the account book
• They may sell resources at a higher price but enter lower price in the accounts
• They may take money from public fund for personal use without entering (Hence we need CAG)

Though, Kautilya recognizes the difficulty, it does not mean that steps should not be
taken for minimising corruption. He gives following suggestion:
• Right sizing the bureaucracy
• Transfer the official before he understands loopholes in office
• Give security & rewards to the whistle blowers (Soochapas)
He suggest to punish the entire chain & not just official
• Punish the person who gives bribe (Dayak)
• Punish the person who receives bribe (Pratigraha)
• Punish who keeps the money (Nibhayak)
• He suggest for PUBLIC HUMILIATION of corrupt official.
• Reward the hones officers.
• Compensate the person who has suffered because of official’s corruption
 Compare Kautilya and Machiavelli

Pandit Nehru in his book DISCOVERY OF INDIA has mentioned Kautilya as Indian Machiavelli.

Upinder Kaur in her recent book titled POLITICAL VIOLENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA suggests that ideally
Machiavelli should have been called Italian Kautilya.

Scholars like Winternitz, Bottazi have traced the roots of realism in Kautilya along with Thucydides.
Machiavelli is also realist.

Kautilya and Machiavelli differ in time and space yet there are remarkable similarities between the two
scholars. Both had similar concerns. Both were concerned about the state of motherland.

Both were fearful of motherland being vulnerable to external invasions. Both are realists. Both give advices
on the statecraft. Both go for the separation between ends and means.

If Machiavelli suggests that in politics ends justify the means, Kautilya suggests, Sama, Dama, Danda,
Bheda.
Both allow the use of religion in the interest of the state.

Both favour imperialist foreign policy. Both are concerned with the corruption
within the state.

Both give similar advices on the statecraft. Both suggests that the king should rule
with the iron hand. Both expect king to be the symbol of knowledge and sacrifice.

The actions of the king are justified only for the sake of the happiness of the
people.

Thus directly or indirectly Kautilya’s king and Machiavelli’s prince comes near to
Plato’s philosopher king. Kautilya’s king shares many characteristics.
 Manusmriti and Kautilya’s Arthashastra
• Comparing Manusmriti and
Arthashastra;
• Dharma according to Manusmriti;
• Origin of state as per Manu Smriti;
• Origin of state as per Manu Smriti
• Ideals of kingship
• Importance of Kautilya’s Arthashastra
• Prominent ideas of Arthashastra
• State of relations between two countries
• Mandal Siddhaant
• Shadgunya Neeti (6 gold Policies)
• Relevance of Rajamandala and Shadguna
Siddhanta
• Type of War
 Comparing Manusmriti and Arthashastra
Manu and Kautilya, the ancient Indian thinkers have given us their rich political and
administrative ideas and policies.

Manusmriti holds a position of pre-eminence in the Hindu literature. It is the oldest and
well-known smriti. Manusmriti or Manava dharmasastra is a “work of encyclopaedic
scope.”

Manusmriti is a storehouse of information on the social, judicial and political life of that
period.

The Manusmriti is the most authoritative work on Hindu Law and presents the normal
form of Hindu society and civilisation.

Manu who gave the stamp of sanctity and permanence to the socio-political institutions
of the land and provided the first code of civil and criminal law.
Kautilya’s Arthasashtra is another great work on ancient political thought which was
probably composed between 3rd-2nd Century B.C. Kautilya was the great Prime
Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra is primarily a work on the art of government. In his political and
administrative ideas, the focus of attention was the king.

According to his philosophy, for the smooth running of administration and for the
welfare of the people, the king had to be conversant in the four Vedas and four
sciences of government (Anvikashaki, Trai, Varta and Dandniti).

Kautilya’s administrative and judicial structure was hierarchical in nature.

As for justice, he emphasised on the principal of equity and immediacy. As for law and
order, he believed that law was a royal command enforced by sanctions.
Manusmriti refers to the sacred character of the laws in the four castes and four orders
to the ancient customs and duties of the king.

Kautilya did not condemn the moorings of the ancient dharamasastras, but he added
some new political ideas for the political institutions and also reinterpreted some
existing ones.

He also mentioned the relative importance of the sacred law and the state law. Manu
and Kautilya has given us comprehensive political and administrative ideas.

They both believed in Vedas and goodness of human nature. But they also believed
that the common man could be kept under control, and on the path of truth by the
fear of punishment.
To maintain peace and order in the state both believed in Dandniti. But their approach
to the subject is different. Manu believed that it is danda, which rules over all the
subjects.
Manu was concentrating more on problems like the duties of Varnas, the
purity of family life, sanctity of social institutions and social life as laid
down in the dharmasastra while Kautilya discussed more realistically and
as a matter of fact problems like battles, war, conduct of government
departments, internal and external dangers to the state and espionage.
 Dharma according to Manusmriti
Manu has told what is Dharma of different Varnas
• There is no appropriate word available in any of the European language which can be treated
as exact translation of Indian word Dharma. It should not be confused with religion.
• According to RIG VEDA, “Prithvim Dharmam Dhritam”, which means Dharma is that which
HOLDS life on this Earth.

What will happen when we will not follow dharma?

• It will lead to Aratakta (Anarchy)
• It will lead to - parlay (catastrophe) – This will bring end to life on earth.

SOURCE OF DHARMA
• Dharma is discussed in Dharma Shastra
• Most well-known Dharma Shastra is MANU SAMRITI
• SMRITI is based on Shruti
Origin of state as per Manu Smriti

QUASI CONTRATUAL THEORY

• State is a contract between Man & God.
• Manu Smriti mentions the ‘Theory of State’ initially there was NO STATE (i.e.)
there was ARAJAKTA.
• In this situation Matsyanyaya was prevalent. (i.e.) might is right – Big fish
eating small fish.
• Hence people requested Brahma & Brahma created Manu.
• Manu is the 1st king & the law giver.
• Now, it is the duty of people to obey the laws.
 Ideals of kingship
King has divine personality 8 gods have given a part of their personality to the king thus
king combine INDRA, VARUNA, AGNI, VAYU, SURYA, CHANDRA, YAMA & KUBERA.

There is a difference in idea of kingship in EAST & WEST.

• WEST- Kings used to have divine personality + Divine Rights
• INDIA – King only had Divine personality

Concept of Kingship: Manu made his king, the divine itself. Manu wanted his king to be
divine and an embodiment of certain qualities:
i. Worshipper of aged Brahmans
[Link] versed in Vedas
[Link] his own senses
[Link] from ten vices springing from love of pleasure
[Link] to be avaricious
Divine rights symbolise Absolute authority.
• Kings did not have absolute authority. They were under law. Kings were to follow.
Raja Dharma – Dharma as found in Dharma shastras (i.e.) as told by Brahmins.
• According to Manu, If king do not follow Dharma such king will go to hell.
• King is supposed to be from Kshatriya Varma. It was a Hereditary Institution.
 Duties of King
Follow Varna Dharma (or) Kshatriya Dharma ; War is Kshatriya Dharma
• King should have knowledge of Vedas
• King should respect Brahmins
• King should get up early in the day time
• King should not indulge too much in hunting, Gambling, Drinking, and Dancing.
• King should not indulge too much with women
• King should worship Brahmins daily
• King should contract PUBLIC UTILIES.
• King should take care of Orphans, Destitute.

King should help his people to achieve Yogkshem (i.e.) 4 Purushasthas.

• Rakshan & Palan are the responsibilities of the king.
• King should administer Punishment according to shashtras.
• In Manu Smriti, there is no context of Equality before law.
• Lower the varna, higher the punishment for same offence.
Manu Smriti also deals with Principle of Taxation
• Principle of taxation directly proportional to fertility of land
• 1/6th of produce is king’s share from fertile land
• 1/8th of produce is from less fertile land
• 1/10th of produce from least fertile land
• King also has share from other produces
• 1/6 the milk, honey, meat Battu & other trading commodities
 Function of King
According to Manu, the King has to perform executive, judicial, ecclesiastical, revenue,
military and enlightened functions.

Aims of the Government : The attitude of ancient political thinkers like Manu were
pragmatic as it avoided extreme of western political thought expounded by the anarchists
and the totalitarians. Manu spelled out the aims of the Government as:
• To help the people in the accomplishment of moral righteousness
• To acquire wealth
• To help in deriving of pleasure

Ambassador: The ambassador conducted negotiations regarding war and peace.

Judicial Administration: he assigned the job of interpreting the laws to a Brahmana though
at king’s pleasure. Such a right was derived by Manu to a sudra. He stressed that the
kingdom of Monarch where sudra settled the law will ‘sink low like a cow in a morass’.

Punishment: Even the punishments have been specified in Manusmriti, admonition followed
by reproof, fine and corporal punishment and banishment. Manu suggests unjust and
discriminating punishments towards lower classes.
• Inter-State Relations
• Role of Diplomats
• Six fold Foreign Policy

Comparison: Manu’s views in his king were quiet similar to that of Plato’s as he made his
ruler a philosophical king and Manu’s king also had all the knowledge as he made sure that
his King was well versed with Vedas and Upnishads.
 Importance of Kautilya’s Arthashastra
Kautilya defines State craft as Arthashastra ‘Arth’ denotes material well – being according
to him, the most important objective of the king is the secure the material well-being of his
people.

In his words: “Material well-being is supreme, attainment of all other goals Dharm, Kama,
Moksh depends on material well being”.

In ancient times, land was the main source of securing material well – being. Hence, the
main idea of Arthashastra was how to acquire the land
• It is material for a state to go for acquiring land.
• The 1st land to be acquired is the land of Neighbour,
• Hence Neighbour ae Natural Enemies. Hence, the relation between 2 states are the
Relations of war.
• Thus, Arthashastra deals with ART of War like SUN TZU, the Chinese strategist planning,
Balance of power, geopolitics
Arthashastra can be considered as the “ First textbook in geopolitics”

Geopolitics – Science of Capturing land.

• According to concept of geopolitics is an organism like any organism, state has to grow. If state does not grow / expand ,
state will perish/decay

It is unfortunate that policy makers in India have overlooked the wisdom found in Arthashashtra.

However, since the beginning of 21st century, with HINDU RIGHTIST PARTY coming to power, there is
a change in the approach of South Block. We are rediscovering the ancient Indian wisdom.
Prominent ideas of Arthashastra

State of relations
Mandal
between two Saptanga theory
Siddhaant
countries

Shadgunya Neeti
4 ulpayas Type of wars
(6 gold Policies)
State of relations between two countries
According to Kautilya, the relations 2 states are relations of WAR, where the
strength of Lion prevails.

Thus Kautilya is a realist who believes that inter- state relations are the struggle for
power.

According to Realist wisdom, interstate relations or international politics is a state

of war. Nations are either in the war or in the preparation for war. Hence in such
situation, state can rely only on Power.

Kautilya belongs to the School of “offensive realism”. He believes in Power

realisation rather than defence. For them “offence is the best defence”
 Mandal Siddhaant
Raja Dharma – Kshatriya Dharma (i.e.) War after coronation, King has to
start for expedition.
• In ancient India, there was tradition of different YAGNAS
• Example: Aswameda, Yogna; Rajasuya Yogna (after victory)
• According to Kautilya, King should have the desire to become “Chakravarthi Samrat”. He
addresses the king as ‘VIJIGISHU’ cone who aspires for victory

Mandal Siddhaanth is based on the concept of Geopolitics.

• According to Geopolitics, State is organism. Organism has to grow for that, it has to expand
• If it does not expands, it will Perish
• Thus states are expansionists by Nature
Neutral status:
• It is in context of war. If other countries accept the status of nay country as neutral, then that country has to give
equal access to its territory to both parties in war.
• Example: Nepal aspires for Neutral status. Nepali’s demand is against India’s national interest. If UN recognises
Nepal as neutral, in case of INDIA – CHINA war, both will have access to its territory. At present, only India can
use its territory during war under the agreement – 1950
• According to Kautilya, King should try to bring Neutrals in favour

MADHAYANA (Buffer Status)

• They are smaller states / terrible between 2 Major Powers.
• Their purpose is to avoid 2 major powers coming into state of direct confrontation.
• Example: Nepal is ideal Buffer zone between INDIA & CHINA.
• According to Kautilya, king should try to bring buffer state in his favour.
• Example: India has brought Nepal under its control by 1950 agreement however, India lost strategic advantage
when CHINA occupied TIBET. TIBET was also an ideal Buffer Zone.

Max Weber: Kautilya is more Machiavellian than Machiavelli’s Mach’s prince is harmless
compared to Kautilya king. Mach didn’t write explicit things.
 Shadgunya Neeti (6 gold Policies)
Vijigishu can adopt following options depending on situation.
• Sandhi (treaty) - if enemy is strong, go for Sandhi example: Shimla
Agreement
• Vighra – Breack the Sandhi when you become strong
• Aasana (to sit ) – stationing of forces near enemy territory – Build pressure
• Yana (Movement) – exercises near enemy territory
• Samashriya (objective) – Join hands with those who have similar objectives
Example: QUAD (to contain CHINA)
• Dvaidhbhava (Dual policy) – Friendship with one, enmity with other don’t go
for war at 2 fronts at same time, instead make friendship with one enemy for
the time being.
01. Sandhi
• Sandhi (making peace with strong enemy) has been advised for a weaker nation with strong
enemy.
• When you enemy is stronger than you, don’t confront with him and rather make peace on
terms and conditions of your enemy {i.e. surrender troops, treasury or territory}.
• Sandhi will thwart the strong enemy and will give enough time to get strong enough to
overthrow the strong enemy.
• Thus, this policy is based on “opportunism” and seeks time to become strong and wait for
enemy to get weaker.

02. Vigraha
• Vigraha (policy of hostility) has been advised for stronger nation with relatively weaker enemy.
• There can be two dimensions of policy of hostility viz. Defensive and Offensive. Kautilya says
that policy of Vigraha is advisable only when you are sure that you should be either repel
attack of enemy or are strong enough to ruin enemy or seize his territories (in such case go
ahead with Yana).
• In this policy, Kautilya has hinted some kind of cost-benefit analysis and says that if cost
appears more than benefit, then Sandhi is preferred over Vigraha.
03. Asana
• The Asana is basically a stance of keeping quite. It is to wait for enemy to get weaker
either by plunging itself in some difficulties or getting involved in war at some other
front.
• Asana also includes secret efforts to weaken the enemy or some kind of proxy war in
modern terms.
04. Yana
• Yana {March or Expedition} is direct manifestation of a policy of Vigraha and is to be
followed when you are sure that you shall ruin the enemy and win over him.
05. Sansraya
• Sansraya means seeking shelter with another king. If a king is weak and threatened to
be attacked by a powerful enemy, it’s better to seek protection from another King or
another place / fort etc.
• This policy corresponds to status of Protégé in modern sense.
06. Dvaidhibhava
• Dvaidhibhava refers to the double policy of Sandhi with one king and Vigraha with
another at a time.
• It is suggested for a King who is strong enough to fight but may not win without
getting additional strength of an ally.
• Apart from the above Shadgunas, Kautilya has mentioned four tactics to overcome
the opposition viz. Saman (Conciliation), Dama (Gifts), Bheda (Dissension) and
Danda (Force).
 Relevance of Rajamandala and Shadguna Siddhanta
In Arthashastra, Kautilya has made arguments about power, governance, statecraft etc.
without any reference to any religion or divinity, which makes him eligible as true
founder of what we call realpolitik.

However, above description makes it very clear that Kautilya suggests a state to act in
order to enhance its power and self-interest. There does not seem to be any moral /
ethical or religious obligation in his policy.

War and peace are solely on basis of profit. Many criticize this policy of Kautilya as
ruthless realpolitik, intrigue, deceptive and immoral.

Despite of criticism, the policy holds relevance because Kautilya said something which
has always been actually practiced by states everywhere.
 Type of War
Kautilya
mentions 3 PARAKRAM YUDDHA – Direct /
major open war
types of
war. Type KOOT YUDDHA – Guerrilla war
of war
depends
on
situation of TUSHNIM YUDDHA – Proxy war
VIJIGISHU.
Saptanga Siddhaanth (Sapta Prikriti)
It explains the 7 LIMBS of the state,
which also means 7 elements of
sovereignty.

It is an example of ORGANIC THEORY

OF STATE.

Kautilya takes SYSTEMIC VIEW OF

STATE.
01. King: king is the Nabhi of state centre

• It is difficult to replace a personality. King plays the most important role.

• If king is strong & other elements of sovereignty are weak, the strong &
smart king can convert the elements of weakness into elements of
strength
• If other elements are strong but if king is weak, it will lead to overall
weakness.
Though king is central, yet Kautilya writes that a single wheel cannot the chariot. It
means king cannot run the state alone but will require help of other. Thus Kautilya
emphasizes that king should not be arrogant & give adequate recognition to other
elements. State is a system of interdependence. He also reminds the king that
kingship is a duty – Dharma.
02. Amatyas (Senior ministers)
• They are mostly [Link] most important among them in the AMBASSADOR, who is
the representative of king/state
• King should choose him very carefully. He should be trusted person & well versed in
Shastras.
• He should be handsome, He suggests that king should have Atleast 3 amities. 2 can
conspire against, even them one will stay with king
• King should have constant vigil on amatyas King can challenges the power of king.
• He even suggest king should keep on testing Integrity of Amatyas from time to time.
• He gives different suggestion, King can send his spy to amatya who can tell that queen is on
love with amatya & is waiting him at palace & in case amatya plans to kill the king, queen
will provide all help.
03. Durg : Fort
• Mauryan Empire is known for different types of forts. Kautilya mentions about forts on hill, water,
deserts.
• Fort are the symbols of Defensive & offensive capabilities of state. Hence king should be
constriction fort.

04. JANPAD:
• Places where common man lives, operates, and conducts Business & various activities. It is very
important as it provides ECONOMIC resources.

05. Bala : Military strength

• According to him, army should be comprised of Kshatriyas. He believes in hereditary basis of
recruitment.
• However, if need arises, other varnas can also be incorporated. Even w.r.t. king, Kautilya is not
particular about varna.
• He mentions that king can be of any varna but preferably Kshatriya
06. KOSHA: treasury.
• It should be sufficient to the extent that not only the king is able to fulfil
his routine obligations, he is able to meet any sort of emergency.(War,
natural calamity)

07. MITRA : ALLY

• Friends only have symbolic importance. As there is no permanent friends/
enemy & it is difficult to identity who is real friend/ who is pretending)
• They are symbol of strength of King. Everyone wants to be the friends of
the strong. Hence if a country starts loosing friends to enemy, it is a
serious concern example: Maldives going to China, also SL, NEPAL
• In politics, perception of strength is crucial
 Relevance of Saptang theory in mandal Siddhanth
• Before starting expedition, VIJIGISHU has to calculate the strength of the enemies as well as his
own. The 7 dements are the determinants of power.

• King has to make assessment of 12x7 = 8A elements of sovereignty (12 kings x 7 elements) to
take calculated risk Mandals.

• Kautilya’s Statecraft on internal administration.

• Internal & external all interdependent.

• Even for internal admin, Kautilya advices the use of spies to check rebellion.

• Kautilya has given special emphases on problems of Corruption on administration

 Indian Political Thought
1. Difference on outlook of East & West
2. Indian Political thought Vs Western
Political thought
3. Indian Political thought Vs Western
Political thought
4. Sources of Indian Political thought
5. Drawbacks and Limitations of these
sources
6. Characteristics of Indian Political
Thought
7. Buddhists’ contributions to Indian
Political Traditions
8. Contribution of Muslim rule to Indian
Political Traditions
 Introduction
Political thought were written during this period in response to the criticism that ancient
India made no contribution to political thought and political science was not a separate
and distinct science in India.

The widely held belief among the scholars was that the Hindu science of political was,
infact, a part of Hindu Philosophy or Hindu religion.

This opinion, though incorrect, seems to have been created on the account of the
different names given to the concepts like ‘politics’, ‘political science’, and ‘state’.

It is futile attempt to discover in Indian through the same concepts and categories, which
are the characteristics of European thought.
When west described India empty of political wisdom, it reflect their ethno –
centric attitude.

Similarly when west ignores Indian political thinking, it can be seen as life
western attempt to maintain its cultural ideological hegemony.

According to Professor V.R. Mehta. The failure of west to recognise Indian

thought can be because of Lack of understanding of Indian way of life by
people in west.
 Difference on outlook of East & West
West thinks in Dichotomous lines.
• West has made difference between Man and society, Nature & Culture, Politics & Ethics
• Indian have always looked things in continuity. We have never separated Man & Society;
Nature & culture; Dharma & Dhand.
• Hence, in order to understand Indian perspective on politics & state craft. It is necessary to
understand Indian way of the life or the unique way of Indian thinking
• Professor Morris Jones- The Neglect of Indian political thought will result into
impoverishment of West.
• Max Muller, who is regarded as one of the greatest Indologist, have acknowledged that
nowhere in the world human mind has dealt with various question of life in such a depth as in
case of Indian.
• India has been a source of enlightenment for the world.

To conclude we can say that It would not be appropriate to say that Indians
lack political wisdom
 Indian Political thought Vs Western Political thought
01. Naturalism
• Greek philosophy started as a kind of naturalism as the distinction between mind and
matter was not clearly recognized that time, now called Materialism by some philosophers
with a scientific basis.
• Hercaclitus said that reality is change and identified it with fire, which he treated as God.
Fire is one of the five elements of nature worshipped by the Vedic people. And also the
first lawgiver, according to Hindu Mythology, ‘Manu’ is progenitor of Gods of the land.

02. Equality
• Looking at life from a materialistic perspective, the West felt the need to find a tool to
unify its people, so was enunciated the concept of Equality.
• In India, it is believed that there is an eternal consciousness in man that is common to
every individual, rich or poor. Man’s physical existence is a result of his Karmas and
Samskaras.
• Since every human being has a soul, equality is an essential part of Indian philosophy.
03. Theology
• In the early scriptures of both Ancient Greece and India, God appears merely as the personification
of atmospheric phenomenon.
• While the conception of diety maintained its dominance over India, in the West it was soon
abandoned.
• For at the very period when the Sophistic outlook was developing, that is about 500 B.C a single
paramount principle was postulated as ruling the Universe, at least by the more advanced Greek
thinkers, although the masses remained much longer content with an indiscriminate diversity of
Gods.

04. Dharma
• The Indian Dharma be identified with none of the Western concepts of duty. For while it imposes
on Man obligations towards non-human beings, it is by no means akin to the Christian idea of
obedience and humility towards Deity, since Dharma prescribes not only the acknowledgment of
obligations towards higher, a supreme Being, but also towards lower beings, and this again not as a
mode of indirect worship of a creator.
• Dharma, moreover, is not only negative obligation, in the guise of the restraints of duty, but is
equally the sustaining influence of right.
05. Liberty
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a passionate lover of liberty in all the sphere of life like
Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau.
• He declared the essential divinity of man as man. Man was by his nature and
constitution, ‘eternally free’.
• To deny this freedom was an out rage upon his nature and a sin against his maker.
 Nature of early Indian Political Thought

It was thought that the Hindu science of polity did not have a separate identity. But if we
look at the notion of political in various available sources, it is clear that ancient Indian
thinkers did have a notion of political distinct from either philosophy or religion.

01. Problem of Nomenclature

• The confusion arises because of the large number of parallel terms used in ancient
India for politics.
• There were several names, they were:
• Rajadharma, which means duties of the ruler, Kshatravidya, the knowledge that the
ruler should have, Rajyasastra meaning statecraft or the science of state,
• Dandaniti, the ethics of awarding punishment,
• Nitisastra, science of ethics regulating the lives of both the ruler and the ruled and
• Arthasastra, the art of acquisition and maintenance of land.
02. Concept of Matsyanyaya
• In ancient India, we have a term equivalent to the western concept of the
state of nature. It is called Matsyanyaya, the state of big fish devouring
the small.
• In ancient Indian political thought, we come across the term
Matsyanyaya which explains the state of affairs in the absence of force or
danda.
• Force is held to be the ultimate sanction behind the state. At the same
time, it is emphasised that force cannot be used arbitrarily and various
checks have been introduced to see that the person who is entrusted with
authority to rule cannot use force at his will.
03. Dharma and Danda
• For Bhikhu Parekh, Hindu political thinkers conceptualised political life
in terms of two central concepts namely, dharma and danda. Both are
dependent on each other. The term danda means discipline, force,
restraint, constraint or punishment.
• Dharma is that which holds society together- It is derived from the
Sanskrit root ‘dhr’ meaning to hold. Society could be held together
when each individual and groups does his or its specific duties. This was
sought to be achieved by following the varnashrama dharma.
• Varnadharma or adhering to one’s duties as member of a group to
which one belonges, i.e., caste in Indian context. It was, therefore, the
duty of the king to maintain varnadharma.
 Sources of Indian Political thought
01. Hindu Texts
• Vedic literature
• Dharmasutras and Smritis
• Epics and Puranas
• Arthasastras
• Buddhist and Jain literature
• Coins and Inscriptions
• Greek and Chineese accounts
• Other literature sources and Epigraphy like Ramayana, Mahabharat, Sukra Neeti.

02. Buddhist and Jain texts also discuss the-

• Principles of statecraft
• The ideals of kingship
• Objectives of Governance
 Drawbacks and Limitations of these sources
These mentioned sources being religious in nature, it is very difficult to isolate
facts of politics from it.
• Most of the works on Indian political traditions were written during the nationalist movement with
a purpose to counter the imperialist ideology of the Western scholars.

Falsification of imperialist ideology

• Indian nationalist historians churned out a host of literature to counter the imperialist ideology.
Bhagavan lal Inderjit, Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, B.G. Tilak and Later K.P. Jayaswal, R.K. Majumdar, B.K.
Sarkar came out with their own interpretation of Indian history to prove the falsification of
imperialist ideology.
• K.P. Jayaswal in his Hindu Polity argued that the ancient Indian polity was partly like the republics of
ancient Greece and party like the constitutional monarchies such as that of Great Britain.
• He concluded: “The constitutional progress made by the Hindus as probably not been equaled,
much less surpassed by any policy of antiquity”.
R. S. Sharma, an eminent historian, has pointed out four important
limitations of this nationalist and revivalist approach to the study of
Indian political thought.
• 01. By a fulsome adoration of ancient Hindu institutions, it tended to alienate the
Muslims.
• 02. The approach gives a false sense of past values. It glossed over the fact that,
whether it was monarchy or republic, the two upper varnas dominated the two
lower varnas who were generally excluded from all political offices.
• 03. Many Indians fought shy of the religious aspects of ancient Indian polity and, as
if to cover a sense of guilt, took too much pains to prove the secular character of
the ancient Indian state. They little realised that even in the Western world,
theocracy existed till the first half of the 18th century.
• 04. In its zeal to prove itself a superior civilisation, it hardly showed any interest in
studying the ancient institutions in the light of the evolution of primitive tribes as
known from anthropology
Characteristics of Indian Political Thought

01. Political Life conceived within the framework of Dharma

• No Classes exclusively dealing with political and social life, which is comparable to the
‘Republic’ and the ‘Politics’ of Plato and Aristotle.
• A supernatural element is present in all the writings.
• The divine is ominipotent and is visible in the formation of society and government;
the divine purpose is to be enforced by the king, divine punishment reinforces earthly
punishment and sometimes supplants it.
• The Brahminical religion, which is commonly taken as the Hindu religion, was not all-
pervasive. There were non-Brahminical traditions, which were materialistic in nature
and which played an important role in guiding the activities of ordinary people.
Buddhist contribution is significant in this respect.
02. Influence of Ethics
• The social thought in ancient India not only assures certain fundamental
principle of morality, but it always seeks to direct the material life as well.
• The king must consciously stimulate virtue and act as a guide to the moral
life, morality as stipulated in the dharmasastras.
• Political science becomes the ethics of the whole society, a science of the
duty of man found in the complex set of relations in society.
• But when it comes to international relations, one can see the ethical
meanings coming to terms with the hard reality. Dealing about diplomacy,
Kautilya for example, becomes realistic in a manner similar to Machiavelli.
• One may notice a sudden fall from ethical heights to the rankest realism
in the same writer.
03. The Influence of Caste based Social Structure on Politics
• Caste occupied a prominent place in all social speculation during the later
Vedic period and had a direct bearing on the theory of government.
• Caste was an ascribed status - Varnashramadharama in the society was
fixed on the basis of caste.
• Not all castes or varnas were equally privileged in their enjoyment of
rights and duties assigned to them.
• Duty of an individual was social- Since the varnas were related to each
other in such a fashion that together they constituted the social order, if an
individual transgressed his duty, he not only violated the order, he, infact,
became antisocial.
• It was in this way that the Hindu theory would overcome the anti-thesis of
man vs state or society.
04. Government as a Partnership of the Upper Varnas
• In ancient India, the Kshatriyas, Brahmanas and later the Vaisyas together formed the ruling
class. The Shudras were the serving class. ‘Kshatra’ – the temporal power derived its strength
and authority from ‘Brahma’ - the spiritual power.
• Symbolically, it meant that the Kshatriya derived his power from the Brahman.
• The priest was the chief adviser to the king. Interestingly, unlike in Europe, priesthood in India
did not contend for temporal power, a phenomenon that raged in Europe for a considerably
long period. The influence exercised by the priestly class was of a peculiar kind.

05. No Clear Distinction between State and Society

• The governmental organisation and politics were looked at as a part of the larger whole called
society.
• Society was at once religious, political, economical and military. It was generally viewed in a
comprehensive manner.
• The habit of looking at society from a political angle was not cultivated. As a result, there was
no clear conception of either the state or the government. Both were interchangeable terms.
06. Monarchy was the normal form of Government
• Since the four fold division of society entrusted the ruling power with the Kshatriya caste,
monarchy was the natural outcome. There were also non-monarchical forms of
government.
• Kautilya’s Arthasastra for example, mentions ‘dvairajya’ (rule by two kings) ‘vyrajya’ (state
without a king) etc.,
• There were also ‘ganasanghas’ which according to K. P. Jayaswal are comparable to
modern republics. But still monarchy was the normal form of government. Though there
were non-monarchical forms, they were more of an exception rather than a rule.
07. The Government was not Sovereign
• The government had no independent existence of its own. The sustenance of the social
order was merely its function.
• Sovereignty was, infact, ultimately sourced in the divine will. On the part of the individual,
there was no unified allegiance, no single loyalty except to society as a whole. Only the
pluralistic theory of sovereignty can grasp the Indian phenomenon
 Buddhists’ contributions to Indian Political
Traditions
01. Origin of Kingship
• Different version of the origin of kingship in Buddhist literature. The divine origin theory is not accepted.
Innumerable instances in the Jatakas of elections for the royal office. Some Jatakas contain description
of the king – elect being chosen by the purohita or the elders
• according to his qualities or his Mahajana-Sammata, meaning one who is accepted by all.
• Generally Kshatriyas of good family were chosen, but caste was not a bar to this election to royal office.
• If King proved tyrannical, the remedy was naturally a popular revolt justified on the grounds that:
• 1) the king-ship arose out of a contract between the subjects and the one chosen by them.
• 2) the sovereign rights of the king were limited to the protection of subjects and punishment of
wrong-doers and he was bound by the law.
02. Democratic Nature of the Buddhist Sangha
• Prof. Rhys Davids is of the opinion that the Buddhist Sangha was founded upon democratic
principles.
• According to him, the Buddhist Sangha was a kind of republic in which all proceedings were
settled by resolutions agreed upon in regular meetings of its members which were held subject
to the observance of certain established regulations and the use of certain form of words.
• These forms and resolutions passed were called as Kamma Vacas.

03. Theory of the Origin of the State

• According to Buddhist traditions there prevailed a golden age of harmony and happiness on
earth and people being virtuous, led a happy and peaceful life. But after a long period, people
became greedy and selfish.
• This ideal state passed away. Then, the people approached the best man amongst them and
entered into an agreement with him.
• He was to punish the wrongdoers and in return, they promised to give him a proportion of their
harvest. Chosen by the people, he was known as the Maha Sammata or the ‘Great Elect’. Thus, it
challenges the vedic dogma of divine creation of the social order.
04. The Principle of Righteousness
• In the Buddhist literature, danda does not have a central role.
• Dharma is to be upheld in more positive ways. The principle of righteousness is
different from the Brahminical conception of dharma.
• It is closer to the Western conception of virtue. According to Brahminical literature,
there is a different set of ethical principles for the king. What is adharma to the
ordinary people becomes a dharma to the king, when he is engaged in protecting
the social order. This is called Rajadharma.
• Both the Bhagavadgita and the Mahabharata give detailed accounts of the concept
of Rajadharma as distinct from dharma to be practiced by the ordinary citizens.
• Buddhists too consider the primary purpose of the state to safeguard the social
order. But this order is understood more in moral terms and dharma must be the
standard for all the king’s activities.
• Righteousness is an ethical doctrine as well as a mental discipline.
 Contribution of Muslim rule to Indian Political Traditions
Islamic contribution to Indian political thought can be seen during the
medieval period. Though the Muslim rulers derived legitimacy for their
authority from the Kalipha, they had to come to terms with the local reality in
which all the diktat of a theocratic state could not be practiced.

