CHAPTER
2
Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits
References: 1. G. Rizzoni, Principles and Applications of Electrical
Engineering, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill Inc., 2007.
2. Allan R. Hambley ,Electrical Engineering: Principles and
Applications, Fourth Edition, , Prentice Hall Pearson Education, 2008.
“These notes are only to be used in class presentations.”
Physical representation of an electrical system
An electric circuit is a complete path (or a closed path) formed by
wires and elements