01. Nature of State

• It can safely be said that the atleast in theory, the state was theocratic in nature. The ruler
adopted dual policy one for his co-religious subjects and another for the non- Muslim.
• It was the duty of the state to protect the life and property of the Muslims but the non-Muslims
had to pay special tax called ‘Jizya’ to ensure their safety in the sate.
• Another important characteristics of the state during were that the state was identified with
royalty.
• According to Abul Fazal “no dignity is higher in the eyes of the God than royalty”. A king was
considered as the origin of stability and possession.
02. Divinity of the King
• Ain-I-Akbari describes the king as the light emanating from God, and a ray
from the sun, the illuminator of the universe. It is the divine light which
communicates from God to the kings without the intermediate assistance
of anyone. Many excellent qualities flow from the possession of this light.
They are:
• A paternal love towards subjects
• A large heart
• Increasing trust in god
• Prayer and devotion
03. Duties of the King
• The important duties of the king are:
• a) To ensure the safety and security of the life and properties of subjects
• b) Punishing those who violate norms of the state
• c) Impart justice to all without favour
• d) Protect the state from external aggression
• e) The king has to lead the people by personal example. Upon his conduct depends the efficacy of
any course of action.
• f) The king should abstain from four things; excessive devotion to hunting, incessant play,
inebriety night and day, and constant intercourse with women.
• g) The king should avoid falsehood as, it is improper in all men, and most unseemly in monarchs.
• h) The king should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his neighbours rise in arms against him.
• i) The king should always keep his army on its toes, lest from want of training they become self-
indulgent.
• Abul Fazal’s Ain-I-Akbari distinguishes between two types of king; the true king and the selfish
king. It is said that both have in common, treasury, army, servants, obedient subjects, wise men
and multitude of skilful workmen.
 Indian Political Thoughts

INDIAN POLITICAL
THOUGHTS
 Question
• Que. Why there is a debate with respect to the existence of
Indian political thought, do you think Indian political thoughts
exist, if yes what are the salient features of Indian thinking?
• In western world there is little recogniation of Indian
political thinking.

• The common impression is that Indians lack political

thinking.
• George Tanham categorically reject that Indians have
“political Culture”.
• It is believed that India is a place to look for spiritual
knowledge and not political knowledge.

• Reason-
• According to Western Scholars there are no text which
can be called as Purely Political Text.
• According to them even when we accept Kautilya
Arthashastra, it is more a text on Statecraft rather than
political philosophy.

• However, it is wrong to suggest that Indian lack political

thinking.
• We can give reference to Edward said view of
“Orientalism”.

• The lack of recognition of Indina thinking show the Ethno

Centric attitude of the West.
Max Muller who is regarded as one of
the greatest Indo Logist has accepted
that no where in the world human
mind has dealt with various questions
of life with such a depth as they have
been dealt in India.
• India has been the source of enlightenment for the world.
Professor VR Mehta suggested that
the failure to acknowledge Indian
political thinking is because of the
difference in perspective of East and
West.
• In Western world people look things in dichotomous
manner.

• For example west have separated individual and Society,

nature and culture, politics and ethics.
• On the other hand Indian look in continuity.

• In India there is no separation is between individual and

Society, nature and culture, Dharma and Danda (Politics).
• Moris Jones has acknowledged that neglect of Indian
thinking would result into the impoverishment of the West.
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

1. No separation in Dharma and Danda

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

2. Communitarian Approach
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

3. Pluralistic Tradition
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

4. Cosmopolitan Worldview
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

5. Non-Critical
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

6. Pessimistic
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THINKING

7. Regressive view of History rather than Progressive

 Question
• Que. Discuss major political traditions in ancient India also give
comparative analysis of the tradition?.
 Bhikhu Parekh
classified ancient
Indian tradition into
Two Categories

1. Hindu Tradition 2. Buddhist Tradition

 According to Bhikhu Parekh,
In India “we see continuity rather than
change”.
Hence there is not a big difference in
Hindu political tradition and Buddhist.
• Buddhism can be considered as a Rebel child of
Hinduism.
• Though Buddhism challenge Brahmanic way of life
specifically caste system.
• yet Buddhism shares many beliefs with Brahminism.

• For Example, Karma Theory of Rebirth.

 Bhikhu Parekh
categorizes Hindu
tradition into two
categories

1. Dharmashastra 2. Danda Sahasra

• Even Dharma Shastra and then the Danda Shastra
differ only in terms of degree rather than in terms of
kind.

• Dharmashastra are considered as book on laws

(governing Hindu code of conduct),
• Danda shastra deal with politics and Statecraft.
• In ancient Indian politics used to be called as Dand-
neeti or Rajneeti.
• In India we do not see clear separation between
Dharma and Danda

• In Danda Shastra, there is a discussion of Dharma

along with Danda and similarly in Dharma Shastra
there is a discussion of Dharma and danda.
• The only difference is of the focus.
• In the Dharma Shastra, discussion on Dharma is Core
and discussion of Danda is peripheral.

• Similarly in the Danda Shastra, discussion on the

Danda is core and Dharma is peripheral.
 Question
• Q. Discuss the salient ideas given in Manu smriti.
INTRODUCTION (MANUSMRITI)
• Manu smriti is a highly contested and controversial
text.

• One of the greatest admirer of Manu smriti was Dr S

Radhakrishnan where as one of the major critique of
Manusmriti was Ambedkar who suggested to put
Dynamite on Vedas and Manusmriti.
 Manusmriti

Dr S
Ambedkar
Radhakrishnan
INTRODUCTION (MANUSMRITI)

• Manu smriti was also criticized by feminist scholar

because of subordinate status given to women.

• According to Manu women should not be given

freedom, but should be live under constant
surveillance of Men.
 Manusmriti is considered as
Vedic text.
Vedic text are categorized
into two types.

1. Shrutis 2. Smritis
• Shrutis are also known as Veda, Vedas are not
human creation. It contains very revealed
knowledge.

• Smritis are based on Vedas. one of the most well-

known Smriti is Manu smriti.

• Manu smriti is recognized by Britishers as basis for

Hindu personal laws.
WHO IS MANU?

• Manu is known as manasputra of Brahma (the

creator of universe).
WHY MANU WAS CREATED?

• There was ' arajakta' on the earth, matsyayana

was preveiling, hence people requested Brahma
to bring them out of anarchy.

• Brahma created Manu.

WHY MANU WAS CREATED?

• Manu is the first King or law giver.

• Manu has told what is Dharma.

• Dharma has ended anarchy and established
order.
 Question
• Que. Write short note on Indian concept of Dharma?
CONCEPT OF DHARMA

• There is no exact translation available in any of the

European language with respect to Sanskrit word Dharma,
it should not be confused with English word religion.
CONCEPT OF DHARMA

• According to Rig Veda “Prithvi Dharmam Dhritam”.

• Dharma is which hold the life on the earth.

WHAT WILL HAPPEN IF WE DO NOT FOLLOW DHARMA?

• It will lead to Arajakta.

• It will lead to Pralay or end of the life on the earth.

SOURCES OF DHARMA?
• Rta(Riti)- Rta is cosmic law or the law of Universe.

• Hence Dharma has to be understood in harmony with the

law of nature.
• Thus Rta is law governing universe or nature, Dharma is law
governing human society.
MANUSMRITI

• Talks about the role of the King.

• The role of the King is to maintain Dharma and
that's why King has Danda
• if the dharma is not maintained it will lead to the
end of life on the earth.
PURUSHARTHA
 Four
Purushrtha

Dharma Artha Kama Moksha

• PurushArtha means “4 goals of life”.
• Unlike Buddhism which overlooks the material and
physical aspect of life,

• Hinduism takes a balanced view of life Hinduism

talks about the four goals- Dharma, Artha, Kama
Moksha.
CONCEPT OF ASHRAM

• Manusmriti as well as other Indian text mention four

Ashrams
• Brahmacharya, Grihasthya, Vanprastha, Sanyasa.
 Manu smriti as
well as order
Indian text
mention four
Ashram

Brahmacharya Grihasthya Vanprastha Sannyasa.

VARNAS
• Manusmriti discuss 4 Varna, it takes the reference of
purushArtha of Rigveda.

• According to Manu the most important function of

the King is to ensure that different Varna observe
their Varna Dharma.
• King is to punish those who do not observe their
varna Dharma because it will lead to anarchy.
SANSKAR

• Hindu Text Mentions 16 Essential Rituals called

as Sanskar.
 Sanskar

I Sanskar 16 Sanskar

Garbhadan Anteyshti
MANUSMRITI ON STATE

• Origin of State (Quasi contractual theory)

• It is called Quasi contractual because the
contract is between people and God.
• people requested Brahma and Brahma created
the State.
• Objective of State is to uphold Dharms.
• Chapter 7 of Manusmriti deals with the State and
Institution of Kingship

• 1. People requested for God, God created King.

• Chapter 7 of Manusmriti deals with the State and
Institution of Kingship

• 2. King has divine personality.

• Why 8 Gods have given a part of their personality to

the King (Indra, Varun, Yam, Kuber, Agni, Chandra,
Surya, Wayu.
• Chapter 7 of Manusmriti deals with the State and
Institution of Kingship

• 3. King has a divine personality but King does not

have divine Rights.

• Unlike west where King had absolute powers, in

ancient India even King was under the Dharma.
• Chapter 7 of Manusmriti deals with the State and
Institution of Kingship

• King was not the source of Dharma, he was under

Dharma.

• Manu smriti talks about hereditary monarchy.

• King has to be from the Kshatriya varna.
Duties of the King

1. King should have knowledge of Vedas.

Duties of the King

2 King should respect Brahmins.

 Duties of the King

3. King should get up early in the morning.

Duties of the King

4. King should not sleep during daytime.

 Duties of the King

5. King should not indulge too much in hunting,

gambling, drinking, dancing.
 Duties of the King

6. King should also not indulge much with women

Duties of the King

7. King should worship Brahmins daily.

Duties of the King

8. King should construct public utilities.

 Duties of the King

9. King should take care of orphans and destitutes.

 Duties of the King

10. The objective of the King is to achieve Yogkshem

means helping people to achieve purushArtha.
King has to do both Rakshan and Palan
 Duties of the King

11. King who does not perform his duty goes to hell.
• Manusmriti also discuss the system of punishment -
there was no concept of equality before law.

• Punishment was inversely proportional to the varna.

• Lower is the varna higher is the punishment.

 Manu smriti also deals
with principles of
taxation.
King shall receive

A. 1/6 of produce of B. 1/8 th of produce of C. 1/12 th of produce

the fertile land. less fertile land. of least fertile land.
• King shall also receive 1/6th share in the other
commodities like milk, honey, meat, butter and other
commodities.
KAUTILYA'S ARTHASHASTRA

• Kautilya Arthashastra was first discovered by Pandit

Shamashastri.

• The first English Publication appeared in 1909.

• Book contains 15 parts and 6000 Sutras.

CORE SUBJECT OF ARTHASHASTRA

• Statecraft -Kautilya has given detailed view on

running internal administration as well as on foreign
policy.

• Arthashastra is regarded primarily as the book on

geopolitics (interstate relations).
MEANING OF ARTHASHASTRA

• Artha means money.

• According to Kautilya, material well being is
Supreme, spiritual good (dharma and sensual
pleasure (kaam)) all depend on material well being.
• In ancient times land was the main source of
material well being. hence land was the main source
of conflict.
MEANING OF ARTHASHASTRA

• As per Hindu text the objective of King is to achieve

yogakshema.
• Hence, it becomes duty of the King to expand land.

• Thus Arthashastra is a treatise on the art of acquiring

land.
MEANING OF ARTHASHASTRA

• Hence Arthashastra primarily deals with war and

strategies.

• Arthashastra is also known as book on political

economy as it deals with the economic policies of
the State.
SALIENT IDEAS (ARTHASHASTRA)
• There is a continuity in Arthashastra and Dharma
Shastra with respect to origin of State,
• duties of King, system of Administration.

• However focus of Arthashastra was on

Statecraft.
• the prominent ideas discussed in Arthashastra
are shown in below-
 Prominent Ideas
in Discuss in
Arthashastra are

3. The Institution
2. The issue of
1. Foreign policy of espionage
corruption
(Spius)
 A. Duty of King

B. Nature of Inter State Relation

C. Saptanga Theory
1. Foreign Policy
D. Mandal Siddhant

E. Four fold Policy

F. Six fold Policy

 Views on Foreign Policy

1) According to Kautilya, war is Kshatriya Dharma.

 Views on Foreign Policy

2) After coronation King has to go on expedition or

Digvijay.
He talks about Chakravarti Samrat.
 Views on Foreign Policy

It means King has to have expansionist foreign policy.

here address King as Vijigishu, one who Aspires for
victory.
Kautilya on Interstate Relations

1. The relation between State are the the relation of

War where the strength of Lion prevails
Kautilya on Interstate Relations

2 Kautilya discusses various rituals like ashwamedh

Yagya, rajasuya Yagya after victory ,you are declared as
maharajadhiraja.
MANDAL SIDDHANTA

• Is a principal strategy meant for Vijigishu, Kautilya

mentions 12 Mandals.
• Each Mandal represent 7 elements of sovereignty.
• Thus King has to take into consideration 84 elements of
power.
SAPTANGA THEORY

• In Saptanga Theory, Kautilya has discussed 7 Elements

Constituting State.
• These seven elements can be called as the 7 Determinants
of power.
• We can call it as organic view of the State.
 7 Elements Constituting State.

1. King 2. Amatya 3. Durga 4. Janapada

 7 Elements Constituting State.

5. Bala 6. Kosha 7. Mitra

1. KING

• King is nabhi, the centre

• King symbolises leadership.
 According to Kautilya,
if King is smart and other elements of
sovereignty are weak, the smart king
will convert the weak elements into
the elements of the strength.
1. KING
• On the other hand if King is weak and other elements are
strong, even then State will remain weak.

• Like Manu, he also suggest that King should consider the

well being of his people at Supreme.
• in the words of Kautilya, "in the happiness of the subject
lies the happiness of the King, in their welfare his own
welfare"
1. KING

• Thus Kautilya's King acquires power not for himself but for
the well being of the subject.

• Though King is nabhi, but King must understand the

importance of other elements.
• in the words of Kautilya "single wheel cannot turn the
Chariot".
1. KING

• Hence King should give adequate importance to the other

elements also.
2. AMATYA
• Are senior ministers.
• Amatya belong to Brahmin Varna.
• Amatya should have knowledge of Vedas

• Amatya should be man of integrity, Kautilya advises King to

keep on testing the integrity of amatya from time to time,
he suggest to use spies to test integrity.
Kautilya suggests to use women spy in
disguise of friend of Queen.
She can tell Amatya that girl is in love
with Amatya, if Amatya will come to
the palace, queen will help him and
Amatya can easily kill the King.
He also suggest that king should have
at least three Amatya, because two
can easily combine and conspire
against Kin.
2. AMATYA
• He has given special reference to the Ambassador.

• Ambassadors position is next to the King, he is a symbol of

king outside the territory of the State.
• He should be trustworthy, knowledgeable and handsome.
3. DURGA

• Durga is the symbol of State’s offensive and defensive

powers
• Mauryans were known for construction of various types of
Forts like Hill Fort, sand Fort, water forts.
4. JANPADA
• Janapada is the place where ordinary citizen live.
• New Jana pada is the source of wealth and economic
activities
• King has to take care of Jana pada.
• He even suggest to use spies in janapad to be aware of
public opinion.
5. BALA-
• Represent Military.
• He recommended the Military of Kshatriya.

• Other varnas can also be included only under some

exceptional circumstances.
• He prescribed heriditary system of recruitment.
6. KOSH (TREASURY)

• King should have enough wealth in treasury so that king is

able to deal any sort of calamalities.
7. MITRA

• The importance of Mitra is symbolic.

• everyone wants to be friend of powerful.
• more number of Mitra means King is regarded as powerful.
MANDAL SIDDHANTA

• Kautilya described 12
Mandals or Chakras
 1. Vijigishu

2. Ari (enemy) - Neighbour

12 Mandals
or 3. Mitra - (Ari's Neighbour)
Chakras
4. Arimitra

5. Mitra Mitra
 6. Ari Mitra Mitra

7. Parshvanigraha (Who Attacks from Back)

Enemy
12 Mandals
or 8. Akranda (Friend in the Back)
Chakras
9. Parshanighrasara (Enemy's Friend in Back)

10. Akrandasara (Friend's Friend in Back)

 2 Additional Kings

11. Madhyma 12. Udasina

(Buffer State) (Neutral)
MANDAL THEORY
• Mandal Theory is based on the Maxim that
neighbors are natural enemies.
• Why - Both have an eye on same piece of land .
• For Example- Both India and Pakistan have an eyes
on Kashmir and hence they are natural enemy.

• II Maxim is Enemies neighbors is the natural friend

(Mitra)
MANDAL THEORY
• Why- Common Interest

• For Example-
• Afghanistan is India's natural friend and hence
Pakistan will always be willing for gaining strategic
depth which means whosoever rules in
Afghanistan should be under complete control of
Pakistan.
 Kautilya suggest to take care of
position of King in both front and
back.
The enemy in the back is called as
Parshvanighra and friend in the back is
Akranda.
He mentions about 2 more King.
1. MADHYAMA (BUFFER STATE)

• Whosoever have influence over Madhyama will be in

strategic advantage.

• For Example- Ones Tibet become Chinese territory.

India has lost the strategic advantage and Hence it is
necessary that Nepal does not come under the
complete control of China.
2. UDASINA (NEUTRAL STATE)

• Neutrality is a recognized status,relevant during war

time situation.
• A neutral King has to offer equal access to both the
army during war

• For Example- Switzerland in Europe, turkmenistan in

Central Asia has recognized status of a natural
country.
 Kautilya has
Discussed Three
Types of War

1. Parakaram
2. Kutyudh 3. Tushnimyudh
Yudha

Direct War guerrilla war Proxy War

 Kautilya discuss
Three Types of
Victory

1. Dharmavijaya 2. LobhaVijay 3. Asur Vijay

Economic Inducement
Rightful Manner to Army to make them By Unfair Means
on our side
 Kautilya
Discusses
Fold Policy–
Use of

Sama Daam Danda Bheda

Kautilya even suggest to user religion.
 Kautilya suggest king to send spy in
disguise of Sadhu to the enemy King.
Sadhu can tell that the bad time of
Enemy King are coming.
Thus, Kautilya also believe in
psychological Warfare like Suntzu.
Kautilya also gives Six
Fold Policy(Shadgunya
Siddhant)
Kautilya suggested Following Options

1. Sandhi (treaty) if enemy is strong go for it.

Kautilya suggested Following Options

2. Vigraha  break the Sandhi, start war once you

become powerful.
Kautilya suggested Following Options

3. Aasana (to sit)- It means stationing troops near

enemy territory.
Kautilya suggested Following Options

4. Yana (mobilization of forces) military exercise near

enemy territory example China in Doklam
Kautilya suggested Following Options

5. Samashraya- Joining Hands with those who have

similar ends
Kautilya suggested Following Options

6. Davidbhava- dual policy- friendship with some and

war with others
Kautilya suggested Following Options

For example- instead of opening War on two front, it is

better to have Sandhi with other.
For example, India can go for peace with China, war
with Pakistan.
Kautilya has proveed George Tanham
wrong.
He represent the realist view of inter
State relation.
He represents offensive realism.
Other ideas of Kautilya
KAUTILYA ON CORRUPTION?
• According to Kautilya corruption is an inevitable fact of
public life.
• Why - In the words of Kautilya “Honey on the tongue, it is
not possible not to taste it”.
• Public Official handle so much of public resources, it is
unrealistic to expect that they will not use it for private
ends.
 SHOULD
CORRUPTION
BE
TACKLED
KAUTILYA ON CORRUPTION?
• Corruption should be Tackled Because it makes State Weak
Internally and Externally-

• 1. It weakens the capacity of the State to achieve Welfare

of the people
• 2. It brings moral of the people down, it is easy for enemy
King to provoke Rebel.
Problem in Tackling
Corruption.
Biggest problem is detection of corruption According to Kautilya.

1. It Is Easy To Detect The Movement Of The Birds

Flying In The Sky But It Is Not Easy To Detect Act Of
Corruption By Public Officials.
Biggest problem is detection of corruption According to Kautilya.

2. A Fish Swimming In The Water, it Is Difficult To

Suggest When It drunk The Water.
 According To Kautilya,
There May Be ways Of Embezzlement By Public Officials For Remember.

1. Officials may play With Weights And Measures

 According To Kautilya,
There May Be ways Of Embezzlement By Public Officials For Remember.

2. Officials May Take The Money Out And enter it Later

In The Account Book.
 According To Kautilya,
There May Be ways Of Embezzlement By Public Officials For Remember.

3. They May Sell Resources At A Higher Cost But May

Not Enter At Lower Price.
 According To Kautilya,
There May Be ways Of Embezzlement By Public Officials For Remember.

4. They May Take Out The Money From Public Fund But
Do Not Enter It.
Methods of Tackling Corruption

1. Right Sizing The Bureaucracy.

Methods of Tackling Corruption

2. Transfer Of Officials Before he Understand All The

Loopholes Of The Office
Methods of Tackling Corruption

3. Give Security And Reward To Whistleblowers

(Suchaks)
Methods of Tackling Corruption

4. He Suggest To Punish the Entire Chain And Not Just

the Official.
One Who Gives, One Who Receives, One Who Keeps
the Money
Methods of Tackling Corruption

5. He Suggests To Publicly Humiliate the Corrupt

Officials
Methods of Tackling Corruption

6. Rewards the Honest Officers.

Methods of Tackling Corruption

7. Compensation to the Person Who Had Suffered Loss

Because Of Corruption Of the Officials.
Kautilya on Espionage
Kautilya suggest the role of Spy in the
both internal as well as external
sphear.
 Kautilya mention
10 types of Spy
the prominent
type include

3. Grahapalika
(Living in the 4. Udastitha
1. Kapatika
2. Bhikhshukas house of person (Destitutes,
(Students)
who is to be Orphans)
spied)
 Question
• Q. Comparison between Kautilya and Machivelli?
• There is a tradition among political Scholars to compare
Kautilya and Machiavelli.
BOOK – “DISCOVERY OF INDIA”

• Pandit Nehru in his Book “Discovery Of India” has

called Kautilya as Indian Machiavelli.
BOOK – “POLITICS AS VOCATION”

• Max Weber in his Book “Politics As Vocation” has

mentioned that Kautilya is more Machiavellian then
Machiavelli.
• If we look at Kautilya King Machiavelli Prince appear harmless
Kautilya has given more Harsh advise in an explicit Manner as
comparison to Machiavelli

• Any person willing to learn the State craft will be benefited

more by Arthashastra in comparison to Prince because princes
is carrying advices which are indicative or generic in nature
where as Kautilya advices are very specific.
• Scholars like Moriz Winternitz, Bottazi have compared Kautilya
and Machiavelli in context of finding the route of realist
tradition.
Though Kautilya belong to ancient
India and Machiavelli belong to
modern West. yet there are many
similarities.
1. Both works are the work on
Statecraft.
 2. Both were concerned about the
internal and external State of affairs.
 3. Both were concerned about their
motherland aimed at protection from
internal and external thread.
4. Both are realists.
5. Both take pessimistic View of
Human Nature.
 6. Both look at politics in terms of
power.
However for both power is not for the
benefit of the Kings but for the
interest of the Nation.
7. Both believe that material welfare is
important.
8. Both suggest that prince should rule
with Iron Hand.
9. Both support expansionist Foreign
Policy.
THERE ARE SOME DIFFERENCES ALSO.

• For Example
• 1. Machiavelli makes separation between ethics and
politics where as Kautilya made no separation between
Dharma and Danda.
THERE ARE SOME DIFFERENCES ALSO.

• For Example
• 2. Machiavelli has not discussed the issue of corruption
and Institution of espionage in details like that of
Kautilya.
THERE ARE SOME DIFFERENCES ALSO.

• Kautilya was fortunate to see his ideas being implemented

during the lifetime.

• However Machiavelli was unfortunate as he never got his

Prince.
Buddhist Political View
QUE. DISCUSS THE SALIENT FEATURES OF BUDDHISM?
• Buddhism challenged few aspect of Brahmanism
primarily caste system.
• Buddhism is more other the worldly religion in
comparison to Hinduism, Buddhism is more
egalitarian tradition.

• It can be considered as the socialist tradition of India

because they considered private property as an evil.
 The Three Basic
Principles of Buddhism

1. Anicca 2. Anatta 3. Dukhha

 Anicca Anatta Dukhha

Means nothing Means Denial of Means world is

is Permanent. Self. Full of Source
 Buddhism believes in 4 Noble Truth.

1. World is full of sorrow

2. Ignorance, greed and hatred is the cause of sorrow

3. Liberation from sorrow means liberation from ignorance.

4. To liberate from ignorance follow 8 fold path

 Eightfold
Path

1. Right 2. Right 3. Right 4. Right

Conduct Speech thinking Aspirations
 Eightfold
Path

7. Right 8. Right
5. Right 6. Right
Contemplation Source Of
Believe Effort
& Meditation Livelihood
 Question
• Que. Discuss Salient Political Ideas of Buddhism
SALIENT POLITICAL IDEAS OF BUDDHISM

• Buddhism is based on the ideas of Gautam Buddha.

Gautam Buddha is not regarded as a political thinker
and philosopher in conventional sense.

• However, many Kings of his time used to visit him to

learn the principles of good governance.
• Scholars like professor Gopal Guru and Gail Omvedt
suggest that Buddha can be recognized as a political
philosopher.
• The source of Buddhist political ideas and Buddhist text
like Tipitakas as well as Ashokan edict.
ORIGIN OF STATE

• It is linked to be Institution of private property, once

private property came into existence, social conflict
started.
• Hence, people came together, enter into social
contract to create the State.
• In the Assembly of persons the Nobelist of all was
elected as the King referred as mahasammat in
Buddhism.
ORIGIN OF STATE

• Thus unlike Hinduism King has no divine personality,

he is a human being.
• there was no requirement of King to come from
kshatriya varna.

• Unlike Hinduism which support heriditary monarchy,

Buddhism favours Republican tradition.
ORIGIN OF STATE

• In Buddhism there is no need for King to be powerful

like Lion.
• King has to be Gentle, Liberal, Noble, Moderate,
Selfless.
ORIGIN OF STATE

• In Hinduism Chakravarti Samrat wins land in

Buddhism world monarch wins heart.

• In Hinduism Samrat rules by force, in Buddhism he

rules by law.
• In Hinduism wheel symbolizes the wheel of
chariot. in Buddhism wheel symbolizes Dharma
chakra
Ashoka has given certain
ideas and duties of the
King.
Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

1. King should live as per Dharma.

Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

2. King should serve humanity

Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

3. King should promote the spirit of toleration among

different religions.
Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

4. King should forbid cruelty towards animals.

Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

5. King should send messengers of peace to the

neighbours.
Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

6. King should adopt policy of non aggressive towards

neighbours
Ashoka has given Certain Ideas and Duties of the King

7. King should construct public utilities.

• Buddhism also give the earliest example of gender
equality as women were permitted to join Sangha.

• Buddhist monastery represent earliest example of

deliberative democracy.
 Thinkers in Modern India

1. Sir Syed 2.
3. 4. 5.
Ahmed Aurobindo
Gandhi M N Roy Ambedkar
Khan Ghosh
SIR SYED AHMED KHAN
(1817 -1898)
 Questions

• Que. Discuss the role of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan towards education
empowerment and modernization of Muslim community?.
• Que. Discuss why Sir Syed Ahmed Khan has been a controversial
figure among leaders of modern India.?
• Que. Account for the reasons as to how Sir Syed Ahmed Khan who
was an advocate of Hindu Muslim Unity became the originator of “2
National theory”.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Remains a
Controversial Figure
 He is criticized
by both

1. Members of
2. By Hindus.
his community
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY MUSLIM)

• He was criticized for his attempts for the

modernization of Muslim community.
• He was criticized by the orthodox sections

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan challenged the outdated

customs and traditions through his magazine title
"tehzeeb ul akhlaq"
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY MUSLIM)

• He attempted the modernist interpretation of Quran.

• He believed that Islam is compatible with science
and rationalism.

• He believed that Islam can adopt scientific way of

life.
 He suggested that Muslim youth
should keep Quran in one hand and
the book of science in the other hand.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY MUSLIM)

• He has founded a society in Ghazipur UP for scientific

research which was later on shifted to Aligarh.

• He also founded journal "Indian Institute Gazette"

for promotion of scientific research.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY HINDU)
1)
• Initially, he was an advocate of Hindu Muslim Unity
• He used to call Hindu and Muslim as the two eyes of
beautiful bride India.

• He has adviced Muslim to avoid eating beef and

respecting the sentiments of Hindu neighbours.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY HINDU)

• However his ideas changed later on, it is believed

that language controversy in UP has hurt Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY HINDU)

• Urdu in Persian script was the official language of the

province, there was a movement for making Hindi in
Devanagari script as the official language on the
assumption that Urdu has become the language of
Elite and Hindi has emerged as a lingua-Franca.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY HINDU)

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan felt that Hindus will not accept
what Muslims want Muslim will not accept what
Hindu want

• He accepted that these differences are going to

increase in future.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY HINDU)

• It is better if they live as separate communities.

• It is for this reason he is also considered as the

“Originator of two Indian Theory”.
WHY CRITICIZE? (BY HINDU)

• 2) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan has advised Muslim, not to

join INC

• WHY-
• Syed Ahmed Khan has witnessed the State of
frustration and stagnation among the members of
his community.
• He believed that education is the only means by
which stagnation can be tackled.

• He was convinced that Britishers are emerging as

the new force in India.
• It will not be possible for us to defeat by Britishers in
near future.
• Hence there is no point antagonizing Britishers.
• on the other hand,It is better to win confidence and
get support from government for educational
empowerment of Muslim.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote a Book titleed "asbab-i-
Baghawat e Hind" means causes of revolt of 1857 -
Britishers wear under the impression that Muslims
were responsible for The Revolt.

• Hence they started promoting Hindus at the cost of

Muslim.
• Through his book, he has clarified rather than
Muslims, real cause of the revolt was the wrong
policies of British administration.

• He has shown evidences where Muslim had actually

supported British officials during the revolt.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote a Book article the Loyal
Mohammedans of India

• He has expressed the loyalty of muslims and gave

assurance from the side of Muslims towards the
British raj.
• It is to be noted that he was successful in getting
help from the government for establishment of
Mohammedan Anglo Oriental college in Aligarh,
which Later on became Aligarh Muslim
University
 RELEVANCE

His status in Muslims can be treated at Par with Raja

Ram Mohan Roy among Hindus.
 RELEVANCE

Through he became controversial.

Still, he is one of the greatest leaders of the Muslims in
the subcontinent.
Muslim community in India is passing through similar
stages of frustration and stagnation.
 RELEVANCE

At present, Muslim community in India needs leaders

like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
 RELEVANCE

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan understood that instead of

politician or political mobility the most important
method of empowerment is educational
empowerment.
2. AUROBINDO GHOSH
(1872- 1950)
 Theory of Indian Nationalism

Criticism of Moderators

Aurobindo Ghosh Theory of Passive Resistance

His ideal of Human Unity

His Concept of Freedom.

• Aurobindo Ghosh is considered as the prophet of Indian
Nationalism.
• He is also considered as greatest spiritual philosopher of
modern India.
• RN Tagore held the world will come to know about India’s
genius Civilization and culture through Aurobindo.
• Aurobindo is considered as extremist leader as “Lal Bal Pal”

• He was critic of moderates, he has written series of article

in paper "Indu Prakash" with the title "new lamps for old".
 In these article he has
attacked.

1. Early 2. He attack moderators method of struggle

Nationalist views and he has given his theory on passive
on resistance.

A. India as a B. The Nature of

Nation the British rule.
• He entered on the political scene When as a result of the
efforts of early leaders, there was the growth of
Nationalism consciousness in the country.

• He was convinced that the youth in India are looking for

some bold actions and bold theory of Nationalism.
 Aurobindo believed that early
Nationalist have failed to capture the
spirit of new India.
 CRITICISM OF
MODERATOR VIEW ON
NATION
• The status of India as a Nation was challenged by the
colonial Masters
• Britishers held that India was not a Nation and India
is not more than a mere "Geographical Expression"

• Early Nationalist responded by admitting that India is

not a Nation but “Nation in making” Surender nath
Banerji
• Early Nationalist believed that under the forces of
modernization, India will emerge as a Nation.
• Early Nationalist considered British rule as a
blessing in disguise.

• They didn't want to antagonize Britishers.

• They preferred constitutional methods of struggle
known as “prayers, petitions and protest”.
• Aurobindo Ghosh challenged the moderate views
about the status of India as a Nation, he held that
India is a Nation and India was always a Nation

• He held in that the spirit of India as a Nation is not

dependent on congress Pandals,
• He held that foreign rule can never be a blessing in
disguise.
• It stops the natural evolution of the Nation,
He was extremely critical of moderators repeating
that British rule is blessing, it weakens the moral of
those who aims to fight the British,If they
continuously Praise the British rule.
• He held that the constitutional methods will not
work because British government is not a
constitutional, it is not accountable to Indians.
He suggested those methods which
can strike at the root of colonialism.
He suggested Swadeshi, boycott and
National education.
• He was convinced that British schools only teach
how to become loyalists.
• Hence, British schools should be boycotted.
• He also advocated National courts and boycott of
Administration to show Indians can live without
British institution.
• Britishers will leave the country only when it is not
profitable to live in India.
• Aurobindo Ghosh has supported passive resistance
method should be in Accordance to the
circumstances.
• He was not against using violence if conditions
permit.

• He had links with “Yugantar” Revolutionary Society

of Bengal.
• He was the first person to give concept of "Purna
Swaraj" though official it became the goal of INC in
1929, when Nehru was president.

• Theory of Nationalism
• (schools of Nationalism),
• there are three schools of thought with respect to
concept of Nation.
 Theory of
Nationalism

3. Cultural
1. Liberals 2. Marxist
Nationalism
1. LIBERALS
• According to them, Nation is a evolution.
• Nation is a modern concept, it comes with
modernization and rationalism.
• once society becomes rational, the significance
of religion declines.
• people come together for secular benefit.
2. MARXIST
• According to them the Nationalism is a false
consciousness promoted by bourgeoisie class to
weaken solidarity of workers (poor).
• prominent exponent Benedict Anderson has
called nation as "Invented Tradition".
3. CULTURAL NATIONALISM

• German School of Nationalism

SCHOLAR - HERDER

• According to this school “Nation is Real”

Nation is Eternal,
Nation has a Spirit,
Nation is Natural,
Existence of nation is based on the recognition of
common cultural symbols.
(Arvindo Ghosh Theory is known as
Theory Of Cultural Nationalism)
 Sources of inspiration

Aurobindo Ghosh
was inspired by

2. Patriotism of
1. Neo- Vedantism
Bankim Chandra
of Vivekananda
Chatterjee.
BANKIM CHANDRA CHATTERJEE

• Author Anand Math

1. NEO- VEDANTISM

• It Attacks Brahmanism and considers Brahminism

responsible for lack of unity.

• It suggests to go back to the principles of Sanatan Dharma.

 The Value of Sanatan
Dharma are

1. Universalism 2. Cosmopolitan

(One Common god

(Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam)
in all.)
 Vivekananda held that amidst
diversity there exist fundamental
Unity in India.
WHERE TO FIND THE UNITY -

• Unity is found in the way of life which has lot of common

things from East to West and north to south.
INFLUENCE ON AUROBINDO GHOSH

• Aurobindo Ghosh also believed in the presence of

unity in diversity, which is the basis of Nationalist
consciousness in the country,

• He also believed that the principles of Sanatan

Dharma can provide the foundational basis for
unification in India.
Vivekananda appealed to the youth in
India to dedicate themselves for the
cause of motherland, he held that
“arise awake and do not stop till the
goal is not achieved”.
INFLUENCE ON AUROBINDO GHOSH

• Aurobindo Ghosh also held that Nationalism should

be the new religion of youth in India.
• we require similar commitment for Nationalism
which we have for religion.
BANKIM CHANDRA CHATTERJEE

• He in his book "Anand Math" has projected India as

mother Goddesses 'Shakti'.

• He has inspired youths to set Mother India free from

the foreign chains.
• Aurobindo Ghosh appeal to the Indians youth to
sacrifice themselves for the cause of Mother India,
he is inspired by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.

• If Nationalism is inspired by Vivekananda,

• Patriotism is inspired by BC Chatterjee.

• Aurobindo Ghosh has also used the symbol of
Goddesses Shakti to frighten the Britishers.
• Goddesses Shakti represent the power of millions of
Indians challenging the foreign rule.

• Now these millions of Indian have come together to

fight the foreign rule.
• Thus, Aurobindo Ghosh spiritualised the idea of
Nationalism.
Aurobindo Ghosh on
Nationalism
Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

India is not a Nation in making, India was always a

Nation.
Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not Geographical expression,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not the collection of human being,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not a piece of land,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not a figure of speech,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not creation of mind,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not the figment of people's imagination,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not a political programme,

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is not an intellectual pastime.

Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nature is a Faith
Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is a Religion
Aurobindo Ghosh on Nationalism

Nation is Divine, Nation has a Spirit.

VIEWS ON INDIAN NATION

• There is a spirit of Nation that is present since

beginning.
• The spirit maybe sleeping, but it is now awakens.
spirit Never Dies.

• Spirit is bound to emerge. spirit cannot be

suppressed.
• Hence, nobody can stop the rise of India as a Nation.
A. Ghosh has mentioned that the rise
of India has a Divine Mission.
WHAT IS DIVINE MISSION
• It is through India Universal spirit aims to give his message.
• Only India has such civilizational values which can protect
the world from crisis.

• Hence the rise of India as a Nation is not just for the benefit
of India, it is for the benefit of humanity.
WHAT IS DIVINE MISSION
• Thus it is neither possible to stop the rise of India as a
Nation, non it is desirable to stop.
• On the other hand international community should not
stop the emergence of India as a Nation.

• Why?
• It is a collective good.
 According to A. Ghosh,
India has to deliver the divine message
which it cannot do in State of slavery.
AUROBINDO GHOSH ON HUMAN UNITY

• Aurobindo view on the ideal of Human Unity is the

next logical step after independence of India.
• Indian Nationalism is different from the narrow
jingoistic Nationalism.
• Indian Nationalism is based on the values of Sanatan
Dharma.
• Sanatan Dharma is based on universalism and
cosmopolitism.

• Independence of India is just a intermediate

Step, yet a necessary step before the emergence
of cosmopolitan world order.
 According to A. Ghosh,
Aggregation is the law of Universe,
man is not self sufficient, man forms
the family, families together form the
Nation.
• Nations have to come together to create the
Cosmopolitan world order.

• We are passing through such a phase where we

will not be able to solve contemporary problems
on our own.
 According to A. Ghosh,
Either we follow the law of nature or
nature will destroy us.
RELEVANCE OF AUROBINDO'S IDEA IN PRESENT TIME

• In context of the rise of global thrats like climate change,

transnational terrorism, Radicalism.
• we can say that it is beyond the capacity of any single
Nation, even superpowers to deal on its own.
• we can address these Global problems only when act with
the spirit of cosmopolitanism.
AUROBINDO ON FREEDOM

• In the words of Aurobindo "craving for freedom is lodged

so deep in human heart that even thousands of argument
are powerless to approve it"
AUROBINDO ON FREEDOM

• Swaraj has been the goal of freedom movement.

• The concept of Swaraj kept on evolving.
• Aurobindo was the first person to talk about Purna Swaraj
or complete liberation from the foreign rule, though
officially Purna Swaraj became the official goal only in
1929.
AUROBINDO ON FREEDOM

• Aurobindo Ghosh categorically Stated that foreign rule

cannot be a blessing in disguise.

• There is an evolution in Aurobindo idea of Swaraj or

freedom.
AUROBINDO ON FREEDOM

• He not only discusses Swaraj in terms of liberation from the

foreign rule.

• He discussed Swaraj even in context of society.

 According to A. Ghosh,
The biggest challenge in any theory of
freedom, is how to achieve freedom
that is not detrimental to the interest
of wider society.
Aurobindo neither approved capitalistic system nor
socialist system.
• Socialist system completely oppress the individual
where as capitalist system is based on the
mechanistic view of freedom.
• in capitalist system where everybody is concerned
only about itself.
• There will be a situation of Chao.
• Hence, idea of freedom of individual has to be based
on gospel of humanity.
 Aurobindo
Ghosh mention
about the
triangle of

Liberty Equality Fraternity

 According to A. Ghosh,
Individual freedom should be in
harmony with interest of Nation and
humanity as a whole.
• In later years of his life, he started looking at the
freedom in a metaphysical and spiritualistic sense.
• He believed in the concept of sachidanand which
means (Sat+Chit+Anand).
• The objective of life is attainment of happiness, the
attainment of happiness is based on the realisation
of ultimate reality, The realization of utimate reality
depends upon achieving the State of supermind.
• The State of supermind requires integral yoga,
integral Yog combines (Dharma yoga, Gyan Yog,
Rajyog ,Bhakti yoga, karmayog, hathyog)

• Integral yoga requires (tap and sadhna) only through

integral yog, we can move from fragmented
disoriented State to a much sharper and clear
understanding of ourself.
 GANDHI
(1869-1948)
INTRODUCTION

• Rightly called as Mahatma

• Gandhi is the second most popular personalities

after Jesus Christ as per Time Magazine survey.
GANDHISM

• Gandhi denied the existence of any school of thought

like Gandhism
• Gandhi described himself as Man of action.

• Gandhi never claimed that he knows the ultimate

truth.
• Gandhi described his life as Experiment With Truth.
According to Professor Humayun Kabir,
Gandhi cannot be regarded as the
political philosopher in conventional
sense.
 According to Bipin Chandra-
Psychologist master of strategist and
exceptional politician
GANDHISM

• Even though Gandhi denied the existence of

Gandhism. there are people who consider
themselves as Gandhians and hence we cannot say
that Gandhism as a school of thought does not exist .
INFLUENCE
ON
GANDHI
Influence On Gandhi

• 1. The biggest influence on Gandhi is of his mother who

was extremely religious.

• Gandhi is inspired by various religions like Vaishnavism,

Jainism, Christianity.
 2. He was also
influenced by the
great thinkers like

Socrates Plato
 3. He was
influenced by
the

Edward
Leo Tolstoy John Ruskin
Carpenter.
School Of Thought

• As far as his epistemology is concerned, he can be called as

postmodernist
• As far as his political philosophy is considered we can call
him moral anarchist.
Thought Of Gandhi

1. Non Violence
Thought Of Gandhi

2. Satyagraha
Thought Of Gandhi

3. Swaraj
Thought Of Gandhi

4. Sarvodaya
Thought Of Gandhi

5. His critique of modern civilization

Thought Of Gandhi

6. His theory of ends and means.

Thought Of Gandhi

7. His views on Right and duties.

 Thought Of Gandhi

8. His views on State, democracy, women education.

 1. Non Violence

1) NON VIOLENCE

• It is the fundamental principle of Gandhism,

• For Gandhi non violence is article of Faith or matter of

religion.
 1. Non Violence

According to Gandhi,
The objective of life is to understand
the truth or God.
 1. Non Violence

• Gandhi believed in the continuity of ends and means.

• If the objective of life is to attain the God than means

cannot be those of shaitan.
 1. Non Violence

• He was influenced by Jesus Christ.

• Jesus Christ was the symbol of love and

humanity.
 1. Non Violence

According to Gandhi,
He cannot tell what is ultimate truth.
However he was sure that "Ahimsa""
is the path or a way of life to be follow
if one wants to understand God.
 1. Non Violence

HINSA

• According to Gandhi,
• Hinsa belong to the world of animal because either
their soul is sleeping or undeveloped.

• There is no rule of hinsa in the life of humans.

Human have soul and reason.
 1. Non Violence

AHIMSA

• According to Gandhi,
• "Ahimsa"" should not be understood in the Limited
sense of not committing violence.

• "Ahimsa"" is based on the feeling of love and

brotherhood.
 1. Non Violence

AHIMSA

• Only ""Ahimsa""" is the source of peace.

• According to Gandhi, one have to take the

responsibility if somebody is my enemy. my enemy is
part of my self, I have to rectify myself.
 1. Non Violence

• According to Gandhi nobody can hurt the other person

without hurting himself.

• Nobody can degrade the other person without degrading

himself.
• Thus ""Ahimsa""" is linked to the concept of human
dignity.
 1. Non Violence

Gandhi suggested,
To observe ""Ahimsa""" in thoughts,
speech and action.
 Gandhi suggested,
""Ahimsa""" can be employed
between humans towards animals as
well as environment.
 2. Satyagraha

2) SATYAGRAHA

• Satyagraha is a Political Technique of Gandhi.

• Gandhian movements are called Satyagraha.

• Gandhi had developed a technique of Satyagraha as a

method of Protest in South Africa.
 2. Satyagraha

• In India he has employed the technique “first at local level

like Champaran, kheda and later on all India level.

• He kept on experimenting and perfecting the technique.

 2. Satyagraha

• One of the best example of Gandhian Satyagraha was civil

disobedience movement.

• He have employed both Mass satyagraha as well as

individual Satyagraha.
PHILOSOPHY BEHIND SATYAGRAHA

• 1. Gandhi has differentiated between Satayagraha

and Passive Resistance.
• What Is The Difference?

• According to Gandhi, in passive resistance person may

not be using force because of the situation.
• However, for Satyagraha non violence is an article of
Faith.
PHILOSOPHY BEHIND SATYAGRAHA

• 2. In passive resistance person may think that the

other person is his enemy.
• However there is no enemy for a Satyagraha, he is
against evil and not against Evil doer.

• Satyagraha has a feeling of love and brotherhood

rather than enemity.
PHILOSOPHY BEHIND SATYAGRAHA

• Thus, non violence is at the heart of Satyagrahi.

• Satyagraha is the battle between Good and evil.

• Hence, means and ends should have continuity.

 According to Gandhi,
Satyagraha is a weapon of strong,
rather than weapon of weak.
PHILOSOPHY BEHIND SATYAGRAHA

• It is a weapon of those who are spiritually strong and

not just physically strong.
• Gandhi has clarified that Satyagraha should not be
equated with cowardice.

• Gandhi held that between violence and being

coward. he will choose violence.
WHY GANDHI HAS USED SATYAGRAHA?
• Gandhi was a great politician.

• He was in the habit of giving larger than life view of

whatever he used to do.
WHY GANDHI HAS USED SATYAGRAHA?
• When he called Indian Freedom Struggle Satyagraha, for
freedom struggle was not just any other fight.
• It started looking extraordinary.

• it got spiritualised.
• It became the battle between good and evil
WHY GANDHI HAS USED SATYAGRAHA?
• It became the Dharmayuddha.

• Gandhi wanted to communicate that the fight is for the

truth, for the Right cause and hence ultimately Indians are
going to win.
 3. Concept Of Swaraj

CONCEPT OF SWARAJ
Concept Of Swaraj

1. Swaraj is an Indian version of Liberty

 Concept Of Swaraj

2. Swaraj has been the goal of freedom struggle.

 Concept Of Swaraj

3. For earlier leaders Swaraj was self rule under British

State or Dominion.
 Concept Of Swaraj

4. It was Aurobindo Ghosh who gave the concept of

Purna Swaraj.
 Concept Of Swaraj

5. Aurobindo has influenced Gandhi's concept of

Swaraj.
 Concept Of Swaraj

5. For Gandhi, Swaraj was not just liberation from

foreign rule.
For Gandhi, the end of foreign rule was just a means
and not an end, for Gandhi Swaraj was not to be seen
as transfer of power from the one set of ruler to
another.
 Concept Of Swaraj

6. Swaraj meant giving the life of dignity to the poorest

of poor.
To give life of dignity ,we have to address mass poverty,
only way to address mass poverty is Democratic
decentralization.
Gandhi aim was to establish Ram
Rajya.
RAM RAJYA
Ram Rajya

• Ram Rajya is a Stateless society.

• In Rama Rajya the society is based on the idea of oceanic
circles of power.

• Here individual is at the centre.

Ram Rajya

• Power lies with the individual.

• However power is not for exploitation but for the
empowerment.

• Ramrajya denote democratic decentralisation.

 According to Gandhi,
“State is the symbol of weakness of
Man”.
Ram Rajya

• To end the relevance of State in our life we require Swaraj.

• Gandhi Swaraj is based on the ideal of Swaraj given in the

Mundaka upanishad.
Ram Rajya

• Unlike west where freedom means end of restriction.

• Swaraj means putting restriction.
• Man Achieves Swaraj only When he is able to control his
Desires.
• Hence self control will eliminate the need of State.
Gandhi has described Swaraj in Different Dimension

1. At level of individual Which means self-controlled.

Gandhi has described Swaraj in Different Dimension

2. Swaraj in political sphere means democratic

decentralization.
Gandhi has described Swaraj in Different Dimension

3. Economics  Swaraj means economic

reorganization of the society to fulfill the basic needs.
instead of mass production,
Gandhi suggested Production by
masses.
He suggested revival of cottage
industries and land to tillers.
Gandhi has described Swaraj in Different Dimension

4. Social Swaraj-
Means ending Untouchability and communal violence.
Gandhi has described Swaraj in Different Dimension

5. Cultural Swaraj-
Gandhi suggested that one should accept good things
from all cultures and religions without being uprooted
by them.
Gandhi has described Swaraj in Different Dimension

5. Cultural Swaraj-
If we will not respect our culture world will not respect
because culture is our identity.
If we will not respect out culture, how the world will
respect out culture. Culture is our identity.
 4. Concept Of Sarvodaya

CONCEPT OF SARVODAYA

• (Bread Labour, Trusteeship)

INTRODUCTION

• Sarvodaya- Gandhi socialism

• Gandhi has translated John Ruskin book UNTO THIS
LAST into Gujarati with title Sarvodaya.

• The book is not just translation but Gandhi has

added his own Idea also.
 Question
• What Is The Theme Of Gandhi’s Socialism?
THEME OF GANDHI’s SOCIALISM
• Gandhi does not suggest equal pay for all works, Gandhi
suggest equal respect for all works.
• Like John Ruskin, Gandhi suggested that the work of the
barber is as important as of a lawyer.
• Both works deserves equal respect.
• His concept of bread labour is associated with idea of
dignity of labour.
 Question
• What Does A Bread Labour Means?
BREAD LABOUR

• The idea is that every person should perform some form of

physical labour.
• Why?
• This is way we can understand the “pains and hardships
of those who perform Manual labor”
BREAD LABOUR

• Why?
• This is the way we can develop respect for Manual
labour.
• Gandhi Sarvodaya aim at giving the “Life of Dignity to the
Masses” and hence it is a major component of Gandhi
constructive programme.
Gandhi has Proposed

1. Land Reform means Land to Tillers.

Gandhi has Proposed

2. Revival of Cottage Industry.

Gandhi has Proposed

3. Suggested promotion of Khadi.

 Gandhi has Proposed

4. Favored production of masses rather than mass

production.
 Gandhi has Proposed

5. Unlike Marx who suggested violent overthrow of

capitalism.
Gandhi suggest Trusteeship.
Gandhi suggested to appeal to the
conscious of the capitalist class.
• He appeal to respect for Manual labour.
• capitalist should consider themselves as a Trustee of
the capital rather than owner of the capital.

• Gandhi believed that capital is social production.

• Hence capitalist should keep what is required for the

running the industry.
• What is enough for the personal use and should
contribute the remaining part for the well being of
the society.

• One of the principle of Gandhi was that there is

enough for the need but not enough for the greed.
GANDHIAN CRITIQUE OF MODERN CIVILIZATION -

• Source of influence  Edward Carpenter.

• He has demonstrated the negative

consequences of modern medicine on human
health.
 Question
• What was Gandhi view on modern Civilization?
GANDHI VIEW ON MODERN CIVILIZATION

• He called modern civilization at Satanic civilization,

• He criticize the modern civilization not because it is

western but because of its negative consequences.

• Gandhi didn’t reject everything that is Western.

GANDHI VIEW ON MODERN CIVILIZATION

• Gandhi was influenced by the idea of Socrates &

Plato.

• Gandhi even translated plato's dialogue in Gujarati.

 Question
• Why Gandhi opposed To Modern Civilization?
 He opposed because of
the values of Modern
Civilization.

1. Utilitarianism 2. Materialism
• Gandhi believed that utilitarianism undermines Human
Dignity.
• It reduces human beings to the level of animal.

• Human being simply as consumer of utility, having no

regard for the Ethics.
• He believed that imperialism and fascism are product of
utilitarianism.
• Utilitarianism reduces man to the level of animal, we do
not feel that exploiting the fellow human being just for our
pleasure.

• Utilitarianism and a materialism are interlinked.

• excessive materialism has negative consequences not only
for society but also for environment.
• According to Gandhi “the path of development which
Western world has followed in last hundred years, if
same path of the development is adopted by others,
even nine more earth will not be sufficient.”
GANDHI CONCEPT OF CIVILIZATION

• Civilization is not which reduces man to the level of

animal or convert man into Shaitan.
• true civilization is which makes us better human
being.

• Civilization is not about the satisfaction of wants, it is

about control over Desires.
GANDHI CONCEPT OF CIVILIZATION

• Gandhi was extremely critical of Machiavellian which

separate politics and ethics.

• He also linked colonial exploitation and imperialist

wars to the Machiavellian idea of pure power
politics.
WHY GANDHI FOETICIDES WESTERN CIVILIZATION?
• His critique of Western Civilization can be seen
as his attempt to establish counter hegemony, it
challenges the discourse of white man's burden
or civilizing mission.

• It can be considered as Gandhi's war of position.

 Gandhi on ends and means?

• GANDHI
ON
ENDS AND MEANS
GANDHI ON ENDS AND MEANS?

• Gandhi believed in the continuity of ends and

means, He was critic of Machiavellianism which
separate ends and means,

• Machiavelli has given priority to end our means and

held that ends justify the means.
GANDHI ON ENDS AND MEANS?
• Gandhi was aware of negative consequences of
separating ends and means.
• Gandhi was influenced by Gokhale who was trying to
introduce spiritualism in politics.

• It is for this reason Gandhi considered Gokhale as his

political Guru.
GANDHI ON ENDS AND MEANS?
• Gandhi held that politics without religion and ethics
is like a death trap.

• Hence, it is the only way we can make politics

legitimate, is by bringing ethics into politics.
• We can also see the influence of Greek thinkers like
Socrates who believe that the question of good life
cannot be separated from the good political life.
 Gandhi believed that separation of
End and means is illogical.
In his book “Hind Swaraj”.
He has written that we cannot expect
rose flowers by sowing the seeds of
babool.
GANDHI ON ENDS AND MEANS?

• Gandhi has applied his theory of the continuity of

ends & means In his struggle for independence.
• since freedom movement was Satyagraha, the path
to be adopted is part of "Ahimsa"".
GANDHI ON RIGHTS AND DUTIES-

• Gandhi Believed in functional interdependence on Rights

and duties.
• He was influenced by the philosophy of Geeta.

• Geeta emphasize on “Nishkam Karma”

 According to Geeta.
“Do your duty reward is not thy
concern”.
• Gandhi believe that Rights are inherent in the duties
performed in embryonic sense.

• If we perform our duty we automatically, get our Rights

• It is wrong to think that we can enjoy Rights without
fulfillment of our obligations.
• It is also to be noted that Gandhi does not sacrifice
individual for the sake of society.

• Nor Gandhi support the atomistic view of man, he gives

importance to human dignity and believed in coexistence.
GANDHI ON STATE

• Gandhi is anarchist, he is influenced by Leo Tolstoy's

book- “Kingdom of God within You”

• He is called as moral anarchist.

GANDHI ON STATE

• He believed that State is a symbol of weakness in

men.

• He advocates Swaraj or self-control.

• He called State as soul less machine incompatible
with the principle of "Ahimsa"".
GANDHI ON STATE

• Even smallest State requires some amount of police

or Army.
• His ideal State is “Ram Rajya” a Stateless society
based on the idea of oceanic circles of power.
 GANDHI
ON
EDUCATION
Gandhi gave the idea of “Nayee
Taleem”
 GANDHI ON EDUCATION

1. According to him one Should learn from the book of

life.
According to him, life is the best teacher.
 GANDHI ON EDUCATION

2. Earn while learn.

education has to be a lifelong process and so a person
should be in a position to avoid the education on his
own.
He emphasize on vocational education.
 GANDHI ON EDUCATION

3. He favored the teachings of Home Science, Nursing,

and Forestry.
 Gandhi On Women

1. Gandhian movements play critical role in the

mobilization of women in political sphere despite India
being a highly patriarchal society.
 Gandhi On Women

2. Women have special role in Gandhi's constructive

programme like promotion of Khadi, ending
Untouchability.
 Gandhi On Women

3. According to Gandhi, Sita and Draupadi should be

ideal of women in India, They are the symbol of moral
power, Ravan could not touch Sita because of her moral
strength.
Gandhi On Democracy

1. He favored party less democracy.

 Gandhi On Democracy

He was critique of political parties compare them with

prostitutes.
Gandhi On Democracy

2. He favored Democratic Decentralization.

M.N Roy 1887-1954
INTRODUCTION

• According to Sudipta Kaviraj,

• “ MN Roy was remarkable failure”

INTRODUCTION

• He was critique of Gandhi.

• He is considered as one of the greatest philosophers
of modern India .

• He gave the philosophy of Radical Humanism

 Question
• Ideational Journey of MN Roy?
 Journey of MN Roy

Phase I- Phase II- Phase III-

Until 1920 From 1930 To 1940 From 1940 onwards
PHASE I -UnTIL 1920
• Started as a revolutionary
• He was associated with yugantar
• He was influenced by “Jatin Das”

• He was sent abroad to procure arms for

revolutionaries.
• He happened to attend lecture delivered by Lala
Lajpat Rai .
PHASE I -UPTIL 1920
• He wanted to know the strategy of INC
• With respect to addressing poverty of masses in
India, he could not get the satisfactory answer.

• He started the search for the answer and got

influenced by Marx, became the founding member
of “Communist Party” of Mexico.
• very soon he became a very renowned personality
in Marxism.
M N ROY AS A MARXIST-

• He considered Marx as a greatest philosopher and

the liberator of mankind.
• during this phase, he was critic of Gandhi and INC.

• He called INC as a bourgeoise party and Gandhi as a

burgeoise leader.
 M N Roy View On Gandhi

1. Gandhi's political program is not in the interest of

masses.
 M N Roy View On Gandhi

2. Gandhi's non violence is actually violence on mass.

M N Roy View On Gandhi

3. Gandhi is mediaeval and reactionary.

 M N Roy View On Gandhi

4. Gandhi's charkha economy has no solutions for

addressing the basic needs of masses in India.
 M N Roy View On Gandhi

5. Gandhi was working against masses and had

understanding with colonial master.
Arrest of Gandhi by government was political drama, it
is for this reason, they used to release him within few
days
 M N Roy View On Gandhi

6. Gandhi was not a strong man but a “weak and

watery Men” looking for appointments with viceroy.
 M N Roy View On Gandhi

7. Gandhi's intention against mass is clear when Gandhi

called off the non cooperation movement abruptly.
 M N Roy View On Gandhi

Gandhi feared That Power Will shifts from his hands to

the hands of masses.
 According to Sudipta Kaviraj,
“He can be charged of the Guilt of
Heteronomy”.
Note -What Is Heteronomy?
• Applying the history of some other country without
understanding the indigenous context.
• M.N. Roy's assumptions about Gandhi and INC are
influenced by approach of bourgeoisie class in Germany.

• During this phase M. N. Roy developed difference with

Lenin.
• Lenin has invited him to second communist international.

• Why-
• Lenin wanted to decide, what position communist
international should take towards the freedom movement
going on in colonies.

Lenin Roy Debate?

• Since MN Roy belongs to India, a British Colony and had
recognition of Marxist scholar.
• Lenin thought his insights would be useful.

• He entered into debate with Lennin and was finally outsted

from communist international.

Lenin Roy Debate?

 Question
• What Was The Issue Of Debate?
Disagreements over strategy

LENIN'S VIEW
Lenin suggested to stage revolution.
 Stages
Revolution

I Stage II Stage
 I Stage II Stage

• Communist international • Once country is liberated from

should support Nationalist foreign rule,Attempts should
party like INC in India and be made to bring communist
kuomintang led by Sun yat revolution.
Sen.
 Roy's View

1. No need for two stage revolution.

 Roy's View

2. No need to support Nationalist Parties.

 Roy's View

3. Directly support the Communist Parties workers and

peasants parties.
• He held that a parallel message movement is emerging in
colonies and hence we can directly support masses

• He held that in India masses are ready for communist

revolution.
PHASE II- FROM 1930 TO 1940

• He joins INC with the objective to Radicalised the

congress from within, he established a League of
Radical congressmen
PHASE II- FROM 1930 TO 1940

• During this phase, He become sympathetic to Gandhi

and critic of Marxism.

• He acknowledged that Gandhi's programs certainly

helped masses.
Disagreements over strategy

ROY’S CRITICISM
OF
MARXISM
WHICH MARXISM ROY CRITICIZE?

• Which Marxism he criticized  Soviet Marxism

• Even when he criticized Marxism ,
• He continued to believe that he is Marxist and
he is not leaving Marxism, he is only
reinterpreting it.
• He called it as his humanist interpretation of
Marxism.
 1. Historical Materialism

2. Dialectical Materialism
He has criticized
following principle 3. Class Struggle
of Marxism
4. Surplus Value

5. Revolution
1. HISTORICAL MATERIALISM-

• It is not a scientific explanation of history because it has

overlooked the role of idea in shaping history.
2. DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM-

• He said that dialectical materialism is actually idealism not

real materialism.
3. CLASS STRUGGLE

• According to him history is not the result of class struggle

rather class cooperation.
4. SURPLUS VALUE

• Surplus Value is bound to emerge and is not the cause of

exploitation, what is required is equitable distribution of
surplus value.
5. REVOLUTION

• Real Revolution is not the change in mode of production

but Revolution is change in the the mode of thinking.
PHASE III- FROM 1940 ONWARDS

• He Left Congress on the issue of “Quit India

Movement”

• He felt that Quit India Movement will weaken the

fight against Fascism.
PHASE III- FROM 1940 ONWARDS

• During this phase ,he gave his own Philosophy of

initially he called as New Humanism, but later on
rename as Radical Humanism.
• He inaugurated “Radical Democratic Party” and give
22 thesis of Radical humanism but later disbanded
the party and started movement for Radical
Humanism.
RADICAL HUMANISM
What Is The Purpose Of Radical Humanism?

He defines it as Philosophy of freedom.

The ultimate aim is Liberation of man.
WHAT IS HUMANISM?

• It is philosophy which keeps human being at the centre, its

origin can be traced to the idea of Protagoras In ancient
Greece.
• Humanism was revived in Modern Times as a result of
renaissance.
• MN Roy called his philosophy as new Humanism.
WHAT IS THE NEW IN HIS HUMANISM?

• It is based on understanding of different Scholars as well as

the experience of centuries.
• It is more refined and perfect from the humanism,

• He later on changed the name to Radical Humanism.

What Does Radical Symbolise?

Radical means root.

It takes human being at the core.
it takes human being in Radical sense.
QUESTION
❑ Choose correct option…..
[a] Buddhism gave the notion of ‘Panchsheel’.
[b] Agganna Sutta gave theory of two wheel.
[c] Gautam Buddha known as Socrates of South East Asia.
[d] Aggana Sutta is the 27th Sutta of the 34th Digha Nikaya.

[a] a & b are correct [c] All are correct

[b] a & d are correct [d] a, b, & d are correct
EXPLANATION
❑ Choose correct option…..
o Buddhism gave the notion of ‘Panchsheel’.
o Agganna Sutta gave theory of tw o wheel.
o Gautam Buddha know n as Socrates of South East Asia.
o Aggana Sutta is the 27th Sutta of the 34th Digha Nikaya.
Note - Periyar know n as Socrates of South East Asia.
QUESTION
❑ Match the following ……
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Begampura [1] Kabir Das
[b] Amarpura & Prempura [2] Upadhyaya
[c] Islamic State [3] Sri Aurobindo
[d] Chiti [4] Raidas [Ravidas]
[e] Immortal Nationalism [5] Ziauddin Barani
[a] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4,e-5 [c] a-1,b-3,c-5,d-3,e-2
[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-3 [d] a-4,b-1,c-5,d-2,e-3
EXPLANATION

CONCEPT THINKER
Begampura Raidas[Ravidas]
Amarpura & Prempura Kabir Das
Islamic State Ziauddin Barani
Chiti Upadhyaya
Immortal Nationalism Sri Aurobindo
QUESTION
❑ Which key work known as – first Hindu Feminist Manifesto?

[a] Stri Dharma Niti

[b] The High Caste Hindu Women
[c] The Cry of Indian Women
[d] Why were Women Enslaved
EXPLANATION
❑ In 1887, Pandita Ramabai wrote key oeuvre ‘The High Caste
Hindu Women’ which is known as – 1st Hindu Feminist
Manifesto. Her other key works are…..
The Testimony
Stri Dharma Niti
The Cry of Indian Women
The Rise & Fall of the Aryan Race
Voice to England - 1883
The New Testament - 1924
Famine experience in India - 1890
QUESTION

❑ What are the key works of Sri Aurobindo…..?

[1] The Mother[1960]
[2] Essays on Gita[1922]
[3] The Human Cycle [1949]
[4] The Ideal of Human Unity [1918]
[5] Idea of my Dreams[1947]

[a] Only 1 & 2 [c] All 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

[b] Only 1,
1,2,3,4
2, 3 & 4 [d] Only 2, 3 & 4
EXPLANATION
❑ Idea of my Dreams[1947] is w ritten by Mahatma Gandhi.
❑ Key Works of Sri Aurobindo Ghosh are-
[1] The Ideal of Human Unity [1918]
[2] The Secrets of the Vedas[1914-1918]
[3] The Life Dive[1919]
[4] Essays on Gita[1922]
[5] The bases of Yoga[1936]
[6] Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol[1940]
[7] Synthesis of Yoga[1948]
[8] The Human Cycle[1949]
[9] The Defense of Indian Culture[1959]
[10] The Mother[1960]
[11] The hours of God[2019]
QUESTION

❑ Which of the Following is not written by V D Savarkar?

[1] The Indian War of Independence 1857 - 1909
[2] Hindu-Pad-Padashahi – 1925
[3] Awake Hindustan – 1945
[4] We or our Nationhood defined – 1963
[5] Essentials of Hindutva - 1923

[a] Only 1, 2 & 3 [c] Only 3, 4 & 5

[b] Only33&&4 4
[b] Only Only 3 & 4 [d] Only 4
EXPLANATION
❑ Awake Hindustan – 1945 is w ritten by Shayama Prasad Mukherjee.
❑ We or our Nationhood defined – 1963 is w ritten by M. S. Golwalkar.
❑ Key Works of V. D. Savarkar are-
[1] The Indian War of Independence 1857 – 1909
[2] Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? – 1923
[3] Hindu-Pad-Padashahi – 1925
[4] Inside the Enemy Camp - 2016
[5] Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History – 2020
[6] My Transportation for life - 2021
❑ Some other w orks of Savarkar are….
 QUESTION
❑ Who argued that – Right of Privacy and Freedom must be
recognized in all sphere, which are not directly connected
with Property?

[a] M N Roy

[b] Tilak Only 3 & 4

[c] J P

[d] R M Lohia
EXPLANATION
❑ “Right of Privacy and Freedom must be recognized in all
sphere, which are not directly connected with Property.”
This is quote by Lohia.
❑ Lohia gave some important concepts……

1. Wheel of History
2. Chaukhamba Model
3. Equidistance Theory
4. Sapta Kranti
5. Asiatic Socialism
EXPLANATION
❑ Lohia also w rote some key books. Such as…..
1. Fragments of world History-1949
2. Fundamentals of world mind-1949
3. Wheel of History-1955
4. Marx, Gandhi and Socialism-1963
5. India, China & Northern Froentier-1963
6. Foreign Policy-1963
7. The Caste System-1964
8. Interval During Politics-1965
9. Guilty Man of India’s Partition-1970
QUESTION
❑ Match the following…..
GANDHI’S ASHRAM YEAR
[a] Phoenix Ashram [1] 1915
[b] Tolstoy Ashram [2] 1936
[c] Sabarmati Ashram [3] 1910
[d] Sevagram Ashram [4] 1904

[a] a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3 [c] a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2

[b] a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4 Only [d] a-4, b-2, c-1, d-3
3&4
EXPLANATION
GANDHI’S ASHRAM YEAR
[a] Phoenix Ashram 1904[South Africa]
[b] Tolstoy Ashram 1910 [South Africa]
[c] Sabarmati Ashram 1915
[d] Sevagram Ashram 1936
❑ Some keys Magazines of Gandhi Ji are….
o Young India
o Harijan
o Nav Jivan
o Harijan Sew ak
o Harijan Bandhu
o Indian Opnion [South Africa]
QUESTION
❑ Match the following…..
BHARAT RATNA RACIPIENTS YEAR
[a] P J Nehru [1] 1999
[b] B R Ambedkar [2] 1991
[c] J P Narayana [3] 1990
[d] Rajiv Gandhi [4] 1955

[a] a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3 [c] a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2

[b] a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4 Only [d] a-4, b-2, c-1, d-3
3&4
EXPLANATION
BHARAT RATNA RACIPIENTS YEAR
[a] P J Nehru 1955
[b] B R Ambedkar 1990
[c] J P Narayana 1999
[d] Rajiv Gandhi 1991

❑ Other Bharat Ratna Recipients are….

1. C. Rajagopalachari-1954 2. Lal Bahadur Shastri-1966
3. Vinoba Bhave-1983 4. Nelson Mandela-1990
5. Vallabhbhai Patel-1991 6. Abul Kalam Azad-1992
7. A P J Abdul Kalam-1997 8. Amartya Sen-1999
9. Madan Mohan Malaviya-2015 10. Atal Bihari Vajpayee-2015
11. Pranab Mukherjee-2019
QUESTION
❑ Who argued that-“Bhakti in Religion may be a road to the
Salvation of the soul. But in Politics, Bhakti or Hero-worship
is a sure road to degradation and eventual dictatorship?”

[a] Mahatma Gandhi

[b] Nehru Only 3 & 4

[c] B R Ambedkar

[d] Swami Vivekananda

EXPLANATION
❑ Ambedkar argued that - “Bhakti in Religion may be a road to the
Salvation of the soul. But in Politics, Bhakti or Hero-worship is a sure
road to degradation and eventual dictatorship?”

❑ Ambedkar know n as Modern Manu.

❑ He was 1st Law Minister of India.
❑ He also argued that – “I w as born a
Hindu but I w ill not die as one.”
❑ He was Chairman of Drafting Committee
and father of the Indian Constitution.
❑ On 5th Feb. 1951 he entered the Hindu
Code Bill in the Parliament but due to
dissolved he compelled to do from Nehru
Government.
EXPLANATION
❑ Ambedkar also formed some Key organizations…..

1. Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha-1924

2. Independent Labor Party-1936
❑ But, In 1957 its name changed as – Republican Party.
3. All India Schedule Caste Federation - 1942

❑ Ambedkar also associated w ith tw o magazines.

o MOOKNAYAK – 1920
o BAHISHKRIT BHARAT - 1927
QUESTION
❑ Match the following…..
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Lokswaraj [1] Ambedkar
[b] Mandal Theory [2] Manu
[c] Dhramshastra [3] Kautilya
[d] Graded Inequality [4] J P Narayana

[a] a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3 [c] a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1

[b] a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4 Only [d] a-4, b-2, c-1, d-3
3&4
EXPLANATION
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Loksw araj [1] Ambedkar
[b] Mandal Theory [2] Manu
[c] Dhramshastra [3] Kautilya
[d] Graded Inequality [4] J P Narayana

❑ Some other concepts are …..

o Constitutional Morality – Ambedkar
o Secular State – Nehru
o Passive Resistance – A. Ghosh
o Two Concepts Violence – M. Gandhi
o Bread Labor – M. Gandhi
o Oceanic Circle – M. Gandhi
EXPLANATION
o Sovereignty of Truth – M. Gandhi
o Seven Revolution – J P Narayana
o Voluntary Poverty – Gandhi
o Sarvodya – Gandhi, Bhave & Narayana
o Democratic Socialism – Nehru & Narayana
o Syncretism – Kabir Das
o Bahujan Samaj – Kabir Das
o Tamil Nadu for Tamilians - Periyar
o Zawabit and Shariyat Laws - Barani
o Integrated Theory of Evolution – A. Ghosh
o Bahujan Hitaya, Bahujan Sukhaya - Talak
o No Control, No Cooperation – A. Ghosh
o Internationalism - Tagore
o Partyless Democracy – M N Roy, Gandhi and Narayana
EXPLANATION
o Creative Pleasure – Tagore
o Historical-Human-Relation – Tagore
o Ann Banto Andolan – Lohia
o Radical democracy(Organized Democracy) – M N Roy
o Radical (New) Humanism – M N Roy
o Integral Humanism – D. D. Upadhyaya
o Local Republics – M N Roy
o Communitarian Democracy – J P Narayana
o Antodaya – Ram Manohar Lohia
o Egalitarian Society – Kabir Das
o Theory of two Wheel – Gautama Buddha(Buddhism)
 Key Thinkers

• He was a German Sociologist.

• Known for development of modern
Western Society.
• Founder of Modern Sociology.
• He is also known as pioneer of Modernization
Max Weber Theory in the 1950’s.
• He is best known for the thesis that the
Protestant ethic encourages the development
Capitalism.
• He is also known for his analysis of Bureaucracy.
• He linked political development with legal &
administration development.
 Key Thinkers

Works of Max Weber

The Protestant Ethic & the spirit of Capitalism - 1905
The Religion of China - 1915
The Religion of India - 1916
Science as Vocation - 1917
Politics as Vocation - 1919
Sociology of Religion - 1920
Ancient Judaism - 1921
Economy and Society - 1922
 Key Thinkers

• He was an American Sociologist.

• Known for Social Action Theory &
Structural-functionalism.
• In the 1950’s he further developed the
Modernization Theory.
• He also considered the most influential
figure of sociology in the 20th century.
Talcott Parsons • In 1949, he was elected president of the
American Sociological Association.
• In his key essay ‘On the Concept of Political
Power: Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society (1963)’, he gave the
concept – ‘Power is like money’.
 Key Thinkers

Notable Works
The Structure of Social Action - 1937
The Sociological System - 1951
Essays on Sociological Theory - 1949
System of Modern Societies - 1971
Social system and the Evolution of Action Theory - 1971

Theories of Society - 1961

Action Theory and Human Condition - 1978
 Key Thinkers

Notabe Ideas
1. Action Theory

2. AGIL Paradigm

3. Sick Role
 Key Thinkers

• He an American Sociologist & Political Scientist.

• He is best known for ‘Sociology of Developing Nations.
• In his key work ‘The Politics of Modernization(1965),
• He differentiated Development & Modernization.
• He did study on Ghana & England.
• He also conducted extensive research on African Politics.
• In this seminal work he also talks about three term of
Modernization...
David Apter 1. The analysis of traditions
2. An Innovation Social System
3. Social bases for skill & know ledge in advanced
technology w orld.
 Key Thinkers

• In his key work ‘The Politics of Modernization(1965),

he also gave four stages of Modernization...

4. Stage of Search for new generative solution

3. Stage of Contradiction and Emancipation

2. Stage of Reaction & Counter Action

1. Stage of Contact and Control

• Note : He regarded Commercialization, Industrialization
Innovation & Colonialism as the key forces to Modernization.
• Apter’s work challenged the idea that all societies would follow
the same path of development.
 Key Thinkers
• His seminal oeuvres are...
The Politics of Modernization - 1965
Ideology & Discontent - 1964
Political Change - 1973
Against the State - 1984
Rethinking Development - 1987
Comparative Methods for the study of Politics-1993
Revolutionary Discourse in Mao’s Republic - 1994
The Gold Coast in Transition - 1955
Legitimation of Violence - 1994
 Key Thinkers

W W Rostow
• He was an American Economist & Political Scientist.
• He is best known for Stages of Economic Growth.
• His Economic model is known as ‘Rostovian Take Off Model.
• He compared his Economic Model with a Flight of an Aeroplane.
• He suggested that all countries had the potential to break the
cycle of poverty
• In his key work ‘The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non Communist
Manifesto(1960), he gave 5 stages of Economic Growth.
 Key Thinkers

Rostow’s 5 Stages of Economic Growth

5. The High Mass Consumption

4. Drive Towards Maturity

3. Take Off

2. Pre Condition for Take Off

1. Traditional Society
 Key Thinkers

• His seminal oeuvres are...

Stages of Economic Growth: A Non Communist Manifesto - 1960

The Process of Economic Growth - 1960

The Economics of Take Off Into Sustained Growth – 1963

Politics and the Stages of Growth - 1971

Europe After Stalin - 1981

The Barbaric Counter Revolution - 1983

 Key Thinkers

• He was an American Political Scientist.

• He is best known for ----

1. Clash of Civilizations

S P Huntington 2. Political Development

3. Political Decay

4. Gap Hypothesis

5. 3 Waves of Democratization

6. Political Modernization
 Key Thinkers

Political Development
• In his key work ‘POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT & POLITICAL DECAY(1993),
Huntington gave the concept of Political Development..
• He defined Political Development as – ‘The Institution of Political
organization & procedures’.
• He argued that the Political Development of a society can be measured
only by the degree of Institutionalisation.
 Key Thinkers

Political Development
• In his key work ‘POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT & POLITICAL DECAY(1993),
Huntington talks about four Categories of level of Institutionalisation.

1. ADAPTATION
2. COMPLEXITY
3. AUTONOMY
4. COHERENCE
 Key Thinkers

Political Development
• In his key work ‘POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT & POLITICAL DECAY(1993),
Huntington talks about four Categories of Political Development..

1. RATIONALISM
2. NATIONALISM
3. DEMOCRATIZATION
4. MOBILIZATION
• Note: For Huntington, Political Development means – Modernization+
Institutionalisation. He did not differentiate Development & Modernization.
 Key Thinkers

Political Modernization
• In his key work ‘POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT & POLITICAL DECAY(1993),
Huntington also talks about five forms of Modernization..

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL
2. INTELLECTUAL
3. DEMOGRAFICAL
4. SOCIAL
5. ECONOMIC
 Key Thinkers
Political Modernization
• In his key work ‘NO EASY CHOICE: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (with Nelson,1976), Huntington also talks about
five models of Modernization..

1. Liberal Model
In his key work, Huntington also
2. Development Model of Bourgeois defined Modernization as – “A
Multifaceted process that
3. Despotic Model involves changes in all areas of
human thought and activity in
4. Technological Model a developing society.”
5. People’s Participation Model
 Key Thinkers

Political Modernization
• Key features of Political Modernization according to Huntington are...

1. Urbanization
2. Industrialization
3. Secularisation
4. Democratization
5. Education
6. Media Participation
 Key Thinkers

Political Decay

• In his key work ‘POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT & POLITICAL DECAY(1993),

Huntington gave the concept of ‘POLITICAL DECAY’.
• Huntington argued that the race of modernization sometimes create
a disordered in the developing countries.
• He further argued that through the race of modernization in developing
countries it leads to economic and social change but comparatively the
development of Institutions in developing countries are lagged and
ignored – Huntington called this phenomenon as – POLITICAL DECAY.
 Key Thinkers

• His seminal oeuvres are...

Political Order in Changing Societies - 1962

CRISES of Democracy - 1975

The 3rd Wave: Democratization in the late 20th Century -1991

Political Development and Political Decay - 1993

The Clash of Civilizations and the remaking of World Order - 1996

Culture Matters - 2000

Many Globalization - 2004

 Key Thinkers

Lucian Pye
• He was an American Political Scientist & Sinologist.
• He is comparative politics expert considered one of
the leading China scholars in the US.
• He is also known for concept of Political Culture & Political Psychology.
• He gave the concept of Decay of Political Development on the basis of
study of England’s Political System.
• Pye also did study of political system of developing nations such as..
China, Burma, Malaysia.
 Key Thinkers

• In his key work ‘Aspects of Political Development(1966), he talks about

3 determinants of Political Development.

Equality Capacity Differentiation

• Political Equality • Institutions different

• Capacity of the State
• Level of Political functions
• Maintain Law & Order
Participation • Specialized Body.
 Key Thinkers

Crises in Political Development

• There are 6 crises in Political Modernization according to Lucian Pye are...

1. The Identity Crises

2. The Legitimacy Crises
3. The Penetration Crises
4. The Participation Crises
5. The Integration Crises
6. The Distribution Crises
 Key Thinkers

• His seminal oeuvres are...

Political Culture and Political Development - 1965

Aspects of Political Development - 1966

Communication and Political Development - 1963

Spirit of Chinese Politics - 1968

Asian Power and Politics - 1985

Politics, Personality and Nation Building - 1963

The Non-Western Political Process - 1958

 Key Thinkers
• He was an American Political Scientist & Sociologist.
• Edward Shils equates Political Development with
Nation Building.
• His key works are ...

Political Development in the New States - 1960

Edward Shils Centre and Periphery - 1970

Tradition - 1981

The Constitution of Society - 1982

The Academic Ethic - 1984

The Virtue of Civility

 Key Thinkers

• In his key work’ Political Development in New States(1960),

he mentioned 5 types political system...

5. TRADITIONAL OLIGARCHY

4. TOTALITARIAN OLIGARCHY

3. MODERNIGING OLIGARCHY

2. TUTELARY DEMOCRACY

1. POLITICAL DEMOCRACY
 Key Thinkers

• He was Italian born American Political Scientist.

• He is best known for power transition theory.
• In his work ‘Power Politics(1958), Organski argued
that in a situation of balance of power there is a
great possibility to war, Peace is only possible
through the imbalance of Power.
A F K Organski • His seminal works are..

The Stages of Political Development - 1965

World Politics - 1967

 Key Thinkers
• In his key work ‘The Stages in Political Development (1965),
he talks about 4 Stages of Political Development.
• This model is known as Organski Model.

4. STAGE OF SUFFICIENCY

3. STAGE OF WELFARE

2. STAGE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

1. STAGE OF UNIFICATION
 Key Thinkers

• He was an American Political Scientist.

• He is best known for his work ‘Crises and Sequences in Political
Development(1971), In which he mentioned 4 types of crises in
Political Development. These crises are...
Crises of Identity • Note : He also regarded the three
Crises of Consolidation concepts – EQUALITY, CAPACITY &
DIFFERENCIATION as a shorthand
Crises of Legitimacy description of the “Syndrome of
Modernity”
Crises of Collection of Resources

Leonard Binder
 Key Thinkers

• His other oeuvres are...

Religion and Politics in Pakistan - 1961

Iran Political Development in Changing Society - 1962

The Ideological Revolution in Middle East - 1964

Islamic Liberalism - 1988

 Key Thinkers
• He was an American Political Scientist.
• He is best known for his studies on modernization theory.
• He also worked on media development & development communication.
• In his key work – ‘THE PASSING OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETY:
MODERNIZING THE MIDDLE EAST(1958), he gave theory of
modernization.
• This book was first published to set out a social theory of modernization.
• By modernization Lerner means certain aspects of the
cultural changes which have been stimulated by
Western Growth Model. These aspects are...

Political Urbanism Media Participation

Mass Literacy Political Participation

Denial Lerner
 Key Thinkers
• He believes that Modernization is the new term for old process.

EUROPEANISATION AMERICANISATION WESTERNIZATION

• He also gave Cultural Maturity concept...

1. Traditional Phase “He says that the mass media helps to promote
- Psychic Mobility. The process of Modernization
2. Transitional Phase should be introduced in the Less Developed
countries are two levels ...
2. Modern Phase
Empathy individuals Transformation of Society
 Key Thinkers

• He was an Israeli Political Scientist & Sociologist•

• In the field of sociology he became known as a ‘SOCIOLOGY OF YOUTH’.
• He famously gave the concept of ‘POLITICAL BREAKDOWN’.
• He argued that developing countries adopted modernization with
European countries hoping that these institutions would help in the
process of modernization.

Shmuel Eisenstadt
 Key Thinkers

• His key works are...

The Political System of Empires (1963)

Modernization, Protest, and Change (1966)

Revolution and the Transformation of Societies (1978)

European Civilization in a Comparative Perspective (1987)

Breakdowns of Modernization (1964- essay)

 Key Thinkers

Political Breakdown
• He argued that modernization is a process of new patterns of
socialization and behaviour. Thus, in this process old loyalties,
old values, old groups, old way of living and thinking change to
new ones.
• But, most of the developing countries or societies are incapable
of providing institutional framework that could observe there
changes. It therefore, leads- POLITICAL BREAKDOWN.
 Key Thinkers

• His key work ‘MODERNIZATION: PROTEST AND CHANGE(1966),

he gave for tenets of Political Modernization..

SOCIAL MOBILIZATION

SOIAL DIFFERENCIATION

ECONOMIC CHANGE

SOCIAL CHANGE
 Key Thinkers
• He was an American Political Scientist.
• In his key essay ‘ The Development Syndrome: Differentiation, Equality
& Capacity (1971), He gave the concept Development Syndrome.
• He is noted for two of his books...
(1) Nigeria: Background to Nationalism(1958)
(2) Education and Political Development(1965)

DEVELOPMENT SYNDROME
• He regarded problem of Development as –
Development Syndrome.

James Smoot Coleman

 Key Thinkers

• He was Chinese born American Political Scientist.

• He is in known as pioneer of Comparative Public Administration.
• His key works are ..

The Ecology of Public Administration - 1961

Thailand: The Modernization of Bureaucratic Polity - 1966

Developmental Debate - 1966

F W Riggs
 Key Thinkers

DEVELOPMENTAL TRAP
• In his key essay ‘The Rise and Fall of ‘Political Development(1973),
he gave the concept of ‘Developmental Trap’.
• He revised Pye’s model of Development and argued that there should
be balance between Equality and Capacity.
• Development Trap means imbalance between – EQUALITY & CAPACITY
in any Political System.
• He further argued that when a political system gets caught in a
development trap it will fall into the condition of Political Decay.
• He also does not agree with Huntington’s argument that
‘Institutionalization could serve as a safe guard against this trap.
 Key Thinkers
• He was Vienna born British Historian.
• Best known for Biography of Rosa Luxemburg.
• He argued that while concepts and all terms used in Political
Development referred to the western type of development.
• He suggested that Political Development should be connected
with both developed and developing countries.
• His key works are...

The Eastern Zone and Soviet Policy in Germany (1951)

Rosa Luxemburg (1966)

The Soviet Achievement (1967)

International Systems and the Modernization of Societies (1968)

 Key Thinkers

• He argued that Political Development has four implications. These are..

Definitional Priorities

A Set of Values

Interconnection between Developed & Developing Societies

Recognition of an implicit rank order of development

 Key Thinkers

• In his key work ‘The Dynamics of Modernization(1967),

C E Black identified 4 problems with Modernization...

1. Challenges Towards Modernization

2. Problems of Consolidation of Modern Leadership

3. Economic & Social Transformation Problem

4. Problem of Social Unification or Integration

C E Black
 Key Thinkers

Hélio Jaguaribe
• He was a Brazilian political scientist.
• In his key work ‘Economic and Political Development (1968),
he gave the concept of ‘Political Modernization & Institutionalisation’.
• His another key work is –Political Development: A General Theory and a
Latin American Case Study(1973).
 Key Thinkers

• Almond and Powell in their book ‘COMPARATIVE POLITICS:

A DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES(1966), they defined 4 challenges
to Political Development.

1. Problem of State Building

2. Problems of Participation

3. Problem of Nation Building

4. Problems of Distribution

Almond & Powell

 Key Thinkers

• Almond and Powell have also classified the Political System

on the basis of 5 fundamental element they are ...

1. EXTRACTIVE CAPABILITIES

2. REGULATIVE CAPABILITIES

3. DISTRIBUTIVE CAPABILITIES

4. RESPONSIVE CAPABILITIES

5. SYMBOLIC CAPABILITIES
Almond & Powell
 Key Thinkers

• Karl Deutsch considered Development as Social Process.

• He also labelled Political Development Stability and Orderly Change.

• Seymour Martin Lipset argued that modernization can turn into democracy.
• Lipset argued that Modernization has 4 aspects. 1. INDUSTRIALIZATION ,
2. Urbanization 3. WEALTH & [Link].

• Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel in Modernization, Cultural Change,

and Democracy (2005), They tried to revive Modernization Theory.

• In Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the

World, 1950–1990(2000), Adam Przeworski argued that "democracies perform
as well economically as do authoritarian regimes.
 Key Thinkers

• Other important works on Political Development and Modernization.

1. Political Parties & Political Development - (1966) by Polambara & Weiner

2. Political Order and Political Decay ( ) – F. Fukuyama

3. Bureaucracy and Political Development ( ) Joseph La Polambara

4. Non-Modernization (2022) by Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson

5. Theorizing Modernity. Inescapability and Attainability in Social Theory - Wagner

6. Modernity as Experience and Interpretation: A New Sociology of Modernity

Question #1 Environmentalism
❑ Match the following ……
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Deep Ecology (1) Jan Smuts
[b] Gia Hypothesis (2) Kenneth Boulding
[c] Cowboy Economy (3) James Lovelock
[d] Holism (4) Arne Naess
[e] Ecology Against Capitalism (5) J B Foster

[a] a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1,e-5 [c] a-4,b-3,c-1,d-3,e-2

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-3 [d] a-5,b-4,c-3,d-1,e-2

Explanation Environmentalism
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Deep Ecology Arne Naess
[b] Gia Hypothesis James Lovelock
[c] Cowboy Economy Kenneth Boulding
[d] Holism Jan Smuts
[e] Ecology Against Capitalism J B Foster
❑ Other some key concepts are….
o Tragedy of the Commons – G. Hardin
o Buddhist Economics – Schumacher
o Eco-Socialism – William Morris
o Social Ecology – Murray Bookchin
o Risk Society – Ulrich Beck
Question #2 Feminism
❑ Match the following ……
TYPES OF FEMINISM THINKER
[a] Liberal Feminism [1] Sheila Rowbotham
[b] Socialist Feminism [2] Gayatri C. Spivak
[c] Post-Colonial Feminism [3] Mary Wollstonecraft
[d] Radical Feminism [4] Bama F Soosairaj
[e] Black Feminism [5] Andrea Dw orkin
[f] Dalit Feminism [6] Bell Hooks
[a] a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1,e-5,f-6 [c] a-3,b-1,c-2,d-5,e-6,f-4

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-6,f-3 [d] a-5,b-6,c-3,d-1,e-2,f-4

Explanation Feminism

TYPES OF FEMINISM THINKER

[a] Liberal Feminism Mary Wollstonecraft
[b] Socialist Feminism Sheila Rowbotham
[c] Post-Colonial Feminism Gayatri C. Spivak
[d] Radical Feminism Andrea Dw orkin
[e] Black Feminism Bell Hooks
[f] Dalit Feminism Bama F Soosairaj
Question #3 Multiculturalism

❑ Choose the correct options……

[a] Multiculturalism first emerged in the 1960s in USA.
[b] Will Kymlicka gave the Liberal Theory of Multiculturalism.
[c] Charles Tailor talks about ‘Politics of Recognition’.
[c] Charles Tailor talks about three kinds of Minority Rights.

[a] a and b are correct [c] b,c and d are correct

[b]a, b and c are correct [d] All are correct

Explanation Multiculturalism

➢ Multiculturalism first emerged in the 1960s in USA.

➢ Will Kymlicka gave the Liberal Theory of Multiculturalism.
➢ Charles Tailor talks about ‘Politics of Recognition’.
➢ Will Kymlicka talks about three kinds of Minority Rights….
[1] Self Governance
[2] Poly Ethnic Rights
[3] Representative Rights
Question #4 Post Modernism
❑ Match the following……
CONCEPTS THIINKER
[a] Technology of Government M. Foucault
[b] Mirror Stage Jacques Lacan
[c] Liquid Modernity Zygmunt Bauman
[d] Logocentricism J Derrida
[e] Language Game Jean F Lyotard
[f] Multiple Technoliteracies Douglas Kellner
[a] a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1,e-5,f-6 [c] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4,e-5,f-6
a-3,b-1,c-2,d-5,e-6,f-4

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-6,f-3 [d] a-5,b-6,c-3,d-1,e-2,f-4

Explanation Post Modernism

CONCEPTS THIINKER
[a] Technology of Government M. Foucault
[b] Mirror Stage Jacques Lacan
[c] Liquid Modernity Zygmunt Bauman
[d] Logocentricism J Derrida
[e] Language Game Jean F Lyotard
[f] Multiple Technoliteracies Douglas Kellner
Question #5 Neo - Liberalism
❑ Choose the correct options……
[a] Keynesian theory stressed on welfare State, intervention of state to
ensure employment through monetary system.
[b] It argued that Private is good but Public is bad .
[c] J M Keynes, John Rawls, Hayek, M. Friedman and Nozick are Neo
Liberalist thinkers.
[d] Beveridge Report published in 1932.

[a] a and b are correct [c] b,c and d are correct

[b]a, b and c are correct [d] All are correct

Explanation Neo - Liberalism

➢ Keynesian theory stressed on welfare State,

intervention of state to ensure employment
through monetary system.
➢ It argued that Private is good but Public is bad .
➢ J. M. Keynes, John Rawls, Hayek, M. Friedman
and Nozick are Neo Liberalist thinkers.
➢ Beveridge Report published in 1942. It focused
on five giants of human development…..
Explanation
Want

Disease Ignorance
Five giants of
Beveridge
Report-1942
Squalor Idleness
Question #6 Marxism & Neo-Marxism
❑ Match the following……
CONCEPTS THIINKER
[a] Negation of Negation [1] A. Gramsci
[b] Pain of Aloofness [2] Karl Marks
[c] Nothingness [3] J P Sartre
[d] Epistemological Break [4] Erich Fromm
[e] Theory of Consciousness [5] Louis Althusser
[f] Structures of Domination [6] George Lucas
[a] a-2,b-3,c-6,d-4,e-5,f-1 [c] a-2,b-1,c-3,d-5,e-6,f-4

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-6,f-3 [d] a-2,b-4,c-3,d-5,e-6,f-1

Explanation Marxism & Neo-Marxism

CONCEPTS THIINKER
[a] Negation of Negation Karl Marx
[b] Pain of Aloofness Erich Fromm
[c] Nothingness J P Sartre
[d] Epistemological Break Louis Althusser
[e] Theory of Consciousness George Lucas
[f] Structures of Domination A. Gramsci
Question #7 Socialism

❑ Choose the incorrect options……

[a] Eduard Bernstein gave the notion of Evolutionary Socialism.
[b] Leon Trotsky used the term – Dustbin of History.
[c] Robert Ow en, Charles Fourier and Henri-de-Saint Simon are know n
as Utopian Socialists.
[d] The Future of Socialism(1956) is w ritten by Anthony Crosland.

[a] None are incorrect [c] b and d are incorrect

[b]a and d are incorrect [d] Only d is incorrect

Explanation Socialism

➢ Eduard Bernstein gave the notion of Evolutionary Socialism.

➢ Leon Trotsky used the term – Dustbin of History.
➢ Robert Owen, Charles Fourier and Henri-de-Saint Simon are know n
as Utopian Socialists.
➢ The Future of Socialism(1956) is w ritten by Anthony Crosland.
Question #8 Conservatism
❑ Choose the correct options……
[a] Edmund Burke gave the notion on Natural Aristocracy.
[b] Irving Kristol is associated w ith Neo-Conservatism.
[c] Edmund Burke, Alexis de Tocqueville, Michael Oakshott, Ted
Honderich, Russel Kirk are Conservative Thinkers.
[d] Thatcherism(1979-90) developed in the USA.
[e] Reaganism(1981-1989) developed in the UK.

[a]a, b, c are correct [c] c, d, e are incorrect

[b]a and b are correct [d]All are correct

Explanation Conservatism

➢ Edmund Burke gave the notion on Natural Aristocracy.

➢ Irving Kristol is associated w ith Neo-Conservatism.
➢ Edmund Burke, Alexis de Tocqueville, Michael Oakshott,
Ted Honderich, Russel Kirk are Conservative Thinkers.
➢ Thatcherism(1979-90) developed in the UK.
➢ Reaganism(1981-1989) developed in the USA.
Question #9 Liberalism

❑ Match the following……

CONCEPTS THIINKER
[a] State is a necessary Evil [1] J S Mill
[b] Natural Rights are inalienable [2] Herbert Spencer
[c] Invisible Hand [3] Thomas Pain
[d] The survival of the fittest [4] Thomas Jefferson
[e] Tyranny of the Majority [5] Adam Smith

[a] a-2,b-3,c-5,d-4,e-1, [c] a-2,b-1,c-3,d-5,e-4,

[b] a-3,b-4,c-2,d-5,e-1, [d] a-3,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-1,

a-2,b-4,c-3,d-5,e-6,f-1
Explanation Liberalism

CONCEPTS THIINKER
[a] State is a necessary Evil Thomas Pain
[b] Natural Rights are inalienable Thomas Jefferson
[c] Invisible Hand Adam Smith
[d] The survival of the fittest Herbert Spencer
[e] Tyranny of the Majority J S Mill
Question #10 Key Works
❑ Match the following……
WORKS WRITER
[a] Who’s w ho in Democracy(1997) [1] Anthony Giddens
[b] Beyond Left & Right: The Future
Radical Politics(1994) [2] Francis Fukuyama
[c] The Great Disruption(1999) [3] A D de Tracy
[d] Communitarians & its critics(1993) [4] S M Lipset
[e] A Treatise on Political Economy(1817) [5] Daniel Bell
[a] a-2,b-3,c-5,d-4,e-1, [c] a-4,b-1,c-2,d-5,e-3,
a-4,b-1,c-2,d-5,e-3

[b] a-4,b-2,c-1,d-5,e-3, [d] a-2,b-4,c-1,d-5,e-3,

Explanation Key Works

WORKS WRITER
[a] Who’s w ho in Democracy(1997) S M Lipset
[b] Beyond Left & Right: The Future
Radical Politics(1994) Anthony Giddens
[c] The Great Disruption(1999) Francis Fukuyama
[d] Communitarians & its critics(1993) Daniel Bell
[e] A Treatise on Political Economy(1817) A D de Tracy
Explanation Key Works
❑ Some other key works……
WORKS WRITER
➢ Ideology and Utopia[1929] Karl Mannheim
➢ Conservatism[1986] Karl Mannheim
➢ Sources of the self[1989] Charles Tailor
➢ After Virtue[1981] Alasdair Maclntyre
➢ Spheres of Justice[1983] Michael Walzer
➢ Liberalism and the Limits of Justice[1982] Michael Sandel
➢ Statism and Anarchy[1873] Bakunin
➢ The Middle Way[1938] Harold Macmillan
➢ Nation and Narration[1990] Homi K Bhabha
➢ Vocabulary of Politics[1953] T D Weldon
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ Divine Theory is an oldest theory of origin of the state.

❑ This Theory can be seen in both Indian or European tradition.
❑ Its core argument is that state is the creation of God or divine.
❑ Its key supporters are......

1. Sir Robert Filmar

2. Manu
3. James 1st
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ In his key w ork PATRIARCHA(1680), Filmar talks about Divine

theory of origin of the state.
❑ He quoted that......

“Adam was the first king on

the Earth made by God.”
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ In his key w ork MANUSAMRITI, Manu talks about Divine theory

of origin of the state.
❑ He quoted that......
“मनु कहते हैं कक राज्य की उत्पकि से पर्ू व आकिकालीन
“अतः जब लोगों पर बहतु अत्याचार हआ ु , तो लोग
समाज में अराजकता फैली हुई थी। क्योंकक र्हाां पर
िुखी होकर भगर्ान ब्रह्मा के पास गए और उनसे प्राथवना
कोई राजा नहीं था। र्हाां पर ‘मत््य न्याय’का बोलबाला
की कक उनकी अन्याय से रक्षा करें। ऐसी क्थकत में ब्रह्मा
था। ऐसी क्थकत में लोग एक िूसरे के ऊपर अत्याचार
ने मनु की उत्पकि की और उसे लोगों का रक्षक अथर्ा
करते थे र्हाां पर “कजसकी लाठी उसकी भैं स“(Might
राजा बनाया गया। इसी र्जह से मनु को ब्रह्मा का पत्रु
is Right) की अर््था मौजूि थी।”
माना जाता है।”
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ Shanti Parva of Mahabharta, also talks about Divine

theory of the State.
❑ Shanti Parva talks about ‘Matsya Nayaya.'

“Matsya Nyaya’ literally means ‘Law of Fish’.

It is the fundamental law of nature that small
fish become prey to big fish or the strong
devour the weak. It can be equated to the
‘Law of Jungle’. In simple words, the strong
will prevail over the weak.
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ In his ke oeuvre, A History of Political Theory(1937)

George Sabine, argued that...

“New monarchies that came into

existence after Alexander was predestined to
be absolute in which the king was identical
with the State. Later on, the kings have also
enrolled, among the Gods of the big
cities.“Thus, the belief in the divinity of the
king”
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ In ancient India, the Kings ruled over

the people according to the injunction
of the Dharma, which stood for both
religion and politics.
❑ In the medieval period the Christians
held the Pope in semi-God status.
 Theory of Divine Origin of The State

❑ In the Muslim world, the Caliph was

the Priest-King.
❑ The Dalai Lama was the head of the
Theocratic state of Tibet. He was
considered there as the incarnation
of the Buddhist god Avalokitesvara.
 Features of Divine Theory

1. State is the creation of God

2. King is accountable to God
3. State is a divine institution
4. King has the divine right to issue Command
5. King is the agent of the God
6. Monarchy is hereditary
7. Disobedience of the king is Sin
 Theory of Force Origin of The State

❑ It’s core argument is that State came into

existence by the war.
❑ This theory associated with – “WAR
WEGAT THE KING.
❑ Manu and Kautilya talk about Danda
which is key tool of the State.
❑ Mussolini & Hitler accepted this doctrine.
 Theory of Force Origin of The State

❑ It’s key supporters are.....

1. David Hume
2. Edward Jenks
3. J R Oppenheimer
4. L Gumplowicz
5. W Small
6. James Ward
 Theory of Force Origin of The State

• In his key work ‘On the origin of

Government’ Hume argues that war is
the result of origin of the State.
• Jenks also talked about Force theory of
origin of the State in his key work, ‘A
History of Politics’-1900.
 Theory of Force Origin of The State

• Thrasymachus quoted that......

“Justice is the interest of

the strongest.”
 Features of Force Theory

1. State is the result of War

2. War Begat the King
3. Danda is key tool of the State
4. Weak has no right to survive
5. Based on Might is Right
6. Subjugation of weak by strong
7. Power is the syombol of the State
8. State is the supreme power
 Theory of Social Contract of The State

❑ It emerged as a reaction to divine origin.

❑ Its key argument is that – State is the
result of Social Contract.
❑ This theory emerged in the 17th and 18th
century.
❑ Its key thinkers are .....
1. Thomas Hobbes
2. John Locke
3. J J Rousseau
 Theory of Social Contract of The State

❑ Point should be noted that J. Althusias was 1st

philosoper who gave the notion of Social
Contract in his key work, “Politica
Methodice Digesta, Atque Exemplis
Sacris et Profanis Illustrata.”
❑ Manu gave the notion of quasi-social contract
theory of origin of the state.
❑ Shanti Parva of Mahabharta also gave the
notion of Social Contract.
 Theory of Social Contract of The State

❑ In his key w ork Arthshaastra, Kautilya alao talks about Social

Contract Theory of origin of the state.
❑ He quoted that......

“राज्य की उत्पकत मत्य न्याय की

समाकि करने के कलए हुई है और राज्य
का आधार समझौता है। राज्य की
उत्पकत िांड व्यर््था लागू करने के
कलए हईु है।”
 Social Contract of Thomas Hobbes
❑ In his key work ‘Leviathan’(1651), Hobbes gave notion of
Social Contract.
❑ He argues that The State of Nature was Anarchical.
❑ Life of Man was, Solitary, Poor, Nasty, Brutish and Short.
❑ The condition of State of Nature is – ‘Might is Right.’
❑ In the absence of political order and law, everyone
would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the
“right to all things” and thus the freedom to plunder
rape and murder; there would be an endless “war of all
against all”
 Social Contract of Thomas Hobbes

❑ The state of nature was therefore a state of

war, which could be ended only if individuals
agreed (in a social contract) to give their
liberty into the hands of a sovereign, on the
sole condition that their lives were
safeguarded by sovereign power.
❑ So people did Socail Contract and State came
into existence.
❑ But, King was not part of the Contract.
 Social Contract of Thomas Hobbes

❑ Hobbes argued that people had two choices....

1. STATE OF NATURE Where is insecurity

2. SOCIAL CONTRACT (STATE) Where life is secured

by the Absolute King
❑ People can resist, if.....

Civil War Insecurity Suicide

• Hobbes quoted that......

“I authorizes and give up right of

governing myself to this or to this
assembly of men, on this condition that
you give up rights to him and authorise
all his action in like manner .”
 Social Contract of Thomas Hobbes

❑ Hobbes gave the notion of Absolute Sovereignty.

❑ He also talks about Natural Laws.....
1. Search for Peace
2. Forsake of Natural Rights
3. Respect to the Contract

❑ Hobbes called these laws ‘Law of Prudence’.

 Social Contract of John Locke

❑ John Locke, (in the second of the Two Treatises of

Government, 1690), gave the notion of Social Contract.
❑ Men wanted happiness.
❑ Men were social & rational being.
❑ Men had three kinds of natural rights.....
1. Right to Life
2. Right to Liberty
3. Right to Properry
 Social Contract of John Locke

❑ State of Nature was peaceful and cooperative.

❑ People were enjoying equal Natural Rights.
❑ But, Locke argued that there were 3 difficulties by
which people did social contract.

1. Lack of Legislative

2. Lack of Judiciary

3. Lack oF Executive
 Social Contract of John Locke

❑ Locke argues that people did 2 contracts....

Social Contract Political Contract

Origin of Civil Society Origin of The State

 Social Contract of J J Rousseau
❑ J J Rousseau regarded Men as ‘Noble Savage.
❑ In the State of Nature Men were self sufficient.
❑ Men had Natural Liberty and Equality.
❑ There was no modernity & no civilization.
❑ Rousseau regarded state of nature as – ‘Golden Age’.
❑ Rousseau also talks about two types of inequality...
1. NATURAL INEQUALITY

[Link] INEQUALITY
 Social Contract of J J Rousseau

❑ Rousseau argued that gradually Men

entered into civilization and modernity.
❑ Rise of Capitalism and rise of concept of
Rich and Poor.
❑ Due to Modernity, Civilization and rise of
Art and science Men have lost their
happiness and peace.
❑ Rousseau talks about Popular Sovereignty
which represents General Will.
 Social Contract of J J Rousseau

❑ Rousseau argued that....

“र्ह पहला व्यकि समाज का र्ा्तकर्क

जन्मिाता था, कजसने एक भू-भाग को घेर कर
यह कहा कक यह मेरी भकू म है , और कजसे उसके
उस कथन के प्रकत कर्श्वास करने र्ाले सरल
व्यकि कमल गए ।”
 Features of Social Contract Theory

1. State is not created by the God

2. State is the result of Social Contract
3. Division of History – Pre State & Post State
4. Humans governed by law of nature
5. State of Nature was inconvenient & anarchical
6. Rise of Civil Society along with State
7. Criticism of Force Theory and Divine Theory
 Evolutionary theory of origin of the state

❑ This theory is most realistic and

reasonable of origin of the state.
❑ Its core theme is that ‘State is the result
of evolution’.
❑ It supported to the Historical Evolution.
❑ This theory inspired from – ‘Evolution
Theory of Charles Darwin (On the origin
of the Species-1859).
❑ It completely rejected Divine, Force and
Social Contract theories.
 Evolutionary theory of origin of the state

❑ Key thinkers of this theory are.....

1. R. M. Machiever
2. Sir Henry Maine
3. W. Wagehot
4. Gettel
5. Gilchrist
6. Leacock
Evolutionary Theory of origin of the State

❑ Garner argued that....

“ राज्य न तो ककसी ईश्वर की रचना है , न ही

ककसी उच्च कोकि की शारीररक सिा का
पररणाम, और न ककसी प्र्तार् या समझौते
का पररणाम। राज्य कोई याांकत्रक आकर्ष्कार
नहीं, बककक यह एक ऐसी सां्था है कजसका
कर्कास क्रमश: ्र्ाभाकर्क रूप से
ऐकतहाकसक आधार पर हआ ु है।”
 Evolutionary Theory of origin of the State
❑ In his key work ‘Elements of Political
Science-1906, Stephen Leacock argued
that....
“ The State is a growth, an
evolution, the result of gradual
process running throughout all the
known history of man receding
into remote unkown past”
 Features of Evolution Theory

1. State is the result of historical evolution

2. Support to the History
3. State is an Institution of Natural Growth
4. Criticism of Divine, Force & Social Contract
5. Realistic and Reasonable theory
6. Kingship, Religion, Capital are key factors
 Organic Theory
❑ Oldest theory of the State.
❑ This theory compares state with organs of human body.
❑ Manusamriti, Shukraniti & Arthashastra talked about Saptanga
Theory (seven organs of the state).
❑ Aristotle also gave the organic theory of the State.
❑ This theory also argued that state is a Natural Institution.
❑ This theory also regarded state as Moral Institution.
❑ It believes that individual depends on the existence of the State.
❑ Different groups in the state perform different funtions.
 Organic Theory

❑ In his key oeuvre, LEVIATHAN(1651), Hobbes

compared state w ith Leviathan, w hich is an
Artificial Man but pow erful.
❑ On the other hand, Bluntschli in his key w ork
‘THE THEORY OF THE STATE (1979)’, State
compared w ith Man & Church compared w ith
Women.
❑ [Link] did distinct between Natural Man &
State Man.
 Organic Theory

❑ Key thinkers of organic theory are.....

1. Plato 8. Edmund Burke

2. Aristotle 9. H. Spencer
3. Kautilya 10. J K Bluntschli
4. Shukracharya 11. Stoics
5. Manu
6. Hobbes ❑ Note- Biological School is also
7. Rousseau associated with organic theory.
 Organic Theory
❑ Plato famously quoted.....

“State is the
Individual writ
large.”

❑ Aristotle also quoted.....

“Man is by nature is
Political Man. One
who lives without
state is a beast or a
God.”
 Organic Theory
❑ Rousseau famously quoted.....

“मनुष्य की तरह राज्य भी

इच्छा की शक्तत से प्रेररत
होता है ।”

❑ E. Burke also quoted.....

“राज्य का ऐततहाससक
विकास जीवित प्राणी की
तरह है ।”
 Organic Theory
❑ Kautilya’s Saptanga Theory.....

King/स्वामी

Allies/ममत्र Ministers/अमात्य (मंत्री)

Janpada/जनपद Treasure/कोष

Durga/राजधानी Danda/दं ड

Kautilya's Saptanga Theory

 Organic Theory
❑ Manu’s Saptanga Theory.....

King/स्वामी

Allies/ममत्र Ministers/अमात्य (मंत्री)

Realm/जनपद Treasure/कोष

Durga/राजधानी Military/सेना

Manu's Saptanga Theory

 Absolutist Theory

❑ This theory talks about Suprime Authority.

❑ It also talks about Absolute Sovereignty.
❑ State is an end itself and individual is mean.
❑ Hitler and Mussolini also used this Absolute Theory.
 Absolutist Theory

❑ Key thinkers of absolutist theory are.....

1. N. Machiavelli
2. F. W. Hegel
3. T. Hobbes
4. F. nietzsche
5. Hitler
6. Mussolini
 Machiavelli on State
❑ Machiavelli used the tern Modern State.
❑ He talks about absolute sovereignty or absolute king.
❑ In his key work, THE PRINCE(1531),
Machiavelli argued that...

“The pow er which has

Authority over Man.”
----Machiavelli
 Hegel on State
❑ Hegel argued that State is itself an End.
❑ Individual is mean only.
❑ He famously stated that....

‘State is the march

of God on Earth’.
..... Hegel
 Hegel on State

❑ Hegel identified three movements of social existence....

The Family • PARTICULAR ALTRUISM

Civil Society • UNIVERSAL EGOISM

The State • UNIVERSAL ALTRUISM

 Absolutist Theory

❑ In his key work, LEVIATHAN(1651),

Hobbes argued that...

“Stability and Order could

be secured only through
the establishment of an
absolute and altimate
State.”
 Absolutist Theory

❑ Friedrich Nietzsche famously quoted.....

“राज्य शक्तत का प्रततरूप है, िह

“युद्ध मानि जातत के सिए
ककसी ऐसे तनयमों से नह ीं बींधा है
आिश्यक ह नह ,ीं अवपतु
जो उसकी शक्तत के विस्तार को
असभष्ट भी है।”
रोक सके।”
 Absolutist Theory

❑ In his key work, , Max Weber argued

that...

“A State is a human
community that claims the
monopoly of the legitimate
use of physical force within
a given territory.”
 Legal Theory
❑ It’s core argument is that 'State is Legal Person.’
❑ Seminal funtion of the State is to Create Law s &
secure Legal Rights.
❑ So, State is like Juridical Person.
❑ So, laws are creation of the State.
❑ It also talks about rule of law in the State.
❑ Its key thinkers are.....

John Austin
Geremy Bentham
Hugo Grotius
 Legal Theory

❑ John Austin argued that......

“A Law is the
command given by
superior to inferior.”
 Mechanistic Theory

• This theory treats State like a Machine.

• Emerged 18th & 19th century.
• This theory can be founded in the tradition of Greece and
Roman Empire.
• Its core argument is that ‘State is an Artificial Institution
not a Natural Institution.’
• This theory also argued that State is a mean, not an end.
• State is a social institution.
• State is the manifestation of w ill.
• State is a mean of reconciliation of conflicting interests.
 Mechanistic Theory

• Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau gave Mechanistic

Theory of the State by using Social Contract.
• Bentham articulated state as- a mean of
‘Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number.”
• So, in a nutshell, w e can say that “the state
was created by “man” to serve the people
and act in their interests.
 Liberal-Individualistic Theory

• This Theory emerged in the 18th century.

• Its core argument is that ‘State is mean itself not an end.’
• It talks about – Minimal State or Police State.
• It sees State as ‘Necessary Evil.’
• Liberal theory also talks about-'Minimal Government.’
• Focus on Individual Freedom.
• Stress on Negative Freedom.
• Thomas Pain considered ‘State as Necessary Evil.’
• Its core theme is ‘Laissez-Faire’.
 Liberal-Individualistic Theory

• Its key thinkers are.....

John Locke
Adam Smith
G. Bentham
H. Spencer
D. Recardo
Thomas Pain
T. Jefferson
 Locke on State
• John Locke know n as father of Liberalism.
• He regarded state a Night w atchman.
• He also argued that ‘Governmental Authority
is equal to Trust’.
• Locke gave ‘Right to Resistence’ to the people.
• Locke mentioned 3 natural rights...
Life Liberty Property
• But, this is also noteworthy that Thomas
Jefferson also mentioned 3 natural rights...

Life Liberty Persuit of Happiness

 Smith on State

• Adam Smith know n as father of Economic.

• He also regarded state as a Night Watchman.
• He gave the concept of ‘Economic Man’.
• Every human has natural propensity to trade.
• He also gave the concept of Natural Liberty.
• He regarded ‘Freedom of Commerce and
Trade’ as natural right.
• He talks about Laissez Faire.
• Smith also gave the notion of Invisible Hand.
❑ Adam Smith argued that......

“The State should be far

distance from Market and
Market should be free from
the State because it is
managed by the invisible
hand.”
 Bentham on State

• Benthan know n as father of Utilitarianism.

• He talks about utility or Hedoism.
• He argued that state’s function should be based on
“Greatest Happiness of the greatest number.”
• He also said that Law s should be Maximizer of
Hedoism.
• He quoted that.......
“Nature has placed us
under two sovereigns
– Pain & Pleasure”
 Spencer on State

• He gave the concept of Minimal Government.

• He considered state as an – organism.
• He his key work- ‘The Man Versus The
State(1884), gave the concept of – “Survival
of the Fittest.”
 Marxist Theory
• Marxist Theory emerged in the 19th century.
• Its key pioneer is Karl Marx..
• Its key arguments are.....
State is an artificial Institution
Established by Capitalist Class
State is exploitative institution
State is Unnecessary Evil
State is result of class struggle
Tool of the Bourgeoisie Class
State has to wither away
 Marxist Theory

• Its key thinkers are.....

Karl Marx
F. Engels
Lenin
R Luxemburg
Poulantzas
R Miliband
 Karl Marx on State

• In his key work ‘COMMUNIST

MENIFESTO(1848), he argued that.....

“State is the Executive

Committee of the
Capitalist Class”.
 Karl Marx on State

His key assumptions about State are....

• State is oppressive and exploitative institution.
• It is the result of Class Struggle.
• State is not natural institution.
• It is based on pow er.
• State is established by the Capitalists to protect
their interests.
• State abolished by the Proletariat Class.
 F. Engles on State

• In his key w ork ‘The Origin of the Family,

Private Property and the State(1884), Engels
gave the state theory.
• He argued that before the emergence of the
state, there w as Mateiarchical Sociaty.
• He also regarded state as exploitative
institution.
 Lenin on State

• In his key work ‘ The State and

Revolution(1917), Lenin argued that.....

“राज्य धनिान िर्ग की

कठपुति है,राज्य सिगहहत
या जन कल्याण का साधन
नह ीं हो सकता है।”.
 Poulantzas on State

• Nicos Poulantzas gave the notion of ‘The relative

autonomy of the state from the capitalist class-
• He denied to the notion of Instrumental Marxist’s
that the State is simply an instrument in the hands of
a particular class.
• He also criticized to the Ralph Miliband’s seminal
work ‘The state in Capitalist Democracy’.
• He argued that state is objectively a capitalist
entity, w hich can serve no purpose other than
preserving the Capitalist Mode of Production.
 Social Democratic Theory
• This theory fully emerged in the 20th century.
• Its key arguments are....
Support to welfare State
Positive role of the State
Criticism of Laissez-Faire
Criticism of Liberal Theory
Support to Social Democracy
 Social Welfare Theory

• Its key thinkers are.....

T H Green
J S Mill
Harold Laski
L. Hobhouse

• This is also noteworthy that in India

Nehru and Ambedkar also supported
to Social Welfarism or social w elfare.
 Post Colonial State Theory

• This theory emerged in the mid 20th century.

• It associated with the study of Asian, African and Latin
American countries.
• Focus on Nation Building in Post Colonial States.
• Criticism of Western World hegemony.
• Criticism of Colonialism.
• Study of effects of Colonialism.
• Post colonial State also known as ‘Developmental Theory’.
• Focus on development in the newly free 3rd world country.
 Post Colonial Theory

❑ Key thinkers of post colonial theory are.....

Frantz Fanon E M Foster

Edward Said Ranajeet Guha
Gayatri Spivak Aijaz Ahmad
Homi K Bhabha R S Rajan
Chinua Achebe Ania Loomba
Partha
Chatarjee D. Chakrabarty
Staurt Hall R. Ravi Kumar
 Fanon on Post Colonial State

• Fanon argued that Colonized people are

alienated from their own languages,
culture and socio-economic condition.
• In colonialism, Colonized people have
adopted colonizers cultures, Languages
and socio- economic status.
• Colonizers or Blacks have forgotten their
own languages, culture. This is simply
called ‘COLONIAL ALIENATION.’
 Said on Post Colonial State

• In his key w ork ‘Orientalism’(1978), Said

talks about ‘ORIENTALISM’ in which he
critisized to the 'Orient’or 'Occident’.
• He regarded this as- ‘Style of Thought.’
 Spivak on Post Colonial State

• In his key w ork ‘Can the Subaltern

Speak’(1978), Said talks about
‘ORIENTALISM’ in which he critisized
to the 'Orient’or 'Occident’.
• He regarded this as- ‘Style of Thought.’
 Nation State

“A group of people with the same culture, language, history,

etc. Who have formed an independent country”

• Machiavelli used the term Nation State.

• Later, Rousseau also used the term Nation State or Nationalism.
• After, the treaty of Peace of Westphalia(1648), the concept of
Nation State has emerged.
• France after the French Revolution is often cited as the first
nation-state.
• Some scholars consider the establishment of the English
Commonw ealth in 1649 as the earliest instance of nation-state
creation.
 Nation State

• Nation States thus reflect Mazzini’s goal.

• He said that.....

“Every nation a
state,only one state
for the entire nation”.
 Leviathan State

“This type of State discussed by- Thomas Hobbes.

This type of State is also associated with the New
Right in modern politics.”
 Minimal State

• Minimal state refers to a state w ith the least

possible amount of pow ers.
• It deals with classical liberals.
• State act as a ‘Night w atchman. ’
 Totalitarian State

• Totalitarian State subordinates the individual

and strictly controls all aspects of life by
coercive measures(Education, Culture,
Religion or Family life).
• Examples are.....
Hitler’s - Germany
Mussolini’s - Italy
Stalin’s - USSR
 Religious State

“A state control by the Religion or

Religious leaders.”

• State Religion
• Islamic Fundamentalism
• Politics of Religion.
• Islamization in Pakistan under Zia-Ul-
Haq(1978)
• Islamic Revolution(1979), under Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini.
 Suzerian State

“Suzerian State is a State in w hich one powerful state,

region, or people are in control of the foreign policy of a
tributary vassal state”.
Examples are....
• Ottoman Empire
• Imperial China
• The US over Puerto Rico, Micronesia, and Tonga
• Denmark over Greenland
• Tanzania over Zanzibar
• Greece over the Holy Mount
 Nanny State

• Nanny State is a term in w hich government or

its policies are overprotective or interfering
unduly w ith personal choice.
• State played it’s role to as nanny.
• This tern used by Conservative British Member
of Parliament Iain Macleod w ho referred to
“w hat I like to call the nanny state” in the 3
December 1965 edition of The Spectator.
• The term Nanny State popularised by Bernard
Levin and Auberon Waugh and later by Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher.
 Garrison State

• A State organized to serve primarily its own

need for military security.
• A state maintained or controlled by the
military pow er.
• Military use of USA during Cold War.
• In 1941, Harrold Lassw ell gave the notion of
Garrison State.
 Rogue State

• Rogue State is a State w hose foreign policy poses

a threat to neighboring or other states, through
its aggressive intent, build up of w eapons or
association w ith terrorism.
• The term “rogue state” goes back to the US
government under George W. Bush, w hich used it
to describe aggressive states that threaten either
the USA itself or its allies
 Rogue State

• States currently considered rogue states by the United

States:
• Afghanistan
• Belarus
• China
• Iran
• Nicaragua
• North Korea
• Syria
• Venezuela
 Rogue State

• States formerly considered rogue states by the United

States:
• Cuba
• Iraq Iraq
• Libya Libya
• South Africa
• South Yemen
• Sudan
• Yugoslavia
 Deep State

Organizations such as military, police, or

political groups that are said to work secretly
in order to protect particular interests and to
rule a country w ithout being elected.
• The term w as first used w ith reference to
Turkey in the 1990s.
• The term “deep state” gained popularity
in some circles during the 2016 U.S.
Presidential Election in opposition to
mainstream Republican and Democratic
candidates.
 Soft State

• Soft State focuses on the Evolutionary Reforms

not Revolutionary Reforms.
• In his key w ork, ‘Asian Drama: An Inquiry into
the Poverty of Nations (1968) the term Soft State
is introduced by Gunnar Myrdal.
• Gunnar Myrdal regarded India as a Soft State.
 Failed State

• A Failed State is a government that has become

incapable of providing the basic functions and
responsibilities of a sovereign nation, such as military
defense, law enforcement, justice, education, or
economic stability.
• Common characteristics of failed states include
ongoing civil violence, corruption, crime, poverty,
illiteracy, and crumbling infrastructure.
• Yemen w as considered the w orld’s most-failed state,
followed by Somalia, South Sudan, and Syria.
 Proto State

“Proto State is a political entity that does not

represent a fully institutionalized or autonomous
sovereign state”.
• It is also known as Quasi-State.
 Question #1

• Who gave the three images of International Politics?

[a] H J Morgenthau [b] Andrew Linklater

[c] Kenneth Waltz [d] E H Carr

Explanation
• In his key work ‘MAN, THE STATE & WAR’(1959),
he explains the causes of war by distinguishing
three level or images of I R.
1. The Individual
2. The State
3. The international system
• He also gave the notion of ‘PERIOUS
LIVES OF WEAK STATES’.
• He also argued that “The spread of
nuclear weapons more may better”.
Explanation
• His other key works are....
The Theory of International Relations - 1979

The spread of nuclear weapons - 1981

Peace, Stability, and Nuclear Weapons - 1995

Realism and International Politics - 2008

 Question #2
• Match the following works...
WORK WRITER
(1) After Hegemony (a) John Herz
(2) Soft Power (b) Kohene & Nye
(3) Power and Interdependence (c) Robert Kohene
(4) Political Realism & Political Idealism (d) Joseph Nye

[a] 1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d [b] 1- c, 2-d, 3-b,

3-b,4-a
4-a

[c] 1-c, 2-b, 3-a, 4-d [d] 1-d, 2-a, 3-b, 4-c
 Explanation
1. After Hegemony - R. Kohene(1984)
2. Soft Power (2004) - Joseph Nye
3. Power and Interdependence(1977) - Kohene & Nye
4. Political Realism & Political Idealism(1951) - Herz

• other key works in IR Theories are.......

Gendering World Politics( 2001) - J Ann Tickner
World Odering(2019) - Emanuel Adler
Women and Wars (2013) - Carol Cohn
Explanation

Production, Power and World Order(1987) - W. Cox

Liberalism and World Politics (1986) – M. W. Doyle

Essence of Decisions(1971) - Graham T. Allison

Political Community & North Atlantic(1957) – K. Deutsch

The Functional Theory of Politics(1975) - David Mitrany

World Society(1972) – John Burton

Explanation

The Study of Global Interdependence(1980) J. Rosenau

World of our making(1989) – Nicholas Onuf

Power in the Global Age(2005) - Ulrich Beck

The Rise of Network Society(1996) - Manuel Castells

Brand Culture(2000) – Naomi Klein

Casino Capitalism(1986) Susan Strange

Explanation

In Defence of Globalization(2007) – Jagdish Bhagwati

Production Power and World Order(1987) – Robert Cox

Law, Morality & Relations of State(1983) – Terry Nardin

The Empire of Civil Society(1994) – Justin Rosenberg

The Century of Total War(1954) – Raymond Aron

New and Old Wars(1999) – Mary Kaldor

 Question #3

• Match the following concepts with their thinkers...

CONCEPTS THINKERS
1. English School (a) A. Wendt & N. Onuf
2. Copenhegen School (b) Jurgen Habermas
3. Constructivism (c) Hedley Bull
4. Frankfurt School (d) Barry Buzan

[a] 1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d [b] 1- c, 2-d, 3-b, 4-a

[c] 1-c, 2-b, 3-a, 4-d [d] 1- c, 2-d, 3-a, 4-b

Explanation
• Correct answer is (d).....
1. English School – Hedley Bull
2. Copenhagen School – Barry Buzan
3. Constructivism – A. Wendt & N. Onuf
4. Frankfurt School – J. Habermas
• Other key concepts are......
Security Community – Karl Deutsch
Democratic Peace – Michael Doyle
International Society – Hedley Bull
Explanation

Christian Realism – Reinhold Niebuhr

Linkage Politics – Nixon and Kissinger
Realistic Liberalism – John Herz
Two faces of Power - Bachrach and Baratz
Non Polarity – Richard N. Haass
Nuclear Ethics - Joseph Nye
Explanation

Animus Dominandi – Hans J Morgenthau

Intertextuality – Julia Kristeva
Identity as Performative – Judith Butler
Two Level Game Theory – Robert Putnam
Neo Classical Realism – Giden Rose
International Equilibrium Theory – George Liska
Explanation

Informative Society – Manuel Castells

Glocalization – Ronald Roberton
Disaster Capitalism – Naomi Klein
Cosmopolitanism Democracy – David Held
Deglobalization - Walden Bello
Structuration Theory – Anthony Gidden
Explanation

Hyper Liberal Globalizing Capitalism – R. Cox

Gramscianism - Robert Cox
Hyperbolic War – Ramond Aron
Global Village – Marshall McLuhan
Post Modern State – Robert Cooper
Black Box – Grahm T. Allison
Explanation

Complex Interdependence – Keohane & Nye

Smart Power – Suzanne Nossel
Strategic Realism – T Schelling
Failed State –Noam Chomsky
Cobweb Model of Politics in IR – John Burton
 Question #4

• Who differentiated Foreign Policy between two Foreign

Policies Capital-F and small-f ?

[a] H J Morgenthau [b] Andrew Linklater

[c] David Campbell [d] E H Carr

 Explanation

• Foreign Policy (F) - how one country

deal with another countries.
• Foreign Policy (f) – within the country,
how to deal with immigrants or foreigners.

•David Campbell is an Australian political scientist.

He is known for his writing on photography and post-
realism. His major works are.....
1. Politics Without Principle – 1993
2. National Deconstruction – 1998
3. Writing Security - 1992
 Question #5

• Who envisages ‘Triple transformation of the political

community’s ?

[a] Karl Deutsch [b] Andrew Linklater

[c] David Campbell [d] John Burton

Explanation
• In his key work ‘THE TRANSFORMATION OF
POLITICAL COMMUNITY(1998), Andrew Linklater
envisages triple transformation of Political
Community. These are......
1. Moral Universal
2. Less Universal
3. More sensitive to differences
• Linklater also advocates to the ‘Cosmopolitan
Citizenship’. He wrote some works....
1. Beyond realism and Marxism (1989)
2. The English school of international
relations(2006)
3. Critical Theory and World Politics(2007)
 Question #6

• Who argued that ‘If we don’t end wars, war will end us' ?

[a] H. G. Wells [b] Andrew Linklater

[c] James Rosenau [d] John Burton

 Explanation
• H G Wells argues that ‘If we don’t end wars, war
will end us’. His key works are....
1. The war of the world(1897)
2. The invisible Man(1897)
3. Modern Utopia (1905)
• Other I R quotes are..
1. ‘Theory is always for someone and some
purpose’. - Robert Cox
2. ‘Revolution means from class in itself to class
for itself’– Karl Marx
3. ‘There is no theory of Marxism in IR.’
– Martin Wight
 Explanation
4. ‘Peace is only possible in Democracy’
– M. Doyle
5. 'Entire Politics is ectually related with the power
and struggle’ –Catlin
6. ‘Politics is the Study of influence and influential’
– Harold Lasswell
7. ‘Politics is struggle for Power over Man’ –
Morgenthau
8. ‘Anarchy is what State makes it’ – A. Wendt
9. ‘War is caused by the lust for Power arising from
greed and ambition’ - Thucydides
 Question #7

• Which I R feminist thinker reformulated 6 principles of Hans J

Morgenthau and gave her own 6 principles in IR ?

[a] Ann
AnnTickner
Tickner [b] Cynthia Enloe

[c] Jean B. Elshtain [d] Carol Cohn

Explanation

• Ann Tickner reformulated Morgenthau‘s 6

principles and gave her own 6 principles in IR
feminist theory. These 6 are....
1. Dynamic objectivity.
2. National interests are dynamic.
3. Power cannot be defined universally.
4. Morality and politics can’t be separated.
5. Discover common moral principles for human.
6. Rejection of autonomy of Politics.
 Explanation

• Key works of Ann Tickner are....

Gender in International Relations -1992

Gendering World Politics - 2001
A Feminist Voyage Through International
Relations -2014
Hans Morgenthau‘s Principles of Political
Realism: A Feminist Reformation(1988)
 Question #8

• In International Relations who talks about three tradition of

IR- (1) Realism (2) Revolutionalism (3) Rationalism?

[a] H. J. Morgenthau [b] Terry Nardin

[c] Kenneth Waltz [d] Martin Wight

Wight
Explanation
• In his key work ‘International Theory:Three
Traditions(1991),Martin White gave three Traditions
of IR.....
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
He also wrote.....
Power Politics - 1946
System of States - 1977
 Question #9

• In International Relations who coined the term ‘Neoclassical

Realism’ ?

[a] Farid Zakaria [b]Gidden

[b] GiddenRose
Rose

[c] Kenneth Waltz [d] Martin Wight

 Explanation
• His key works are...
How Wars End(2010)
The Clash of Civilizations? The Debate (2013)
World at War - 2016
India at 70 - 2017
Brexit and Beyond -2016
Explanation
• Other key thinkers of Neoclassical Realism are...
1. Thomas J. Christensen (1996)
2. Alastair J. H. Murray (1997)
3. Randall Schweller (1998)
4. Fareed Zakaria (1998)
5. Robert Jervis (1999)
6. Colin Dueck (2006)
7. Steven Lobell (2009)
8. Asle Toje (2010)
9. Tom Dyson (2010)
10. Nicholas Kitchen
11. Robert Wishart
12. Henrik Larsen (2019)
 Question #10

• Choose correct option about key theorists of Critical I R

Theories ?

[a] Cox, Horkheimer [b] Cox, Linklater

[c] Linklater, Adorno [d] Cox, Habermas

 Explanation
• Critical I R Theorists are..
1. Robert Cox
2. Andrew Linklater
3. Richard Ashley
4. Mark Hoffman
• Note: Frankfurt School is also associated with Critical
Theory.
• In 1937, Max Horkheimer coined the term Critical Theory.
• Max Horkheimer, Jurgen Habermas, Theodor Adorno,
Herbert Marcuse are also known as Critical theorists.
• Thses critical theorists are influenced from Antonio
Gramsci.
Question
❑ Match the following ……
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Social Justice [1] R L Park
[b] Patronage Democracy [2] Rob Jenkins
[c] Banality Nationalism [3] Sudipta Kaviraj
[d] Tradition vs Change [4] Kanchan Chandra
[e] Mini Democracy [5] Gopal Guru

[a] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4,e-5 [c] a-5,b-3,c-1,d-3,e-2

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-3 [d] a-5,b-4,c-3,d-1,e-2

Explanation
CONCEPT THINKER
o Social Justice Gopal Guru
o Patronage Democracy Kanchan Chandra
o Banality Nationalism Sudipta Kaviraj
o Tradition vs Change R L Park
o Mini Democracy Rob Jenkins
❑ Other key concepts are….
o Paradoxes of Indian Democracy – Amrita Basu
o Dead Class Politics in India – Jodhaka & John Harris
o Majoritarian Politics - Christophe Jafferlot
o Indian Democracy as an Exceptionalism – Mehta & Jayal
Explanation
o Dominant coalition Model – S. Kaviraj and A. Vanaik
o Post Congress Polity – Y. Yadav, S. Palshikhar and K C Suri
o Passive Revolution – Sudipta Kaviraj
o Dominant Class Coalition – Pranab Bardhan
o Demand and Command Polity – Rudolph & Rudolph
o Second Democratic Upsurge – Yogendra Yadav
o Civil Society vs Political Society Partha Charterjee
o Third Electoral System – Yogendra Yadav
o Incremental Democratic Modernization – Rajani Kothari
o India’s Great Transformation – Karl Polyani
Question

❑ Match the following ……

BOOK THINKER
[a] India After Nehru (1) Partha Chatterjee
[b] Politics of the Governed (2) kuldip Nayar
[c] Democracy, Development and the Countryside (3) Ayesha Jalal
[d] The Republic of India (4) Ashutosh Varshney
[e] Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia (5) Allen Gledhill

[a] a-2,b-2,c-4,d-5,e-3
a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1,e-5 [c] a-4,b-3,c-1,d-3,e-2

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-3 [d] a-5,b-4,c-3,d-1,e-2

Explanation

❑ Match the following ……

BOOK THINKER
[a] India After Nehru (1) Kuldip Nayar
[b] Politics of the Governed (2) Partha Chatterjee
[c] Democracy, Development and the Countryside (3) Ashutosh Varshney
[d] The Republic of India (4) Allen Gledhill
[e] Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia (5) Ayesha Jalal
❑ Other some key w orks are….
▪ A critique of Passive Revolution - Sudipta Kaviraj
▪ Dominance and State Pow er in India - Franckel and Rao
▪ Political Development in India - Pranab Bardhan
▪ Constitutional Development in India – Ivor Jennings
 Explanation
▪ Indian Paradox – Myron Weiner
▪ Parties and Party Politics in India – Zoya Hasan
▪ The Puzzles of India’s Governance – Subrata K Mitra
▪ India in Transition: Freeing the Economy – Jagdish bhagw ati
▪ Caste in our Social Imagination – Kanchan Chandra
▪ Federal Indi: design for Change – Rasheeduddin Khan
▪ The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India – Christophe Jaffrelot
▪ The Promise of India’s Secular Democracy – Rajeev Bhargava
▪ Political Change in an Indian State – 1977
▪ Democracy and the State – Nirja Gopal Jayal
▪ The Dominant Caste – M N Srinivas
QUESTION

❑ Who has termed India as an example of – ‘Polycentric

Nationalism.’?

[a] James Manor

[b] Anthony D. Smith

[c] Benedict Anderson

[d] Partha Chatterjee

 Explanation

▪ Anthony D. Smith termed India as an

example of – ‘Polycentric Nationalism.
▪ While, He argued that Pakistan and
Bangladesh have ‘Ethnocentric
Nationalism’, w hich is primarily based
on religion(Islam) and Language.
Question
❑ Match the following ……
NEW STATE DEMAND STATE
[a] Maru Pradesh Gujarat
[b] Saurashtra Maharashtra
[c] Vidharva Assam
[d] Bodoland Punjab
[e] Khalistan Rajasthan

[a] a-5,b-1,c-2,d-3,e-4 [c] a-5,b-3,c-1,d-4,e-2

[b] a-5,b-3,c-5,d-2,e-4 [d] a-5,b-4,c-3,d-1,e-2

Explanation
New State Demand State
o Maru Pradesh Rajasthan
o Saurashtra Gujarat
o Vidharva Maharashtra
o Bodoland Assam
o Khalistan Punjab
❑ Other new statehood demands are….
o Kongu Nadu - Tamil Nadu
o Kuliland - Manipur
o Kamtapur - Assam
o Tulu Nadu – Karnataka and Kerala
o Braj Pradesh – Uttar Pradesh
Explanation
o Harit Pradesh - U P
o Bundelkhand - U P
o Pachimanchal - U P
o Awadh Pradesh - U P
o Poorvanchal - U P
o Bhojpur - Bihar
o Gorkhaland - West Bengal
o Mithilanchal – Bihar and Jharkhand
o Dimaland(Dimaraji) – Assam & Nagaland
o Kosal State – Odisa
o Garo Land – Meghalaya
o Dravidistan – Tamil Nadu
QUESTION
❑ Choose the correct statements from below….
[1] National Commission for Women's Education was
established in 1992.
[2] National Commission for Women was established in 1992.
[3] Towards Equality Report was published in – 1974
[4] National Commission for Women is a Constitutional Body.

[a] All are correct [c] 1,2,3 are correct

[b] Only 2 and 3 are correct [d] Only 2 is correct

Explanation
o National Commission for Women was
established on 31st Jan. 1992.
o Currently, it is a Statutory Body.
o Its headquarter located in New Delhi.
o Its first chairperson w as Jayanti Patnayak.
& present chairperson is Rekha Sharma.
o National Commission for Women's
Education w as established in 1959 and
reestablished in 1964.
o Towards Equality Report – 1974.
Question
❑ Match the following ……
SLOGAN GIVEN BY
[a] Indira Hataao [1]R M Lohia
[b] Loktantra Bachaoo [2]Janata Party
[c] Achhe Din Aayenge [3]Narendra Modi
[d] Indira is India and India is Indira [4]D K Barooah
[e] Indira Hataao Desh Bachaao [5]J P Narayana

[a] a-5,b-1,c-2,d-3,e-4 [c] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4,e-5

[b] a-5,b-3,c-5,d-2,e-4 [d] a-5,b-4,c-3,d-1,e-2

Explanation
❑ Match the following ……
SLOGAN GIVEN BY
[a] Indira Hataao R M Lohia
[2] Loktantra Bachaoo Janata Party
[3] Achhe Din Aayenge Narendra Modi
[4] Indira is India and India is Indira D K Barooah
[5] Indira Hataao Desh Bachaao J P Narayana
Question
❑ Match the following ……
DEMOCRATIC UPSURGE KEY ISSUE
[a] First Democratic Upsurge [1] Participation of Indian Adult
Voter to the Democratic Politics
[b] Second Democratic Upsurge [2] Participation of lower Castes
such as – SC, ST and OBC.
[c] Third Democratic Upsurge [3] Competitive Electoral Market

[a] a-3, b-1, c-2 [c] a-1, b-2, c-3

[b] a-2,b-1,c-2 [d] a-2, b-1, c-3

Explanation
1st Democratic Upsurge
o 1st Democratic Upsurge occurred during
1950-1970 in India.
o It is based on the participation of Indian
Adult voters to the democratic politics both
at the centre and states as w ell.
o It falsified the w estern myth that the success
of democracy requires modernization,
urbanization, education and access of press.
o From 1950s to 1970s India held successful
parliamentary elections w hich is know n as
1st democratic upsurge in India.
Explanation
2nd Democratic Upsurge
o 2nd Democratic Upsurge started from 1980s
in India.
o During the 1980’s, increasing the political
participation of the lower classes of the
society such as SC, ST & OBCs.
o Yogendra Yadav interpreted it as 2nd
Democratic Upsurge.
o This participation has made Indian Politics
more accommodative and accessible for
these Classes.
Explanation
3rd Democratic Upsurge
o 3rd Democratic Upsurge started from 2010 in India.
o Ashish Nandy is associated w ith 3rd Democratic
Upsurge.
o Key features of this Democratic Upsurge are.....
1. It is based on the principle of Survival
of the ablest.
2. It represents a competitive electoral market.
The era of Liberalization, Privatization and
Globalization from the 1990s is attributed to
the emergence of a Competitive Market Society.
3. It seek to promote the participation of the Youth.
Explanation
3rd Democratic Upsurge

4. It underlines three shifts in India’s Electoral

Market: State to market, from Government to
Governance and from State as a controller to
State as a Facilitator.
5. Activism by the urban middle class.
6. India against corruption movement.
Question

❑ Match the following ……

COMMISSION RELATED ISSUES
[a] Sri Krishna Aayog [1] Sikh Riots
[b] Liberhn Commission [2] National Emergency
[c] Shah Aayog [3] Babri Masjid
[d] Nanawati Aayog [4] Bombay Riots

[a] a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1 [c] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4

[b] a-4,b-1,c-2,d-3 [d] a-2,b-4,c-3,d-1

Explanation

COMMISSION RELATED ISSUES

[a] Sri Krishna Aayog [1] Bombay Riots
[b] Liberhn Commission [2] Babri Masjid
[c] Shah Aayog [3] National Emergency
[d] Nanawati Aayog [4] Sikh Riots
Question

❑ Match the following ……

MOVEMENT LEADER
[a] Neo Farmer Movement Vasudev balwant Fadke
[b] Kheda Movement Vallabhbhai Patel
[c] Bardoli Kisan Movement Mahatma Gandhi
[d] Pabna Kisan Aandolan Sharad Joshi

[a] a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1 [c] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4

[b] a-4,b-1,c-2,d-3 [d] a-2,b-4,c-3,d-1

Explanation

MOVEMENT LEADER
Neo Farmer Movement[1980] Sharad Joshi
Kheda Movement[1918] Mahatma Gandhi
Bardoli Kisan Movement[1928] Vallabhbhai Patel
Pabna Kisan Aandolan[1873-76] Vasudev Balwant Fadke
Question
❑ Match the following ……
CONCEPT THINKER
[a] Soft State (1) Subrata K. Mitra
[b] Total State (2) Rob Jenkins
[c] Economic Reforms by Stealth (3) Rasheeduddin Khan
[d] Contentious Democracy (4) Gunnar Myrdal
[e] Indian State as w eak and captured (5) Pranab Bardhan

[a] a-4,b-3,c-2,d-1,e-5 [c] a-4,b-3,c-1,d-3,e-2

[b] a-1,b-4,c-5,d-2,e-3 [d] a-5,b-4,c-3,d-1,e-2

Explanation
CONCEPT THINKER
o Soft State Gunnar Myrdal
o Total State Rasheeduddin Khan
o Economic Reforms by Stealth Rob Jenkins
o Contentious Democracy Subrata K. Mitra
o Indian State as w eak and captured Pranab Bardhan
❑ Other key concepts are….
o Paradox of representation – Yogendra Yadav
o Command Polity and Demand Polity- Rudolph & Rudolph
o Polycentric Hierarchy - Douglas Verney
o Party of Concerns and Party of Pressure – M. Weiner
o India as Weak and Strong State – Rudolph & Rudolph
Explanation
o India as Million Mutinies in the 1990s – V S Naipaul.
o Polycentric Nationalism – Anthony D. Smith
o Derivative Nationalism – Partha Chatterjee
o Militant Hindu Nationalism – Christophe Jaffrelot
o Improbable Democracy - Ashutosh Varshney
o Democratic Incarnation of Caste – Rudolph & Rudolph
o Hindu Authoritarianism – Achin Vanaik
o Caste Patriotism – G S Ghurye
o India’s Silent Revolution – Christophe Jaffrelot
o A Democratic Developmental State - James Manor
o Sanskritisation – M N Srinivas
 Maritime Security of India
What is Meritime SecuRity ?

• Maritime security is an umbrella term informed to

classify issues in the maritime domain that are often
related to national security, marine environment,
economic development, and human security.
• For India, maritime security is an important aspect of
national security as it has a coastline of over 7,000 km.
 Maritime Security of India
INDIAN OCEAN

• During Cold War this region was known as ‘Zone of Peace’.

• 31% population lives near this region.
• 90% of economic trade takes place through this route.
• It is called sea of Commerce.
• It is the natural watchdog of India.
• In 1966, Britan left Indian Ocean.
• Diego Garcia- US use of military base to attack Iraq during Khadi Crisis.
• ‘ A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire’(2006)
Sugata Bose
 Maritime Security of India
IORA -1997
• It is known as the Indian Ocean Rim Initiative and the Indian
Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation.
• Formation : 7 March 1997
• It is an international organisation consisting of 23 states
bordering the Indian Ocean. Key objectives are..
• Social Development of Indian Ocean Rim Region.
• Enhancing Security & Protection from piracy.
• Trade facilitation.
 Maritime Security of India
Mekong–Ganga Cooperation
• It w as established on November 10, 2000, at
Vientiane, Laos at the First MGC Ministerial Meeting.
• Members: India, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia,
Laos and Vietnam.
• Cooperation in 4 areas...
1. Tourism
2. Culture
3. Education,
4. Transportation.
 Maritime Security of India
String of Pearls - China

• String of Pearls – tittle is give by American defense ministry.

• String of Pearls’ refers to a geopolitical theory to the grid of
Chinese intentions in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• Under the String of Pearls policy, China established military
bases at Gw adar Port in Pakistan, Hambantota in Sri Lank
and Coco Island in Myanmar.
 Maritime Security of India
necklace of diamonds - India

• Policy of India in the counter of Chines doctrine of String of Pearls.

• It is also considered as a diplomatic victory of India.
• In this doctrine India building w arm & close relationship w ith
Australia, Vietnam & Asean.
 Energy Security of India
What is Energy Security?

• Energy security is the continuous and uninterrupted availability of energy, to

a specific country or region.
• The IEA defines energy security as the uninterrupted availability of energy
sources at an affordable price.
• Sources of energy security are.....
Solar Geothermal
Wind Biomass
Soil Nuclear
Hydro Forests
 Energy Security of India
Energy Diplomacy of India

• India is setting up a web of energy relationships in the extended

neighbourhood covering Myanmar, Vietnam in the east, with Central
Asian countries like Kazakhstan and Gulf countries in the west.
• Indo-US Nuclear deal opened new vistas for India in field of Nuclear
energy facilitating cutting edge technology and nuclear fuel. India has
started to engage with China, Kazakhstan and Australia for nuclear fuel.
• India’s SCO membership could now play a bigger role in ensuring
greater energy cooperation between energy producers and consumers by
linking Central Asia and South Asia.
 Energy Security of India
National Solar Mission
• The National Solar Mission is an initiative of the Government of India and
State Governments to promote solar power.
• The program was inaugurated as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission by former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 11 January 2010.
• It had a set a target of 20,000 MW of grid-connected solar power by 2022. It
was revised in June 2015 to 1,00,000 MW by 2022.
• India ranked third globally for total renewable power capacity additions with
15.4 GW in 2021, following China (136 GW) and the US (43 GW).
India has the world’s fourth largest wind power market
 Energy Security of India
Benefits of using Solar Power
• Energy security
• Mitigation of adverse impacts due to Climate change
• Reduction in pollution and health benefits.
• Reduce dependence on fossil fuels that put a strain on
foreign reserves and ecology.
• The solar manufacturing sector will get a boost
• Help in the creation of technology hubs for manufacturing
• Increased manufacturing capacity and installation
 Environmental Security of India
Constitutional Provisions
• ARTICLE 48A – The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment
and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
• ARTICLE 51A(g) - It shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve
the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have
compassion for living creatures.
• ARTICLE 21 – Some rights of EVS.
• In the Menaka Gandhi Case(1976), SC declared following rights as part of Art. 21...
- Right to decent environment including pollution free water & air & protection
against hazardous industries.
- Right to health.
- Right to free from noise Pollution.
• M. C. Mehta v. Union of India(1986) – Taj Pollution.
 Environmental Security of India
Bhopal gas tragedy

• It was a chemical accident on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union
Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
• The industrial disaster is considered the world’s worst in history.
• Cause : Methyl isocyanate leak from the E610 storage tank on the Union Carbide
India Limited plant.
• Killed : 3787
 Environmental Security of India
Environment Protection Act
• It was enacted in May 1986 and came into force on 19 November 1986.
• Came into force : Due to Bhopal Gas Tragedy.
• It’s key features are.....
1. The Act covers all forms of pollution; air, water, soil and noise.
2. Prevention of hazards.
3. Protect and improve human environment.
4. Implement the decisions of the United Nations Conferences on the Human
Environment.
• Key environmental challenges that faced by India are...
Air Pollution Ground Water Depletion
Loss of Bio-Diversity Climate Change
 Environmental Security of India
National Action Plan on Climate Change
• The Government of India launched National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC) on 30th June, 2008 outlining eight National Missions on climate change.
These include:
1. National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system
6. National Mission for a Green India.
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
 Cyber Security of India
What is Cyber Security?
• Cyber security is the practice of defending computers,
servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, networks,
and data from malicious attacks.

What is Cyber Crime?

• Cybercrime, also called computer crime, the use of a
computer as an instrument to further illegal ends, such
as committing fraud, trafficking in child pornography
and intellectual property stealing identities or violating
privacy.
 Cyber Security of India
Digital India
• Digital India is a flagship programme of the Government of India
with a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society
and knowledge economy.

Cyber Surakshit Bharat

• It is an initiative from the Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology that aims at creating a robust cybersecurity ecosystem
in India. This aligns with the government’s vision for a ‘Digital
India’.
 Cyber Security of India
Digital India Vision
• India is one of the fastest-growing markets for digital technologies.
• In January 2020, India had the second largest Internet user base with over 550
million Internet users.
• In 2021, 40% of the total global digital payments took place in India.
• India now has over 1.15 billion phones and more than 700 million internet users
• Digi Locker, Jan Dhan Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana 45
BharatNet are instances of Digital India. The National Conference on Cyber Safety
and National Security concluded in New Delhi.
The conference is part of the efforts to create mass awareness for the prevention of
cybercrimes in the country.
It is also part of the Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav to celebrate India’s progress and
achievements in the 75th year of India’s Independence.
 Cyber Security of India
Cyber Crime
• Cyber crime is unlawful acts wherein the computer is either a tool or a target or both.

Cyber War
• Cyberwar is an organised effort by a nation state to conduct operations in cyberspace
against foreign.
Cyber Terrorism
• Cyberterrorism is the convergence of cyberspace and terrorism.
 Cyber Security of India
Global Cyber Security Index - 2020
• Launched on 29th June 2021
• Conducted by : ITU (International Telecommunication Union).
• 1st Rank – USA
• Last Rank – Yemen
• India's Rank – 10th
• Top three Ranks...
1st USA
2nd UK & Saudi Arabia
3rd Estonia
 Terrorism
What is Terrorism?

• The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful

violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate
governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally
political, religious, or ideological.
• The most common forms of terrorist Action include assassinations,
bombings, hostage seizure, and plane hijacks.
 Terrorism
Terrorist Groups

• Al Qaeda – Pakistan & Sudan

• ISIS – Syria & Iraq
• Boko Haram – Nigeria
• Jaish-e-Mohammed – Pakistan
• Lashkar-e-Taiba – Pakistan
• Indian Mujahideen – India
• Al-Shabaab – Somalia, Kenya & Ethiopia.
• Hamas – Israel
• Hezbollah – Lebanon
• Taliban - Afghanistan
 Terrorism
9/11 terrorist attack
• 9/11 – 11 Sep. 2001 terrorist attack on WTC, US by al-Qaeda.
• Criticism by India.
• Operation Enduring Freedom by George W. Bush in Afghanistan.
• War against Terrorism by George W. Bush.
J & K State Legislative Assembly terrorist attack - 1 Oct. 2001
Indian Parliament attack – 13 Dec. 2001 bt LeT & JeM
2008 Mumbai attacks (26/11) by LeT & Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi
2014 Peshawar(Pakistan) School Attack by Taliban
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Kashmir Problem
• On 1 January 1948, Nehru raised the issue of Jammu and Kashmir in
the UN Security Council.
• Jammu and Kashmir was merged with India on 27 October 1948.
• The Shaksgam Valley was ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963 when
both countries signed a boundary agreement to settle their border
differences.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
UN stand On Kashmir
1. Pakistan-occupied territory should be vacated.
2. There should be a ceasefire between the two countries.
3. Referendum should be conducted in Jammu and Kashmir.
Note: The United Nations presented 3 plans to resolve the issue of
Jammu and Kashmir.

McNaughton proposals- Dec. 1949

Dixon Plan – 24th January 1950
Graham Mission - 1952
 Indo-Pak Relationship
POK Debate

• Full name: Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.

• The name used by India for the portion of Kashmir under
Pakistani administration.
• Pakistan considered it as Azad Kashmir.
• UN and other international organizations referred it as
“Pakistani-administered Kashmir”.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
LOC [Redcliff]

• LOC is Line Of Control which refers to the border in Kashmir

between India and Pakistan.
LOC length with Pakistan 765 km.
• Architect: Cyril Radcliffe.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Siachen conflict
• It is sometimes reffered as Siachen Glacier conflict.
• Siachen is the world’s highest glacier and the highest battlefield.
• Conflict between India & Pakistan.
• Location: Kashmir.
• Shaksgam Valley is also located in this region which was given to
China by Pakistan in 1963.
• The Nubra River flowing in Ladakh originates from Siachen.
• In 1984, Pakistan tried to control Siachen.
• In return, India launched Operation Meghdoot on 13 April 1984.
• India currently controls Siachen.
• The strategic importance of Siachen is very high.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
The Rann of Kutch
• Pakistan invade the Rann of Kutch on In June 1965, British Prime Minister Harold
Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal
to resolve the dispute.
• On February 19, 1968, the tribunal bolstered India’s claim over 90 per cent of the
Rann while conceding remaining 10 per cent area to Pakistan.
• Pakistan did invade the Rann of Kutch on 9th April, 1965-July 1965.
• This operation was codenamed ‘Operation Desert Hawk 1’ by the Pakistani army.
• Pakistan justified this attack saying it was meant to “liberate” Kashmir.
• This is known as Sir Creek dispute.
• Sir Creek opens up into the Arabian Sea.
• It was originally named Ban Ganga and was named Sir Creek during colonial
times after a British official.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Liaquat-Nehru Pact
• Signed: 8 April 1950.
• Signed by the Prime Minister of India Jawahar Lal Nehru and the
Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan.
• It was a bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan.
• It is also known as the Delhi Pact.
• Key issue: to guarantee the rights of minorities in both countries
after the Partition of India and to avert another war between them.
• This pact was criticized by Syama Prasad Mukherjee.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Indus Water Treaty-1960
• Signed: 19 September 1960
• The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a water-distribution treaty between
India and Pakistan.
• Negotiated by the World Bank
• It was signed by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and
Pakistani president Ayub Khan.
• The treaty gave the waters of the western rivers—the Indus, Jhelum,
and Chenab to Pakistan and those of the eastern rivers—the Ravi,
Beas, and Sutlej to India.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
1965 war & Tashkent Declaration
• Signed on: 10th Jan. 1966
• Location: Tashkent.
• Signatories: Lal Bahadur Shastri (Prime Minister of India) &
Muhammad Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan).
• Mediators: Soviet Union.
• It resolved the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.
The Tashkent Declaration was a peace
agreement between India and Pakistan.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
1971 war & Shimla Accord -1972
• War date: September 1971.
• Pakistan was defeated & rise of Bangladesh.
• This war was an example of Indira Gandhi’s hyperrealism and was
a refutation of the Two Nation theory of Pakistan.
• Operation Python, a follow-up to Operation Trident, was the code
name of a naval attack launched on West Pakistan’s port city of
Karachi by the Indian Navy during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Shimla Accord -1972
• Signed on: 2 July 1972 in Shimla.
• Effective: 4 August 1972.
• It was a peace treaty signed between India and Pakistan.
• Signatories: Indira Gandhi (Prime Minister of India)
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (President of Pakistan).
• Key role in the birth of Bangladesh.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Operation Smiling Buddha-18 May, 1974
• Known as: Pokhran-1.
• It was India’s first successful nuclear bomb test.
• India described this test as peaceful nuclear explosion.
• USA & Canada removed all nuclear ties & assistance.
• The bomb was detonated on the army base Pokhran Test Range, in Rajasthan.
• Raja Ramanna team of 75 scientists made this missile.
• Pakistan entirely criticized India’s this nuclear test.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Operation Shakti-11-13 May, 1998
• Explosion Date: 11th May – 13th May, 1998
• Known as Pokhran-2.
• The Pokhran-II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb
test explosions conducted by India.
• Location: Pokhran,Rajasthan.
Chagai-1 Nuclear test by Pakistan
• Note: Pakistan Nuclear Test – from 28 th May to 30 th May
1998 at Chagai,Balochistan.
• Its code name was – Chagai-1
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Two Track Diplomacy-1990 onwards

• To strengthen the relationship between the two countries, a new

initiative was taken which is called Two Track Diplomacy.
• It is also known as Backchannel diplomacy.
• Track Two Diplomacy is an “unofficial, informal interaction between
members of adversary groups or nations that aim to develop strategies,
to influence public opinion, organize human and material resources in
ways that might help resolve their conflict”.
• In 1981, Joseph V. Montville, then a U.S. State Department employee,
coined the phrases Track One and Track Two diplomacy.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Two Track Diplomacy-1990 onwards

• Track-II initiative was first held in Neemrana Fort, Rajasthan in 1991-1992.

• That is why is known as Neemrana Dialogue.
• Chaophraya Dialogue also related with Track 2 Diplomacy between India & Pak.
• In 2014, the Track II Diplomacy meeting was held in Dubai.
• Track 3 Diplomacy relates to people-to-people contact.
• ‘Aman Ki Asha’ initiative to increase people-to-people
contact between India and Pakistan.
• Track 1 Diplomacy-It is the official engagement between
the government officials of two or more nations or with
multilateral organisations, international bodies etc.
• It is known as Official Diplomacy.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Kartarpur Peace Corridor
• It is a product of Track Two Diplomacy between India & Pakistan.
• It is a welcome step to increase people to people contact
and thereby ease tensions between the two neighbours.
• John Warlick McDonald, a former US diplomat, envisioned the
Kartarpur Peace Corridor in 2008.
• He is a founder of Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy,
• It is a visa-free border crossing and religious corridor,
connecting the Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Pakistan to
Gurudwara Dera Baba Nanak with India.
• The Kartarpur Corridor was first proposed in early 1999
by Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Nawaz Sharif, as the part of Bus
Diplomacy.
• Re-established on: 9 November 2019. by N. Modi and Imran Khan.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Kargil War - 1999
• Date: 3 May 1999 – 26 Jul 1999.
• This war also known as the Kargil conflict.
• It’s cade name was – Operation Vijay.
• Victory: India - The Indian Army declared a victory after
nearly three-month-long battles on the icy heights of Kargil.
• Operation Safed Sagar was code name of the joint operation
of Indian Army & Indian Air Forces during the 1999 Kargil War.
• Aim: flushing out regular and irregular troops of the Pakistani
Army from vacated Indian Positions in the Kargil sector along
the Line of Control.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
coup d’etat in
Pakistan
• 3 times Military coups in Pakistan....

1st – 1958-71
2nd - 1977-88
3rd - 1999-2008
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Lahore Declaration
• Signed on: 21 February 1999
• Signatories: Atal Bihari Vajpayee(Prime Minister of India) &
Nawaz Sharif(Prime Minister of Pakistan).
• Location: Lahore, Pakistan.
• The Lahore Declaration was a bilateral agreement and governance
treaty between India and Pakistan. Key points were...
1. The war between the two countries will be ended.
2. Peace and prosperity will be established between the two countries.
3. The principles of the UN Charter should be implemented.
4. Nuclear weapons should be banned.
5. Shimla Agreement should be implemented.
6. Both countries are nuclear power or security is the responsibility of both.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Indo-Pak Bus Diplomacy
• It is officially known as Sada-e-Sarhad.
• Founded: 20 February 1999
• It was suspended in the aftermath of the 2001 Indian Parliament
attack on 13 December 2001, but this bus service was resumed on 16
July 2003 when bilateral relations had improved.
• In August 2019 Pakistan decided to stop the service in the wake of
India revoking Jammu and Kashmir’s special status.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Indo-Pak Bus Diplomacy
• In his key work, ‘Engaging India: Diplomacy, Democracy, and the Bomb,’
American diplomat Strobe Talbott argued.....

likened this initiative by Vajpayee with

that of Richard Nixon’s trip to China in
1971 and Gorbachev’s opening of the
Berlin Wall in 1989.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
The Agra summit-2001
• Drafted: 14 July 2001 – 16 July 2001.
• Signed: No signatures; the process was collapsed.
• Focus on: Peace and bilateral efforts to bring stability in the region.
• Negotiators Pervez Musharraf(President of Pakistan)&
Atal Bihari Vajpayee(Prime Minister of India).
• Pakistani former Foreign Minister Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri in his
book ‘Neither a Hawk nor a Dove, ’ wrote that.....

‘The solution to Kashmir was in

the grasp of both government’.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Musharraf Declaration

• This declaration known as ‘NO WAR PACT WITH INDIA’.

• During Agra Summit, 2001, Pervez Musharraf said....

• Note: general Zia Ul Haq offered India ‘India has offered a Pact on
a non-aggression pact.
No First Use of Nuclear
• Indira Gandhi subsequently declared
in 1982 that “pact or no pact”, India Weapons. I am ready to go
would never attack Pakistan. one step ahead.... For a NO
WAR PACT’.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Indo-Pak Relations & Terrorism
J & K State Legislative Assembly terrorist attack - 1 Oct. 2001
Indian Parliament attack – 13 Dec. 2001 bt LeT & JeM
2008 Mumbai attacks (26/11) by LeT & Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi
• India considers all these terrorist attacks to be sponsored by Pakistan.
• That is why India strongly condemned all these terrorist attacks.
Operation Parakram
• Date: 13 Dec 2001 – 10 Jun 2002
• It was a military standoff between India and Pakistan that resulted in the massing of troops on
both sides of the border and along the Line of Control in the region of Kashmir.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Indo-Pak Relations & Terrorism
• Mohammed Ajmal Amir Kasab was hanged on 21 Nov. 2012
at 7:30 am at Yerawada Central Jail, Pune Maharashtra, India.
• He was mastermind of 2008 Mumbai Terrorist Attack.
Surgical Strike
• Strike on September 28, 2016.
• Indian Army launched surgical strikes against terrorist camps in Pakistan
Occupied Kashmir.
• It was in response to an attack by Pakistan-based terrorists on an army
base in Kashmir’s Uri on September 18 in which 19 soldiers were killed.
• Pathankot attack 2 Jan 2016 – 5 Jan 2016 – was a terrorist attack.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Surgical Strike 2.0

• Pulwama attack 14 February 2019 was also terrorist attack.

• Surgical strike 2.0 was IAF counter terror attack at Balakot, Pakistan.
• It’s code name was – OPERATION BANDAR.
• It was an intelligence-based counter-terror attack, not a military
action, in which over 350 terrorists were eliminated by Indian Air Force.
• Note: ‘OPERATION GINGER’.

• Date: 2011
• It was code name of India Army recounter in Pakistan Army in POK.
 Indo-Pak Relationship
Bifurcation of J&K and Removal of Art. 370
• On 5 August 2019, the Union Government revocated the special status
granted to Jammu and Kashmir under the Article 370 through a Presidential
Order, and made the entire Constitution of India applicable to the state.
• This implied that the Article 35A stood abolished.
• Pakistan considered this step as India’s “illegal” and “unilateral” step.
• Pakistan Foreign Office in a statement said, “Jammu and Kashmir is an
internationally recognised disputed territory”.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
6 points of Mujibur Rahman
• An idea of 6 point given by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman on 5 Feb. 1966 in Lahore.
• It is known as six point movement spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
• It demanded greater autonomy for East Pakistan.
• 6 points regarded a milestone on the road to Bangladesh’s independence.
• These 6 points are.....
1. Directly elected Government.
2. Federal Govt. Will control the only defence and foreign policy.
3. Separate currencies & Financial Policies.
4. Provinces would tax the people.
5. East Pakistan should have a separate militia or paramilitary force.
6. There would be separate accounts of foreign exchange earnings for each wing.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Liberation of East Pakistan & born as Bangladesh
• Bangladesh Liberation War : Independence 26 March - 16 Dec 1971.
• This war is known as the Bangladesh War of Independence.
• Mukti Bahini played an important role in the independence of Bangladesh.
• In this war of independence, Indira Gandhi helped Bangladesh against Pakistan.
• It can be seen as hyper realism of Indira Gandhi.
• On 26th March 1971, East Pakistan became free and born as a Bangladesh.
• Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the first President of Bangladesh.
• Bangladesh known as the father of SAARC.
• Former President of Bangladesh Ziaur Rahman gave the idea of creation of a
regional organization in South Asia.
• Khaleda Zia – 1st women President of Bangladesh(1991-1996 & 2001-2006).
• Hussain Muhammad Ershad known as dictatorship president of Bangladesh.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Indo-Bangladesh Treaty -1972
• Signed on 19th March, 1972.
• Signed by : Indian P M Indira Gandhi & P M of Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
• Full name : India –Bangladesh treaty of Friendship, cooperation & Peace.
• It was 25 years treaty.
• The treaty was also known as the Indira–Mujib Treaty.
• According to this treaty India pledged to protect the Territorial integrity of
Bangladesh, Economic assistance for its reconstruction, to return refugees from India.
• A joint India-Mukti Bahini command was set up under India’s General to liberate
Bangladesh from Pakistan.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Delhi Agreement - 1973

• Signed on : 9 April 1973.

• It was a trilateral agreement signed between India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
• Purpose : It allowed the repatriation of prisoners of war and interned officials
held in the three countries after the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh

New Moore Island

• New Moore Island was claimed by both Bangladesh and India.
• New Moore Island, also known as South Talpatti and Purbasha Island.
• In Bangladesh, it is known as South Talpatti Island.
• Both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it because
of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
• It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone
in November 1970, and disappeared around March 2010.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh
Dahagram Dispute
• Dahagram–Angarpota is a Bangladeshi enclave in India about
200m away from the border of Bangladesh.
• Dahagram–Angarpota was the largest and is the only remaining
Bangladeshi enclave after the 2015 resolution of the India–Bangladesh
enclaves issue.
• The enclave is connected to mainland Bangladesh by the Tin Bigha
Corridor, which is situated in Patgram Upazila of Lamonirhat district.
• It is surrounded by Cooch Behar district of India’s West Bengal state.
• The Teesta river flows on its western side.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh
Dahagram Dispute
• The 1974 Indira-Mujib pact was signed which protected the status of
Dahagram–Angarpota and in return Bangladesh gave India the whole of
Berubari village.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh
Teesta River Dispute
• The dispute is regarding water sharing of River Teesta.
• Bangladesh wants a higher share than it gets now.
• Currently, its share is lower than that of India’s.
• Water share to India – 39%
• Water share to Bangladesh – 36%
• Not allocated – 25%
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh

Ganga Water Treaty

• Signed between India and Bangladesh on 12 Dec. 1996.
• Period – 30 years.
• Signed by the then Indian Prime Minister H. D. Deve Gowda and
Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed in New Delhi.
• It is also known as Farakka Treaty of 1996.
• Formation of Farakka Barrage – 1971.
• Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission – 1972.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh
• Hussian Muhammad Ershad, A Former President of Bangladesh argued that.....

The whole of North Bengal may become a desert.

Bangladesh will never bow down to Farakka’s
question. Bangladeshis are true Muslims and
Allah will surely help them. Bangladeshis will
survive with or without Farakka because Islam
was born in the desert.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Key disputes between India & Bangladesh

Rohingya-Chakma Conundrum
• Chakmas are one of the largest ethnic groups of the easternmost areas of
the Indian subcontinent and are natives of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
region in southeastern Bangladesh.
• They have a significant population in West Bengal and the northeastern
part of India, especially Mizoram.
• The Rohingya people are a stateless Indo-Aryan ethnic group who
predominantly follow Islam and reside in Rakhine State, Myanmar.
• The government of Myanmar is not giving them citizenship..
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship

Operation Insaniyat by Indian Govt.

• Date : 14 September 2017
• Objective : to help Bangladesh in overcoming the humanitarian crisis.
• Due to the large influx of the Myanmar refugees to Bangladesh.
• Due to the Military crackdown in the Rakhine state these Rohingya
Muslims fled Myanmar and turned to Bangladesh in large numbers.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
N Modi visit to Bangladesh - 2015
• Modi visited to Dhaka, Bangladesh on 6-7 June 2015.
• The Land Boundary Agreement was signed on 16 May 1974 between Indira
Gandhi and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to exchange enclaves and simplify their
international border.
• A revised version of the agreement was adopted by the two countries on 7 May
2015, when the Parliament of India passed the 100th Amendment to the
Constitution of India.
• Under this agreement, which was ratified on 6 June 2015, India received 51
Bangladeshi enclaves (covering 7,110 acres (2,880 ha) in the Indian mainland,
while Bangladesh received 111 Indian enclaves (covering 17,160 acres (6,940 ha)
in the Bangladeshi mainland.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship
Modi visit to Bangladesh-March 2021
• The Prime Minister of India paid a State Visit to Bangladesh to join the
celebrations of the Golden Jubilee of the Independence of Bangladesh, the Birth
Centenary of the Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman &
50 years of establishment of diplomatic relations between India & Bangladesh.
◆ Bangladesh thanked India for conferring Gandhi Peace Prize for the year 2020
on Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
◆ Jointly inaugurated the Bangabandhu – Bapu Digital Exhibition in Dhaka.
◆ To mark the 50th anniversary of India-Bangladesh friendship.
◆ Decided to commemorate 6th December as Maitri Diwas, the day when India
recognized Bangladesh in the year 1971.
◆ India announced the establishment of the Bangabandhu Chair at the University
of Delhi.
 Indo-Bangladesh Relationship

Exercise SAMPRITI - X

• Date: 5 th to 16 th June 2022.•

• With: Bangladesh
• Start Date : 2009 (1 st Edition).
• Place: at Jashore Military Station in Bangladesh.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
PROLOGUE
• Religion of Sri Lanka : Buddhism
• Language : Sinhala
• Form of Government : Semi-Presidential.
• Sri Lankan Constitution from 1944-1972 known as ‘SOULBURY CONSTITUTION’.
• Sirimavo Bandaranaike(1960) : Worlds first women P M from Sri Lanka.
• Indira Gandhi (1969) : World’s second women P M from India.
• US to close Voice of America station in Sri Lanka in 1983.
• Palk Strait – It joined India(Tamil Nadu & Sri Lanka(Jaffna) together.
• The Sri Lankan Civil War was a civil war fought in Sri Lanka from 1983 to 2009.
• Indian Peacekeeping Forces in Sri Lanka – July 1987 – March 1990.
• Ceylon, became independent from British rule in 1948.
• In 1972, the Sinhalese changed the country’s name from Ceylon to Sri Lanka and
made Buddhism the nation’s primary religion.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
TAMIL PROBLEM
• In 1983, the LTTE ambushed an army convoy, killing thirteen soldiers and
triggering riots in which 2,500 Tamils died.
• As Ethnic ties have bound southern India and Sri Lanka for more than two
millennia. India is a home to more than 60 million of the world’s 77 million
Tamils, while about 4 million live in Sri Lanka.
• When war between Sri Lankan Tamils and the Sinhalese majority erupted in
1983, India took an active role.
• Indo-Sri Lankan Accord was signed in 1987 to provide a political solution to Sri
Lanka’s conflict.
ETHNIC CONFLICT
FISHERIES PROBLEM
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Katchatheevu Disputes
• Katchatheevu is a 163-acre uninhabited island administered by Sri Lanka and
was a disputed territory claimed by India until 1976.
• The island is located between Neduntheevu, Sri Lanka and Rameswaram, India.
• It has been traditionally used by both Sri Lankan Tamil and Indian fishermen.
• In 1974, Indira Gandhi handed over the island to Sri Lanka.
• In 2011, Jayalalitha’s Tamil Nadu government filed a petition in the Supreme
Court against Indira Gandhi’s decision.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
LTTE ISSUE OF TERRORISM

• LTTE(Liberation Tiger of Tamil Eelam) demanded new state ‘Eelam’.

• LTTE were a militant separatist group fighting for an independent
homeland for Hindu Tamils in Northeastern Sri Lanka.
• The LTTE was founded in the early 1970s by Velupillai Prabhakaran, who
led the group until his death by Sri Lankan armed forces in May 2009.
• LTTE Assassinated Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991.
 Key Operations
Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Operation Pawan
• Operation Pawan was the code name assigned to the operation by the Indian
Peace Keeping Force to take control of Jaffna from the Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam, better known as the Tamil Tigers, in late 1987 to enforce the disarmament
of the LTTE as a part of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord.
Operation Checkmate
Operation Trishul
Operation Viraat
• Date: 1988.
• These all were anti-insurgency operation carried out by the Indian Peace
Keeping Force against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Key Pacts between India & Ceylon

1. Nehru-Kotelawala Pact

• Signed : on 18 January 1954.

• Signed by : Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India,
John Kotelawala, the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka.
• Key issue : It was an agreement in regarding to the status and
future of people of Indian origin in Ceylon.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Key Pacts between India & Ceylon

2. Sirima–Shastri Pact
• Signed : on 30 October 1964
• Signed by : between Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the Prime Minister of Sri
Lanka, and Lal Bahadur Shastri, the Prime Minister of India.
• It is also known as the Srimavo-Shastri Pact, Indo-Ceylon Agreement
and Bandaranaike-Shastri Pact.
• Officially known as Agreement on Persons of Indian Origin in Ceylon.
• It was a significant agreement in determining the status and future of
people of Indian origin in Ceylon.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Key Pacts between India & Ceylon

3. Rajiv-Jayewardene accord
• Signed : signed in Colombo on 29 July 1987
• Signed by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan
President J. R. Jayewardene.
• Officially known as Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord.
• Objective : to resolve the Sri Lankan Civil War.
• Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by the LTTE in 1991.
•
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Key Pacts between India & Ceylon
Non Military Nuclear Deal
• Signed on 16 February 2015
• Focus on Agriculture, Service, Health & Security between the two countries.
• Peaceful use of Nuclear Power.
• Note : It was Sri Lanka’s 1st deal with any country.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Cultural & Educational Ties
• The India-Sri Lanka Foundation, set up in December 1998 as an intergovernmental
initiative, also aims towards enhancement of scientific, technical, educational and
cultural cooperation through civil society exchanges and enhancing contact between
the younger generations of the two countries.
• Government of India formally launched the e-Tourist Visa (eTV) scheme for Sri
Lankan tourists on 14 April 2015 to increase the people to people contact.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship

Modi Visit to Sri Lanka

• Modi visited to Colombo in March 2015.
• He was the first Indian prime minister to do a stand-alone visit
to Sri Lanka in 28 years.
• In June 2019, the first overseas visit of Indian Prime Minister to
Sri Lanka, in his second term, is an important symbolic gesture
reflective of the special relationship between the countries.
• In February 2015, Sri Lanka’s newly elected President
Maithripala Sirisena undertook his first official visit to India.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Multilateral Relationship
• Sri Lanka is a member of regional groupings like BIMSTEC (Bay of
Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation)
and SAARC in which India plays a leading role.

Trade & Economic Ties

• Sri Lanka is one of India’s largest trading partners among the SAARC countries.
• India in turn is Sri Lanka’s largest trade partner globally.
• India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) - The main framework for
bilateral trade has been provided by the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement
(ISFTA) that was signed in 1998 and entered into force in March 2000.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
China & Sri Lanka

• China is building state of the art gigantic modern ports all along the
Indian Ocean to the south of it, in Gwadar (Pakistan), Chittagong
(Bangladesh, Kyauk Phru (Myanmar) and Hambantota (Sri Lanka).
• China’s string of pearl’s strategy is aimed at encircling India to
establish dominance in the Indian Ocean.
• Post 2015, Sri Lanka still relies heavily on China for Port city project
and for continuation of Chinese funded infrastructure projects in Sri
Lanka.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
Mitra Shakti
• Date: 4-16 Oct. 2021
• With: Sri Lanka ( 8th edition).
• Place: Ampara, Sri Lanka.
• 1st edition started in : 2015
SLINEX
• It is a Naval Exercise between India & Sri Lanka.
• Date : Visakhapatnam on 07-08 March 2022 and
Sea Phase on 09-10 March 2022 in the Bay of Bengal.
• The first SLINEX exercise took place in 2005.
 Indo-Sri Lanka Relationship
SRI LANKAN ECONOMIC CRISES
• The Sri Lankan economic crisis is an ongoing crisis in Sri Lanka that started in 2019.
• It is the country’s worst economic crisis since its independence in 1948.
• There are many causes behind this economic crises....
1. Decline of tourism - The Easter bomb blasts of April 2019 in churches in Colombo
resulting in 253 casualties, consequently, dropped the number of tourists sharply
leading to a decline in foreign exchange reserves.
2. The Covid-19 pandemic
3. Shortage of foreign exchange
4. Sudden Move to Organic Farming
5. Political Corruption
6. China’s Debt Trap
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Historical Context
• Nepal and India enjoy excellent bilateral ties.
• Founded on the age-old connection of history, culture, tradition and
religion, these relations are close, comprehensive and multidimensional
and are pronounced more in political, social, cultural, religious and
economic engagements with each other.
• The two countries established diplomatic relations on 17 June 1947.
• Nepal is an important neighbour of India and occupies a special
significance in its foreign policy because of the geographic, historical,
cultural and economic linkages/ties that span centuries.
• India and Nepal share similar ties in terms of Hinduism and Buddhism
with Buddha’s birthplace Lumbini located in present day Nepal.
• Indo-Nepal relationship popularly known as Roti-Beti ka Rishta.
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Historical Context

• Nepal shares border with 5 Indian states- Uttarakhand, Uttar

Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim and Bihar. Hence an important point of
cultural and economic exchange.
• Nepal is right in the middle of India’s ‘Himalayan frontiers’, and along
with Bhutan, it acts as a northern ‘borderland’ flanks and acts as buffer
states against any possible aggression from China.
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship
• The treaty was signed at Kathmandu on 31 July 1950.
• Signed by the last Rana Prime Minister of Nepal Mohan Shumsher Jang
Bahadur Rana and Indian ambassador to Nepal, Chadreshwar Narayan Singh.
The treaty talks about reciprocal treatment of Indian and Nepali citizens in the
two countries, in residence, property, business and movement.
• It also establishes national treatment for both Indian and Nepalese businesses.
• It also gives Nepal access to weaponry from India.

Treaty of Sagauli (March 4, 1816)

• It was an agreement between the Gurkha chiefs of Nepal and the British
Indian government that ended the Anglo-Nepalese (Gurkha) War (1814–16).
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Multilateral Partnership

• India and Nepal share multiple multilateral forums such as BBIN

(Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal), BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal
Initiative for Multi Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation),
Non Aligned Movement, and SAARC.
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Cultural Relationship

• India has signed three sister-city agreements for twinning

Kathmandu-Varanasi, Lumbini-Bodhgaya and Janakpur-Ayodhya.

First South Asian Games

• Nepal hosted the first South Asian Games in 1984.
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
MAHAKALI TREATY
• The Mahakali Treaty, signed on 12 February 1996 between India and Nepal.
• Aim : development of watershed of Mahakali River.
• The treaty has 12 articles agreements for an integrated development of
barrage, dams and hydropower for mutual cooperation of the two countries
by managing the water resources.
• The treaty recognizes the Mahakali River as a boundary river between the
two countries.
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Border Disputes
• The issue erupted in November 2019 when Nepal had released a
new political map that claims Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh
of Uttarakhand as part of Nepal’s territory. The area of Susta (West
Champaran district, Bihar) can also be noted in the new map.
• Two major border disputes between the two countries are...

KALAPANI DISPUTE
SUSTA DISPUTE
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Surya Kiran -XV

• Date: 20 Sep. 2021

• With: Nepal (15 th edition).
• Place: at Pithoragarh in Uttarakhand.
• Surya Kiran takes place annually/bi-annually.
• It started in 2011.
• It occurs alternatively between India and Nepal.
 Indo-Nepal Relationship
Operation Maitri

• Date: 25 April 2015

• It was a rescue and relief operation in Nepal by the
government of India and Indian armed forces in the aftermath
of the April 2015 Nepal earthquake.
 India & SAARC

SAARC
• The idea of SAARC was proposed by the then Bangladesh ruler, Zia ur Rehman in 1979.
• Established on 8 December 1985.
• Objectives : To promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to improve their
quality of life, and to accelerate economic growth, among other things.
• Secretariat: Kathmandu (Nepal).
• Eight Member States: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
• Afghanistan Joined in 2007 in the 14th New Delhi Summit of SAARC.
• First SAARC Summit held on 7-8 December 1985 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
• Nineteenth summit -Pakistan : rejected by India due to Uri Attack.
• As of September 2022, Nepal has current chair of SAARC.
 India & SAARC
SAARC

• 9 observers of the SAARC.....

Australia
China
European Union
Iran
Japan
Mauritius
Myanmar
South Korea
United States
 India & SAARC
SAARC

• South Asian University (SAU) – India

• South Asian Regional Standards Organization (SARSO) – Dhaka
• SAARC Development Fund (SDF) – Bhutan
• SAARC Arbitration Council (SARCO) – Pakistan
• SAARC Asian Agricultural Information centre – Dhaka
• SAARC Asian Weather Research Centre – Dhaka
• SAARC Asian Culture Centre – Sri Lanka
• SAARC Human Research Development Centre – Islamabad
• SAARC Asian Information Centre - Nepal
 India & SAARC
SAFTA

• South Asian Free Trade Area formed on 6 January, 2004

at the 12 SAARC summit in Islamabad, Pakistan.
• SAFTA came into force on 1 January, 2006.
• It replaced South Asian Preferential Trade
Agreement(SAPTA).
• SAFTA is the free trade arrangement of the SAARC.
 India‘s Relations with Neighbourhood

Look East Policy

• Launched by former Prime minister of India P V Narasimha Rao in 1992.
• Look East policy focused on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) countries + Economic Integration.
• Aim Economic and Strategic relationship with ASEAN.
• In 2003, it was expended to include East Asian Nations – China, Japan, Korea.
• India became a dialogue partner of ASEAN in 1996 and summit level partner in 2002.
• In 2012 the relationship got up-graded into a Strategic Partnership.
• India is also an active participant in several regional forums like the East Asia Summit
(EAS), ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) etc.
 India‘s Relations with Neighbourhood

Act East Policy

• Initiated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
• It was launched in Nov. 2014 at the East Asia Summit, Myanmar.
• Act East Policy focused on ASEAN countries + Economic
Integration + East Asian countries + Security cooperation.
• Act East Policy focused on ASEAN countries with Japan,
Australia, Pacific Island Nations, South Korea & Mongolia.
• The North East of India has been a priority of this Policy.
• It is a diplomatic initiative to promote economic, strategic and
cultural relations with the vast Asia-Pacific region at different
levels.
 India‘s Relations with Neighbourhood

Act East Policy

• Prime minister of India, Modi highlighted 4C’s of Act East Policy.
◆Culture
◆Commerce
◆Connectivity
◆Capacity building
• Modi ji also gave Neighbourhood First Policy in 2014.
 India‘s Relations with Neighbourhood

Look West Policy

• It was launched by Manmohan Singh Govt. In 2005.
• Manmohan Singh also gave ‘Extended Neighbourhood Policy.
• Look West Policy, focuses on three main axes: the Arab Gulf countries, Israel and Iran.
• Note : India adopted Look West Policy because...
◆ Oil importance: India import 60% oil from Gulf Countries.
◆ UAE is the third largest trade partner after USA & China.
◆ India can attract significant amount of capital from Middle
East Countries(Gulf Countries).
• In 2015, Narendra Modi visited to Middle East & emphasized on
Look West Policy.
• In 2017, Modi visited to Israel & became 1st PM of India who
visited to Israel.
 India‘s Relations with Neighbourhood

Gujral Doctrine
• Inder Kumar Gujral was sworn in as the 12th Prime Minister
of India from April 1997 to May 1998.
• It was rendered by Mr. Inder Kumar Gujral, the Minister of
External Affairs in H. D. Deve Gowda Government in 1996.
• This theory says that “India” as a bigger country of South
Asia should give one-sided concession to her small neighbours
and have cordial relations with them.
 India‘s Relations with Neighbourhood

• Five principles of Gujral Doctrine are....

1. With neighbours India does not ask for reciprocity .
2. No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against the interest of
another country of the region.
3. No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
4. All South Asian countries must respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
5. They should settle all their disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations.

• Note: Gujral Doctrine known as Good Neighbourhood Policy.

What is Foreign Policy?

In simple w ords foreign policy is the strategy

or set of principles, policies and decisions that
the government adopts in dealing w ith other
countries.
What is Indian Foreign Policy?

‘Indian Foreign Policy is based on Non- Alignment.

It is a policy or strategy of the Indian Government
that focuses on National Interests, economic grow th,
security, and cooperation w ith other countries and
international peace’.
Constitutional Provisions
Article 51- says
(a)The state shall promote to International peace and security.
(b)Maintain just and honorable relations between nations
(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in
the dealings of organized people with one another
(d) Encourage settlement of international disputes by
arbitration.
(e) PREAMBLE – Unity and Integrity of the Nation
Mandal Theory of I R - Kautilya
In chapter 2 of his book Arthshaastra, Kautilya talks
about Mandal Theory that is related with I R or Foreign
Policy. Key premises are....
• Geographical Determinism
• Neighbors are natural Enemy
• Enemy of Enemy is Friend
• Friend of Friend is Friend
• Friend of Enemy is Enemy
• No permanent Friend or Enemy in I R
• Matasyanayaya
• Constant Warfare
• Power as a mean
 ARI MITRA MITRA
(Enemy of Friend’s Friend)
MITRA MITRA
ARI MITRA (Friend’s Friend)
(Enemy’s Friend) MITRA (Friend)
ARI (Enemy)

MADHYAMA UDASINA
(Buffer State) KING (Neutral State)
(Vijigishu)
FRIEND
PARASHANIGRAHA ENEMY
(Enemy)
AKARANDA (Friend)
PARASHANIGRAHASARA
(Enemys Friend) AKARANDASARA
(Friend’s Friend)
6 fold Policy of Kautilya
• It is an extension of Mandal Theory.
• It is also a w ay to ensure victory in the competition.
• According to Arthashastra, the State should follow a
six-fold policy w ith other States:
[Link] (treaty of peace)
[Link] (war)
[Link] (neutrality)
[Link] (marching) presumably a threat
[Link] (alliance)
[Link] (Dual Policy of War & Peace)
4 means to gain National Interest
• In The Arthashastra, Kautilya also mentioned
four means to the settlement of disputes or gain
National Interest. These are..

Sama (conciliation) Danda (use of force)

Dama (appeasement) Bheda (dividing)

Foreign Policy of the British India & It’s Legacy

“Of the British, For

the British & By the
British”.
 Foreign Policy of the British India & It’s Legacy
Sneh Mahajan
• In her aricle ‘FOREIGN POLICY OF THE RAJ AND IT’S LEGACY’
she talks about British India Foreign Policy and it’s Legacy.
Her seminal ouevres are....
British foreign policy,1874-1914 (2001)
Imperialist Strategy and Moderate Politics (1983)
Foreign Policy of Colonial India:1900-1947 (2020)
Legacy of the British India Foreign Policy

[Link] of Commonwealth
2.U N membership
3. Economic & Trade Relations of India
4. Membership of League of Nations & ILO
5. Diplomatic & Maritime Strength
6. Delineation of Northern Border
7. India as a legate of South Asia
Neighborhood Policy
 India and NAM

• The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group or

forum of 120 countries that are not formally
aligned w ith or against any major power bloc.
• After the United Nations, it is the largest
grouping of states w orldwide.
• Established on 1 Sep. 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
• The phrase itself w as first used to represent the
doctrine by Indian diplomat V K Menon in 1953 at
the United Nations.
• Pakistan joined to the NAM in 1979.
 India and NAM

• NAM has 120 members as of July, 2022 comprising

53 countries from Africa, 36 from Asia, 26 from Latin
America and the 3 from Oceania and 2 from Europe.
There are 20 countries and 11 international
organisations that are Observers at NAM.
 India and NAM

• Founders of the NAM were....

[1] P. Nehru – India
[2] Dr. Sukarno – Indonesia
[3] Kwame Nkrumah – Ghana
[4] Josip Broz Tito- Yugoslavia
[5] Gamal Abdel Nasser – Egypt
[6] Ho Chi Minh - Vietnam
 India and NAM

• Before the establishment of the non-

alignment movement, there have been 3
conferences of Asian and African countries.
[1] Asian Relations Conference – New Delhi ( 23 March-2 April 1947)
[2] Bandung Conference – Bandung, Indonesia (18April-24April 1955)
[3] Afro-Asian Peoples’ Solidarity Conference, 1957 (26 Dec. 1957-1 Jan.
1958, Cairo, Egypt.
 India and NAM

• About NAM Pandit Nehru argued that....

“The Non-Aligned
Movement is not a third
faction, but a peace
group.”
Purpose of the NAM

• The purpose of the NAM w as enumerated in

the Havana Declaration of 1979 to ensure...
“The national independence, sovereignty,
territorial integrity and security of non-
aligned countries” in their struggle against
imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism,
racism, and all forms of foreign subjugation.
 Bandung Conference

• It w as first large-scale Asian–African or Afro-Asian Conference.

• It w as a meeting of Asian and African states most of which were
newly independent.
• It took place on 18–24 April 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia.
• The 29 countries attending the Asia-Africa Conference.
Key Summits of the NAM

Belgrade Summit - 1961

• The First NAM Summit Conference took place in

Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in September 1961, under the
leadership of Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal
Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India,
Kw ame Nkrumah of Ghana, and Sukarno of Indonesia.
• 25 Countries participated in this very first summit of
NAM.
 Key Summits of the NAM

Algiers Summit - 1973

• 4th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement took place on

5-9 September 1973 in Algiers, the capital city of Algeria.
• Demand for the NIEO first time in UN forum by the NAM
countries.
 What is NIEO ?
• The New International Economic Order (NIEO) is a set of
proposals advocated by developing countries to end
economic colonialism and dependency through a new
interdependent economy.
• In the spirit of “trade not aid,” the NIEO called for
changes in trade, industrialization, agricultural
production, finance, and transfer of technology.
• The United Nations General Assembly adopted the
Declaration for the Establishment of a New International
Economic Order and its accompanying program of action
on 1 May 1974.
Key Summits of the NAM

New Delhi Summit - 1983

• Seventh Summit of Heads of State or Government of

the Non-Aligned Movement on 7–12 March 1983 took
place in New Delhi in India, one of the founders and
leading members of the Non-Aligned Movement.
• The keynote address delivered by Prime Minister of
India Indira Gandhi.
Key Summits of the NAM

Harare Summit - 1986

• 8th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movementw as held on

1-6 September 1986 in Harare, Zimbabw e.
• 101 countries participated in this summit of the NAM.
• Key achievement of this summit w as that African
Fund w as established in this summit.
• First time focused on South-South Cooperation by the
NAM countries.
 Theory of Natural Friend ?

• Cuban President Fidel Castro gave the notion

of Natural Friendship in 1979.
• He argued that USSR is a natural friend of
NAM because both USSR and NAM are against to
colonialism and Imperialism.
• India didn’t recognize this notion of Castro due
to USSR’s intervention in Afghanistan in 1979.
 Key Summits of the NAM

Belgrade Summit - 1989

• It w as 9th NAM summit held in Sep. 1989 in Belgrade.
• Participated members: 102
• Establishment of Group of G 15 of developing nations.
 Key Summits of the NAM

Egypt Summit - 2009

• It w as 15th NAM summit (11–16 July 2009).
• Location: Sharm El-Sheik, Egypt.
• Theme: 'International Solidarity for Peace and Development’.
 Key Summits of the NAM

Porlamar Summit - 2016

• It w as 17th NAM summit (September 17, 2016).
• Location: Porlamar, Margarita Island, Venezuela
• Theme: ‘Peace, Sovereignty and Solidarity for Development’.
• Participants: 120 states.
• This w as the first time that an Indian Prime Minister did not
participate in the NAM conference, before that in 1989,
caretaker Prime Minister Chaudhary Charan Singh did not
participate in the Non-Aligned Conference.
• Former Vice President of India Mohammad Haid Ansari
joined this NAM summit.
 Key Summits of the NAM

Baku Summit - 2019

• It w as 18th NAM summit (25-26 Oct. 2019).

• Location: Baku, Azerbaijan.
• Theme: ‘Upholding Bandung principles to ensure a concerted and
adequate response to the challenges of the contemporary w orld.
• Participants: 120 states.
19th NAM summit-Uganda : 2023
What is Genuine NAM ?

• The concept of Genuine NAM w as given by

Janata Party leader, Morarji Desai in [Link]
Janata Party believed that the inclination of
Indian foreign policy w as tow ards communism.
But, Janata Party emphasized the equal
relationship w ith both superpow ers (USA & USSR),
which the Janata Government said Genuine NAM
or Real NAM.
What is NAM 2.0 ?

• The term ‘NAM-2.0’ is coined by Sunil Khilnani.

Non – Alignment 2.0 is a Foreign and Strategic
Policy of India in the 21st century.
• Sunil Khilnani along w ith Rajiv Kumar, P B Mehta,
Prakash Menon, Srinath Raghawan, Shyam Saran
wrote a document named – NON ALIGNMENT 2.0:
A FOREIGN AND STARTEGIC POLICY FOR INDIA IN
THE 21ST CENTURY-2013
• It sees India as a leading player in the world
Affairs in the 21st century.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Nehruvian Era

• Nehruvians w ere nuclear moderate.

• Nuclear w eapons should be only security maximizer.
• Nuclear w eapons are also necessary in a diplomatic sense.
• Nuclear w eapons are also political equalizer.
• Nuclear energy for peaceful purpose.
• Nuclear w eapons free w orld.
• Universal Nuclear disarmament.
• Peaceful advancement of Nuclear Technology.
• No First Use is credible and operationally viable.
• Categorical non use against non nuclear states.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Nehruvian Era

• Note : Indian Foreign Policy scholars & Nuclear experts

considered India as ‘A Paradox of Indian Nuclear Policy.
Because one side India talks about Global Disarmament and on
the other side India w ants Nuclear Weapons for her security.
 Nuclear Policy of India

Atomic Energy Commission - 1948

• Headed by : Homi Bhabha

• Formed on : 3 August, 1948
• Headquarters : Mumbai, Maharashtra
• The Atomic Energy Commission of India is the governing body
of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of
India. The DAE is under the direct charge of the Prime Minister.
• Current Chairman : K N Vyas(as of July, 2022).
• DAE formed in 1954 under J L Nehru.
 Nuclear Policy of India

APSARA (Light Water) - 1956

• Formed : On 4 August 1956

• Nuclear Research Reactor APSARA w as commissioned by Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
• APSARA w as the first Nuclear Research Reactor in India and also Asia.
CIRUS (heavy water) - 1960

• Formed : 10th July 1960

• It w as the second nuclear reactor to be built in India.
• Supplied by Canada & US.
 Nuclear Policy of India
International Atomic Energy Agency - 1957
• Formed : on 29th July, 1957.
• In 1957, India made member of IAEA(35th).
• Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
• Membership: 175 Member States.
• IAEA is an international organization that
seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear
energy, and to inhibit its use for any military
purpose, including nuclear w eapons.
• It came into existence to implement US
President D. Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace
proposal.
 Nuclear Policy of India

Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty-1963

• Start date: 5 August 1963

• Effective: 10 October 1963
• Location : Moscow
• Signed by the governments of US, USSR & UK.
• Banned atmosphere, outer space & under water nuclear test.
• India signed PTBT & supported it.
• India is a member of PTBT.
 Nuclear Policy of India

Events of 1960s & 70s and Rise of Hard Realism

1. Indo-China War -1962

2. Nuclear test by China -1964
3. Indo-Pak War - 1965
4. Indo-Pak War - 1971
5. Nuclear Power of P-5
• USA – 1945 • USSR – 1949
• UK – 1952 • France – 1960
• China - 1964
 Nuclear Policy of India

Events of 1960s & 70s and Rise of Hard Realism

6. India demanded for Universal Non-

Proliferation treaty in 1965
7. Failure of USA & USSR to provide
nuclear gurantee to India
8. USA’s Orientation towards Pakistan
9. Rise of two Camps...
• The Hawks – Favour of Nuclear Weapons.
• The Doves – Against Nuclear Weapons.
 Nuclear Policy of India

Events of 1960s & 70s and Rise of Hard Realism

10. NPT - 1968

• Signed: 1 July 1968

• Effective: 5 March 1970
• Ratification by the: USSR, USA & UK.
• India, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan and South
Sudan did not signed due to discriminatory in nature.
• Objective: to prevent the spread of nuclear w eapons
and nuclear w eapons technology, to promote
cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
 Nuclear Policy of India

Hyper Realism : I Gandhi

• Hyper Realists are Nuclear Maximalists.
• No First Use is not credible or viable.
• Non-use against non-nuclear states is not sacrosanct.
• Full development of nuclear w eapons.
• Retaliation should be prompt.
• Nuclear disarmament is both undesirable and infeasible.
• Nuclear Maximalists see Pakistan, China & US a nuclear threat.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Pokhran 1 – 18 May, 1974
• Code name: Smiling Buddha.
• It w as India’s first successful nuclear bomb test.
• India described this test as peaceful nuclear explosion.
• USA & Canada removed all nuclear ties & assistance.
• The bomb w as detonated on the army base Pokhran
Test Range, in Rajasthan.
• Raja Ramanna team of 75 scientists made this missile.
• In local language Pokhran means ‘the place of five
mirages’. It got this name from the five salt ranges
surrounding the city.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Nuclear Suppliers Group - 1974
• Formed in: 1974
• It is known as London Club.
• Purpose: Non-proliferation of nuclear w eapons;
Controlling transfer of nuclear energy.
• Chairman: Gustavo Ainchil (Argentina).
• India w as prevented from gaining nuclear materials.
• India is not a member of NSG due to non support of
China, Sw itzerland, Austria, New Zealand & Ireland.
Note: India is the only country w hich is getting fuel
from NSG w ithout signing the NPT.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Australia Group - 1985

• Founded in: 1985

• Members: 43
• India joined to this group in 2018
• The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime
• It came into existence after the use of chemical w eapons by Iraq in 1984
• The name comes from Australia’s initiative to create the group
• The purpose of this group is to control chemical and biological w eapons
and to identify the countries that export them.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Missile Technology Control Regime - 1987

• Founded in: April, 1987.

• MTCR is a multilateral export control regime.
• MTCR w as formed by the G-7 industrialized countries.
• Membership - 35
• India & Pakistan made it’s member in 2016.
• Founder Countries – Canada, Italy, Germany, France & USA.
• Objective: seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and
missile technology.
• China is not a member of MTCR.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty- 1987
• Formed on: 8 Dec. 1987.
• Formed by: US President Ronald Reagan and
Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.
• Type: Nuclear Disarmament.
 Nuclear Policy of India

Neo-Liberals and Post...

• Focus on economic development instead of nuclear w eapons.

• No tectical w eapons.
• No First use is credible & operationally viable.
• Categorical non use against non nuclear states.
• Nuclear w eapons should only be security maximizer.
• Focus on arm control.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Wassenaar Arrangement - 1996
• Formed in: 1996
• Members: 42
• India made it’s member on 8 Dec. 2017(42nd member).
• It is an arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and
Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.
• Objective: Preventing the export of conventional weapons and the
spread of double technology.
• Wassenaar Arrangement seeks to bring transparency in the export of.....
1. Conventional Arms
2. Dual use of Goods
3. Small & Light Weapons
4. Military Aircraft
 Nuclear Policy of India
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty - 1996
• Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
on 10 September 1996.
• Effective: not in force.
• Signatories: 186
• India, Pakistan and Israel did not sign it.
• CTBT is a multilateral treaty that bans nuclear
weapons test explosions and any other nuclear
explosions, for both civilian and military purposes,
in all environments.
• Note In 1999, American Ssenate has rejected CTBT.
 Nuclear Policy of India
Pokhran-II - 1998

• Explosion Date: 11th May – 13th May, 1998

• Know n as Operation Shakti
• The Pokhran-II tests w ere a series of five nuclear
bomb test explosions conducted by India.
• Location: Pokhran,Rajasthan.

• Note: Pakistan Nuclear Test – from 28 th May to 30 th May

1998 at Chagai,Balochistan.
• Its code name was – Chagai-1
 Nuclear Policy of India
India’s Nuclear Doctrine - 2003

1. No First Use
2. Credible Minimum Deterrent
3. Not be used against non-nuclear states
4. Nuclear-free world
5. Retaliation attack to inflict unacceptable demage
6. Authorized by the Civilian Political Leadership (PM)
7. Strict Control on export of nuclear materials
8. Retaliating with nuclear weapons in case of biological or Chemical weapons attack.
 Nuclear Policy of India

“India’s No First Use

Policy is not Permanent.”
.. Rajnath Singh
 Nuclear Policy of India
Nuclear Command Authority -2003
• Formed on: 4 June, 2003.
• Headquarters: New Delhi
• Agency Executive: Prime Minister
• It has two councils...
Political Council Executive Council
Headed by Prime Minister of India Headed by National Security Advisor
 Nuclear Policy of India
123 Treaty - 2006
• Discussion : 18th July, 2005.
• Signed on: 2 March, 2006
• Effective : 8 Oct. 2008
• Signed by: Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
and then U.S. President George W. Bush.
• It is also know n as U.S.–India Civil Nuclear
Agreement or Indo-US nuclear deal. It’s key points are...
1. Defecto recognition to India as a responsible nuclear state.
2. Streghthened Indo-US relationship.
3. Sactioned removed by the US.
 Nuclear Policy of India

New Military Doctrine of India -2017

• Indian Army Chief Vipin Raw at declared New Military
Doctrine of India in 2017.
• In this doctrine it w as stated that India faces traditional
security threats from China and Pakistan.
• Key points are...
1. Focus on Cyber Security of Internal Security of India.
2. India changed its nuclear policy and used credible nuclear deterrence by
removing the word minimum.
3. Recommendation for the formation of a unified military command in India.
 Key points about Nuclear Policy

• J. Robert Oppenheimer know n as the father of the

Atomic Bomb. He recalled the words of the Bhagavad Gita.
• India is the first country w hich used to have a nuclear test
for peace.
• Edw ard Teller, Stanislaw M. Ulam, and other American
scientists developed the first hydrogen bomb, w hich was
tested at Enewetak atoll on November 1, 1952.
• China has called India’s Nuclear Policy as Nuclear
Blackmail.
• Currently, India Focused on ‘No First Use Policy’.
 Atoms for Peace (1953) – Dwight D. Eisenhower
• It w as the title of speech delivered by the US
president Dw ight D Eisenhower to the UN General
Assembly in New York City on December 8, 1953.
 Star War Program (1983-84) - Ronald Reagan

• It’s original name w as Strategic Defense Initiative.

• The concept w as announced on March 23, 1983, by US
President Ronald Reagan.
• Objective : It w as a proposed missile defense system
intended to protect the United States from attack by
ballistic strategic nuclear w eapons.
 SALT 1-1972

• Signed on: 26 th May 1972

• Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty-1 was an arms control treaty
between the United States and the Soviet Union.
• Signatories: Richard Nixon & Leonid Brezhnev
• Objective: limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used
in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons.

SALT 2 -1979

• Signed on: 18 June 1979 in Vienna.

• Signatories: Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev
• Rejected by the US due to USSR invasion in Afghanistan(1979)
START 1 - 1991

• Signed on: 31 st July 1991.

• Effective on : 5 December 1994.
• Signed by: US President George Bush & USSR president Mikhail Gorbachev.
• START I was a bilateral treaty between the United States and the Soviet
Union on the reduction and the limitation of strategic offensive arms.

START 2 - 1993

• Signed on: 3 rd January, 1993.

• Signed by George Bush & Boris Yeltsin.
 Treaty of Tlatelolco - 1967

• Signed on: 14 February 1967

• It is known as ‘Latin Treaty’.
• Through this treaty, Latin American countries declared this area as a
nuclear free zone.

Treaty of Rarotonga- 1985

• Signed on: 6 August 1985

• It is known as South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty.
• It formalises a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific.
 Treaty of Bangkok - 1995

• Signed on: 15 December 1995

• It is known as Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone.
• It is also known as the SEANWFZ Treaty.
• Effective: 27 March 1997
• Through this treaty, the countries of ASEAN denuclearized themselves.

Pelindaba Treaty - 1996

• Signed on: 11 April 1996
• It is known as ‘African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty’.
• Through this treaty, 48 countries of the African continent declared this
area as a nuclear free zone.
 Nuclear Revolution

• The term Nuclear Revolution was coined by Robert Jervis

in his work ‘The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution(1989).
Robert Jervis argues here that the possibility of nuclear war
has created a revolution in military strategy and
international relations.
Nuclear Club

• The term “Nuclear Club” is used informally in geopolitics

for the group of nations who possess nuclear weapons.
There are 9 countries in Nuclear Club....
1. USA 2. Russia 3. UK 4. France 5. China 6. India
7. Pakistan 8. Israel 9. North Korea
Nuclear Umbrella

• The ‘nuclear umbrella’ is a guarantee by a nuclear

weapons state to defend a non-nuclear state.
ICAN-2007

• The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons(ICAN)-

was launched in 2007 and represents over 200 organizations in
some 50 countries. It is a global civil society coalition working to
promote adherence to and full implementation of the Treaty on
the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
• It’s headquarter located in Geneva, Switzerland.
• ICAN got Noble Peace Prize in 2017.
 Indo-US Relationship

“India and America are

Natural Allies”.
.... A B Vajpayee
 Indo-US Relationship

PAX - AMERICANA

• PAX-AMERICANA is a Latin w ord which means –

‘Peace through America’s Power’.
• It is a kind of Hyperpower of USA.
• Critics see PAX-AMERICANA as an US hegemony.
The term PAX-AMERICANA coined by Alexis de
Tocqueville.
• Later, this term also used by Woodrow Wilson.
 Kashmir issue & US

• After independence, India adopted the policy

Non-alignment. So India did not join any group.
India neither joined to NATO nor joined to
WARSAW PACT . Rather, India’s inclination w as
towards USSR, due to which India’s relations got
worse w ith USA and USA has accompanied
Pakistan in Kashmir case.
 Domino Theory - 1953

• Given by: Eisenhow er on 4 August, 1953.

• It w as basically Eisenhow er speech: the notion
that a communist takeover in Indochina w ould
lead other Asian nations to follow suit.
 P L – 480 (1954)
• The Public Law 480 or the Food for Peace program
was an agreement between the United States and
India in 1954.
• Launched in July, 1954 by Dw ight D. Eisenhow er.
• Objectives.....
1. Combat World Hunger & Malnutrition.
2. Agricultural Development.
3. Expand International Trade.
Note: Critics considered it as Wheat Diplomacy of America.
 Dwight D. Eisenhower
• He w as 34th US President.
• He was first US President w ho visited to India in Dec. 1959.
Goa Libration & US stand point
• In the case of Goa Libration(1961) US supported to Portugal.
• Because, Portugal w as member of NATO.
Indo-Pak Wars and US
• Indo-Pak War of 1965.
• Indo-Pak War of 1971.
• America supported to Pakistan and sent USS
Enterprises in the Bay of Bengal against India.
 The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation-1971

• Signed in: August 1971 by India & USSR.

• After this treaty of India and Soviet Union Russia,
the relations between India and America had
deteriorated considerably.
 US-Vietnam War (1954-1974)
• First w as in US history in w hich US defeated.

Shuttle Diplomacy (1974)-H. Kissinger

• Negotiations conducted by a mediator w ho travels
between two or more parties that are reluctant to hold
direct discussions.
• Shuttle diplomacy became very popular during the
time of US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger w hen he
traveled to Egypt and Israel to try to solve the West
Asian crisis.
 Henry Kissinger
• Former United States Secretary of State.
• He is a German born American politician, diplomat,
and geopolitical consultant w ho served as United States
Secretary of State and National Security Advisor under
the presidential administrations of Richard Nixon and
Gerald Ford. His key w orks are....
1. A World Restored - 1957
2. Diplomacy - 1994
3. On China - 2011
4. World Order - 2014
5. Nuclear Security - 2014
 Gun Boat Diplomacy - Nixon

• Foreign policy that is supported by the use or threat of

military force.
In other words, In international politics, the term gunboat
diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives
with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval pow er.
Example: America sent USS Enterprises in the Bay of Bengal
against India during Indo Pak w ar of 1971.
Ping-Pong Diplomacy - Nixon
• Ping-Pong w as “an apt metaphor for the
relations between Washington and Peking”.
• Nixon visited to China in 1972 and US recognised
China as Communist country due to Ping Pong
Diplomacy.
• Also know n as Table Tennis Diplomacy.
Big Stick Diplomacy - Roosevelt

• Big Stick Diplomacy also known as Big Stick Ideology or

Big Stick Policy refers to President Theodore Roosevelt’s
foreign policy. He quoted....

“speak softly and

carry a big stick; you
will go far”.
 NEP & Post Cold War Indo –US relations
• End of Cold War: 26 December 1991
• Francis Fukuyama regarded this as an ‘End of History’.
• In 1991 India adopted NEP or LPG.
• After NEP, Inso-US relationship has normalised and
increased bilateral trade.
• Bill Clinton Visit to India – 2000
• 2003 - Atal’s Speech in New York Asia Society.
• Atal Said.....
“India and America
are Natural Allies”.
 Indian Nuclear Test and US
• India’s First Nuclear Test(1974) – Smiling Buddha.
• India’s Second Nuclear Test(1998) – Operation Shakti.
• America entirely criticised India’s these Nuclear Tests.
• USA removed all nuclear ties & assistance put sanctions on India.
123 Treaty - 2005
• In 2005 George W. Bush visited to India and signed 123
treaty w ith Manmohan Singh.
Note : already discussed in Nuclear Policy of India Unit.
Tarapur Atomic Power Station - 1969-Tarapur, Maharashtra
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station – 1993 - Surat, Gujarat
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station - 1973-Rawatbhata
 Terrorism and Indo US Relationship
9/11 terrorist attack
• 9/11 – 11 Sep. 2001 terrorist attack on WTC, US by al-Qaeda.
• Criticism by India.
• Operation Enduring Freedom by George W. Bush in Afghanistan.
• War against Terrorism by George W. Bush.
J & K State Legislative Assembly terrorist attack - 1 Oct. 2001
Indian Parliament attack – 13 Dec. 2001 bt LeT & JeM
2008 Mumbai attacks (26/11) by LeT & Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi
• Criticism by America to all these terrorist Attacks in India.
India’s Next Step Strategic Partnership with - US
• cooperation in civilian nuclear activities.
• Civilian Space Program.
• Missile defense.
• intelligence sharing.
• Counter terrorism.
 Bush Doctrine
• War against terrorism and promotion of democracy.
• It is also know n an New Just War Doctrine.
• The Bush Doctrine holds that enemies of the US use
terrorism as a w ar of ideology against the nation. These •
• Bush Doctrine includes unilateralism, preemptive w ar,
and regime change.
• Bush argued....
“If you are not
with us, you are
against us.”
Pivot to Aisa (2012) – B Obama

• It means focus on Aisa.

• China’s challenge to America.
• In Asia, China and India are pow er states.
• Economic importance of Aisa to America.
• US is focusing on diplomacy and trade in the
region.
Af-Pak Policy – B Obama
• Introduced in: 2008
• Introduced by the Obama administration, which regarded the region
comprising Afghanistan and Pakistan as having a singular dominant political
and military situation that required a joint policy in the War on Terror.
• The term was popularized and possibly coined by Richard Holbrooke.
AfPakIndia – D. Trump
“We want them to help
us more with Afghanistan,
especially in the area of
economic assistance and
development”
 Narendra Modi Visit to US – Sep. 2014
• Modi gave the proposal for International Yoga Day.
• More than 170 countries accepted this and 21st June
celebrated as International Yoga Day every year.
• This is the inastance of India’s 'Soft Pow er’s.
• Modi Ji also gave speech in the UN General Assembly in
hindi after Atal.
He also raised the issue of terrorism.
India-US proposal of ‘Chalein Saath-Saath’ – 29Sep. 2014
Obama visit to India on the eve of Republic Day - 26th Jan 2015
• Obama(USA) also promised to India to give
permanent membership of the SC.
 JAI – Japan, America and India
• It’s is a trilateral meeting of Japan, America & India.
• The term JAI coined by the Indian P M Narendra Modi.
• JAI means – success & victory.
 2+2 Dialogue: India & US

• A ‘tw o plus tw o dialogue’ is a term-

adopted in foreign policy- used for
installation of a dialogue mechanism
between two countries’ defence and
external affairs ministries.

• First Indo-US 2+2 dialogue – 2018

• Second Indo-US 2+2 dialogue – 2019
• Third Indo-US 2+2 dialogue – 2020
• Fourth Indo-US 2+2 dialogue - 2022
 Basic Exchange & Cooperation Agreement-2020

• Recently, the Indo-United States 2+2 talks w ere conducted.

• Signed on BECA.
• The BECA largely pertains to geospatial intelligence, and sharing information
on maps and satellite images for defence.
• BECA will provide Indian military systems with a high-quality GPS to navigate
and missiles with real-time intelligence to precisely target the adversary.
• It will give access to topographical and aeronautical data and products that
will aid navigation and targeting.
 Rajni Kothari - (1928 - 2015)
▪ He was foremost Indian Political Scientist.
▪ In 1963, Kothari founded Centre for Study
of Developing Societies(CSDS), know n as
Kothari Centre.
▪ In 1980, he also started ‘Lokayan’ as a
forum for interaction between Activists &
Intellectuals.
▪ In 1985, he got Right Livelihood Award.
▪ Kothari w as also associated w ith Peoples
Union Civil Liberties(founded by J P
Narayana.
 Key Works
o Politics in India – 1970
o Caste in Indian Politics – 1973
o State Against Democracy – 1988
o Rethinking Development – 1988
o Politics and the People – 1989
o Communalism in Indian Politics – 1998
o Rethinking Democracy - 2005
Note: In 1984, w ith Gobinda Mukhoty he also
wrote an essay named- ‘Who w ere the
Guilty?(1984)
▪ He used Structural Functional Approach
in his works.
 Key Concepts of Kothari
[Link] of Caste
❑ It means Caste played an important
role in Indian Politics.
❑ It ensures Economic Development &
Political Participation in Indian
Democracy.
❑ In w hich Kothari talks about 3 kinds
of forms of Caste…
1. The Secular Form
2. Integration Form
3. Awareness
 2. Caste as Pressure Group

❑ Kothari argued that – “In western

world Pressure Groups played an
important role while in India, Caste
played an important role in Indian
Politics.”
 3. Congress System

❑ The period of 1947-1967 regarded

Congress System by Kothari.
❑ Because, in this period Congress
dominated Indian Politics and
Government as w ell.
❑ Congress w as system defining party.
 4. Non Party Political System

❑ Later, Rajni Kothari believed in Party

less Democracy like Gandhi, Vinova
Bhave, M N Roy and J P Narayana.
❑ Political Parties increased Communalism
and Riots in India.
❑ He himself separated from Politics in the
1980s.
 5. Political Society

❑ He Considered Indian Society as Political

Society.
❑ Due to Politicization of Caste, Political
Participation and Political Modernization
Indian Society has become Political Society.
 6. Social Movements as
‘Non Party Political Formation’

❑ He Considered Social Movements as Non

Party Political Formation.
❑ Social Movements played an important
and active role in Indian Politics but not
Political Power.
 7. Janus Like Model

• In his key oeuvre POLITICS IN INDIA –

1970, Kothari considered India as JANUS
LIKE MODEL.
• In Roman Methodology, Janus w as the
God of doors, gates and transitions.
• Janus has two faces by w hich he can look
both side at the same time.
• Likew ise, Indian Politics has both
Modernity and Traditionalism at the same
time.
 Morris Jones – (1884-1972)

▪ He was British Political Scientist.

▪ He used Institutional Approach to the
study of Indian Politics.
▪ Morris Jones provided a link betw een Pre
and Post Independence institutional
framew ork to the study of Indian
Politics.
▪ Morris Jones did study about India and
African Nations.
 Key Works

o Parliament in India – 1957

o Government and Politics in India – 1964
o India’s Political Miracle – 1966
o Patterns and Trend in Indian Politics – 1976
o Politics Mainly Indian – 1978
o Decolonization and after: The British
French Experience – 1980

▪ Note: He used Institutional Approach in

his works.
 Key Concepts of Jones
1. One Dominance Party System

❑ Like Kothari, Jones argued that in India

there is One Dominance Party System.
❑ But, Kothari called it Congress System.
❑ This is also noteworthy that M. Jones
was first w ho regarded Congress
dominance as One Dominance Party
System.
❑ He also regarded Congress Party as an
Open Political Party.
2. Three idioms of Indian Politics
▪ Morris Jones talks about three Idioms of
Indian Politics………
Three idioms of
Indian Politics

Traditional Modern Saintly

o Casteism o Indian Constitution o Land – Donation
o Communalism o Indian Parliament Movement led by
o Linguism o Indian Judiciary Gandhi and Bhave.
o Indian Bureaucracy o Based on Love, Self
o Political Parties & Media Sacrifice and Polity
without power
 [Link] Federalism

❑ He considered Indian Federalism as

Bargaining Federalism.
❑ He used this term regarding Planning
Commission.
❑ He also regarded Panchayati Raj as
Silent Revolution in India.
4. Mediating Framework

❑ Morris Jones provided a link

between Pre and Post
Independence institutional
framew ork to the study of
Indian Politics.
❑ This is known as – Mediating
Framew ork.
o Indian Constitution
Government o Indian Parliament Movement
o Indian Judiciary
 Myron Weiner (1931-1999)
▪ Myron Weiner w as an American
Political Scientist and renewed scholar
of India and South Asia.
▪ He did PhD thesis on ‘The Politics of
Scarcity: Republic Pressure and Political
Response in India’ in 1962.
▪ He used Political Culture Approach in
his w orks.
▪ He did study of South Asian Countries.
▪ He classified Regional Movements in
India as Ethnic and Native Movements.
 Key Works
o Party Politics in India: The Development
of a Multi Party System – 1957
o Politics of Scarcity: Republic Pressure
and Political Response in India’ in 1962.
o Party Building in a New Nation: The
Indian National Congress – 1967
o The Child and the Comparative
Perspective – 1991
 Key Concepts of Weiner
1. Two Political Cultures
❑ Myron Weiner talks about Two
Political Culture in India.
Two Political
Cultures

Elite Political Mass Political

Culture Culture

Urban India Village India

 2. Politics of Scarcity

❑ Myron Weiner also talks about

Politics of Scarcity in India.

Economic Crises in India in the 1980s

Rise of Communalism, Riots & Violence
Instability and Coalition Government
 3. Indian Paradox

❑ Myron Weiner also talks about

Indian Paradox.

Success of Democracy Political Instability

Political Modernization Indian Paradox Gender Inequality
Economic Reforms Poverty & Unemployment
 Partha Chatterjee – (1947)

▪ Born – 1947 in Calcutta.

▪ Higher Education – B A in Political Science from
Calcutta University.
▪ In 1972 he completed his Ph.D. from University of
Rochester in New York.
▪ He was founder member of Subaltern Studies
collective.
▪ He also associated w ith Subaltern Studies.
 Key Works
o Nationalist Thought and the colonial
World – 1986
o The Nations and its Fragments: Colonial
and Post Colonial Histories – 1993
o A Possible India – 1993
o States and Politics in India – 1997
o The Politics of the Governed: Popular
Politics in most of the World – 2004
o A Texts of Power - 2006
o Lineages of Political Society: Studies in
Postcolonial Democracy – 2011
 Key Concepts of Chatterjee

1. Political Society

❑ Partha Chatterjee talks about

Political Society.
Post Colonial
Society

Civil Society Political Society

o Urban Middle Class o Rural People
o Capitalist Class o Urban Poor People
o Permanent Citizen o Non Permanent Citizen
2. Derivative Nationalism

❑ Partha Chatterjee gave key concept –

Derivative Nationalism.
❑ Nationalism of Non European Countries is
Derivative Nationalism, because they
adopted this type of Nationalism as it is
from the Western World.
❑ In his key essay – Whose Imagined
Community? He criticized to Benedict
Anderson’s concept of Imagined
Community.
 Rudolph and Rudolph
▪ Rudolph & Rudolph are American
Author, Political author and Political
Thinker of America.
▪ In 1952 they got marriage.
▪ In 2014 they got Padma Bhushan.
▪ They used Political Sociological
Approach in their w orks or research
of Indian Politics.
▪ They have also got India Abroad
Friend of India Award.
 Key Works
o Modernity of Traditions: Political Development in
India – 1967
o Education and Politics in India – 1972
o Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma – 1983
o Essay on Rajputana – 1984
o In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of
the Indian State – 1987
o Idea of Rajasthan – 1994
o Explaining Indian democracy: A fifty year
perspective, 1956-2006 – 2008
o Destination India: From London overland to India
and What We Learned There – 2014
 Key Concepts of Rudolph’s

1. Tradition vs Modernity India

❑ Rudolph and Rudolph talks

about Tradition vs Modernity. Tradition Modernity
❑ Like, Kothari and Iqbal they argued
that in India there can be found balance
between Tradition and Modernity.
❑ Rudolph’s mentioned three traditional
Vales in India…
1. Caste
2. Charismatic Leadership
3. Legal Culture
 2. India as Strong and Weak State
❑ Rudolph and Rudolph regarded
India as Strong and Weak State.
India as Strong
And weak State

Strong Weak
o Create large Industries o Failure of Rural Development
o Less Political Conflicts o Deinstitutionalization of State &
o Economic Reforms Congress under Indira Gandhi
o Successful elections o Unofficial Civil War Between Caste
and Class.
o Increase Religious Fundamental.
 3. Demand and Command Polity
❑ Rudolph and Rudolph regarded Indian Polity as tussle
between Demand Polity and Command Polity.
Indian Polity

Command Demand
Polity Polity
o State hegemony prevails o Societal Demands
over Societal Demands dominates over State
4. Bullock capitalism

❑ Rudolph and Rudolph considered Indian

Economy as Bullock Capitalism.
❑ They argued that in India after Green
Revolution, Bullock Capitalists w as very
important class.
❑ This class w as more in number and have
more landlords.
❑ So, they run and shaped Indian Economy.
❑ That is w hy Rudolph’s regarded Indian
Economy as Bullock Capitalism.
 Yogendra Yadav
▪ Born – 1963, Haryana.
▪ Yogendra Yadav is an Indian Activists,
psychologist, politician and political
scientist.
▪ In 2016, he founded Sw araj India w ith
Prashant Bhushan.
▪ He was Senior Fellow at the Centre for
the Study of Developing Societies(CSDS).
▪ He is a former member of University
Grants Commission.
▪ He argued that ‘National Elections in
India are derivative’.
 Key Works
o Electoral Politics in the time of Change:
India’s 3rd Electoral System – 1989-1999
o Reconfiguration in Indian Politics: State
Assembly Election – 1993-1995
o Crafting State – Nation: India and other
Multinational – 2010
o Making Sense of India Democracy: Theory
in Practice - 2020
 Key Concepts of Yadav

1. Post congress polity

❑ Yadav argued that key feature

of third electoral system is –
Post Congress Polity.
❑ He argues that even those states
where there is a direct race
between congress and its rival
the Congress is no longer the
natural party of Governance.
2. Second Democratic Upsurge
o 2nd Democratic Upsurge started from
1980s in India.
o During the 1980’s, increasing the political
participation of the lower classes of the
society such as SC, ST & OBCs.
o Yogendra Yadav interpreted it as 2nd
Democratic Upsurge.
o This participation has made Indian
Politics more accommodative and
accessible for these Classes.
 3. Third Electoral System
❑ In his key w ork – ‘Electoral
Politics in the time of Change:
India’s 3rd Electoral System –
1989-1999, he talks about third
electoral system in India.
❑ Yadav argued that ---
First Electoral system -1952-1967
Second Electoral System -1967- 1989
Third Electoral System - after 1989d
 Kanchan Chandra
o Kanchan Chandra is a w riter and Political
Scientist.
o She is currently a professor of Politics at
New York University.
o She earned he Ph.D. degree from Harvard
University in 2005.
 Key Works
o Why Ethnic Parties Succeed – 2004
o Constructivist theories of Ethnic Politics –
2012
o Democratic Dynasties: State Party and
Family in Contemporary Indian – 2016
 Key Concepts of K. Chandra
1. Patronage Democracy
❑ In 2013, Kanchan Chandra w rote an essay-
‘Patronage, Democracy and Ethnic Politics in
India.’ In w hich Kanchan Chandra argues
that ‘Indian Democracy is a Patronage type
of Democracy.
❑ Patronage Democracy is a system in w hich
the government monopolizes access to basis
goods and services valued by a majority of
the population, and in w hich government
officials have individual discretion over how
these basic goods and services are
distributed.
 Pranab Bardhan (1939)
▪ Pranab Kumar Bardhan is an Indian
Economist.
▪ He is a professor Emeritus of Economics
at the University of California.
▪ He quoted that ‘Indian Federalism is a
holding together federation not a coming
together federation’ .
▪ Pranab Bardhan also criticized to the
Green Revolution. Because, it w as
limited spread only in Western UP,
Punjab & Haryana.
 Key Works
o Political Economy of Development in India – 1984
o Development Microeconomics – 1999
o Social Justice in the Global Economy – 2000
o Poverty, Agrarian Structure and Political Economy in
India – 2003
o International Trade, Growth and Development – 2003
o Scarcity, Conflicts and Cooperation – 2005
o Awakening Giants, Feet of Clay: Assessing the
Economic Rise of China and India – 2010
o Globalization, Democracy and Corruption: An Indian
Perspective – 2015
 Key Concepts of P. Bardhan

1. Dominant Class Coalition

❑ In his key w ork – Political

Economy of development in
India(1984), He identified three
dominant classes in India. These
are….
1. The Capitalist
2. Rich Farmers
3. Bureaucracy
 Christophe Jaffrelot

o Born – 1964 Poissy, France

o Christophe Jaffrelot is a French Political
Scientist and Indologist specializing in
South Asia particularly India and
Pakistan.
o He is a Professor of South Asian Politics
and History at Sciences Po, Paris.
o He is also a Political commentator.
 Key Works
o The Hindu National Movement in India – 1996
o Religion Caste and Politics in India – 1998
o India’s Silent Revolution – 2003
o Dr. Ambedkar and Untouchability – 2005
o The Sangh Parivar – 2005
o The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience – 2015
o India’s First Dictatorship: The Emergency, 1975-1977 -2020
o India’s First Dictatorship – 2021
o Modi’s India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic
Democracy -2021
 Key Concepts of C. Jaffrelot

1. Silent Revolution

❑ Transfer of power from upper caste elite

to different lower middle caste through
electoral roots.
❑ Rise of Dalits in Politics.
❑ Jaffrelot argued that today most
popular states like UP & Bihar
controlled by the lower caste leader and
this is called true Democratization or
Silent Revolution in India.
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Key work ‘The Zigzag of Politics’ is written by -

[a] Friedrich Hayek

[b] Robert Nozick
[c] Amartya Sen
[d] Hannah Arendt
 Explanation
❑ Robert Nozick w as an American
Philosopher, known as Semi-anarchist.
❑ Major w orks of Nozick are …..
1. Anarchy, State and Utopia - 1974
2. Philosophical Explanations - 1981
3. The Zigzag of Politics - 1989
4. The Examined Life - 1989
5. The nature of Rationality - 1993
6. Socratic Puzzles - 1997
7. Invariances - 2001
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Match the following…..
IDEA THINKER
(a) Social Justice as an utopian (1) Nozick
social engineering
(b) Inequality is Natural (2) Rawls
(c) Procedural Justice (3) Aristotle
(d) Bourgeois Man as an original Negotiator (4) K. Popper
(e) Commutative Justice (5) Aristotle

[a] a-1,b-2,c-3,d-4,e-5 [c] a-1,b-3,c-2,d-1,e-4

[b] a-4,b-3,c-5,d-1,e-2 [d] a-4,b-5,c-2,d-1,e-3
 Explanation
IDEA THINKER
❑ Social Justice as an utopian social engineering K. Popper
❑ Inequality is Natural Aristotle
❑ Procedural Justice Rawls
❑ Bourgeois Man as an original Negotiator Nozick
❑ Commutative Justice Aristotle
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Who gave the notion of ‘Paradox of Democracy’
or ‘The Democratic Paradox’?

[a] Anthony Downs

[b] Chantal Mouffe
[c] Ernesto Laclau
[d] Jürgen Habermas
 Explanation
❑ In 2000, Chantal Mouffe w rote a book –
‘THE DEMOCRATIC PARADOX’(2000).
❑ In w hich he - gave the notion of – ‘Paradox
of Democracy.’
She argued that - In a liberal Democracy,
is the idea that it is legitimate to establish
limits to popular sovereignty in the name of
liberty is hence paradoxical.
She also criticized to the notion of ‘End of
History and the Last Man’ of Fukuyama.
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Match the following…..
POWER THINKER
(a) Three faces of Power 1. Steven Lukes
(b) Two faces of Power 2. Bachrach & Baratz
(c) Power: A Radical View 3. Kenneth Boulding
(d) The four dimensions of Power 4. Mark Haugaard

[a] a-3, b-2, c-1, d-4 [c] a-3, b-1, c-2, d-4

[b] a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4 [d] a-1, b-3, c-2, d-4
 Explanation
POWER THINKER
❑ Three faces of Power(1989) - Kenneth Boulding
❑ Two face of Power(1962) - Bachrach & Baratz
❑ Pow er: A Radical view (1974) - Steven Lukes
❑ The four Dimensions of - M. Haugaard
Power(2020)

❑ In his key w ork –Three Faces of Power(1989),

Boulding gave the key notion – ‘THE STICK,
THE DEAL, THE KISS’.
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Match the following…..
CONCEPT THINKER
(a)Circulation of Elites 1. G. Mosca
(b) Mass Mind 2. V. Pareto
(c) Constructive Power 3. C. W. Mills
(d) Political Formula 4. Robert Michels
(e) Power Elites 5. Hannah Arendt

[a] a-2,b-4,c-5,d-1,e-3 [c] a-3,b-1,c-2,d-4,e-5

[b] a-1,b-5,c-3,d-4,e-2 [d] a-1,b-5,c-2,d-4,e-3

 Explanation
CONCEPT THINKER
❑ Circulation of Elites V. Pareto
❑ Mass Mind R. Michels
❑ Constructive Power H. Arendt
❑ Political Formula G. Mosca
❑ Power Elites C. W. Mills
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Who argued that – ‘Democracy is the worst form
of Government except all other forms that have
been tried from time to time’?

[a] Mahatma Gandhi

[b] Winston Churchill
[c] Hitler
[d] Mussolini
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Choose correct option in Chronological order…

[a] Orange Revolution, Velvet Revolution,

Iranian Revolution, Rose Revolution
[b] Rose Revolution, Iranian Revolution,
Velvet Revolution, Orange Revolution
[c] Iranian Revolution, Rose Revolution,
Velvet Revolution, Orange Revolution
[d] Iranian Revolution, Velvet Revolution,
Rose Revolution, Orange Revolution
 Explanation
REVOLUTION YEAR
Iranian Revolution - 1979 in Iran
Velvet Revolution - 1989 in Czechoslovakia
(This revolution know n
as Gentle Revolution)
Rose Revolution - 2003 Georgia
Orange Revolution - 2004-05 in Ukraine
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Who gave the Notion of ‘LIBERAL THEORY OF
CITIZENSHIP’?

[a] Robert Nozick

[b] T. H. Marshall
[c] Will Kymlicka
[d] Marion Young
 Explanation
❑ T H Marshall w as British Sociologist.
❑ His liberal theory of Citizenship is also know n
as – Evolutionary Theory of Citizenship.
❑ He wrote some key w orks –
1. Citizenship and Class - 1950
2. Class, Citizenship & Social Development- 1964
❑ In his key w ork – ‘Citizenship and Class,(1950).
He talks about Substantive Citizenship in England.
PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT FORM OF CITIZENSHIP NATURE OF RIGHTS
18th century Civil Citizenship Civil Rights
19th century Political Citizenship Political Rights
20th century Social Citizenship Social Citizenship
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ ‘Democracy is a government of the people, for
the people and by people’-was stated for the
first time?

[a] Cleon
[b] Martin Luther King
[c] Abraham Lincoln
[d] J. P. Narayana
 Explanation
❑ Cleon was Greek(Athenian) Philosopher.
❑ In 422 BC he defined Democracy as –
‘Democracy shall be of the people, by the
people, for the people.’
❑ Later it popularized by A. Lincoln. He said at
Gettysburg Address on 19th Nov. 1863 that -
‘Democracy is a Government of, by, and for the
people.’
 POLITICAL THEORY
❑ Who argued that Political Theory in ‘Doghouse’?

Reimer
[a] Neal Riemer
[b] David Easton
[c] Robert Dahl
[d] Alfred Cobban
 Explanation
❑ Political Theory in Doghouse - Neal Reamer
❑ Political Theory has declined – Cobban & Easton
❑ Political Theory is Dead – Laslett and Dahl
❑ Point should be noted that -Alfred Cobban firstly
talked about – decline of political theory. He
wrote a book named - ‘The decline of Political
Theory’(Published in 1993)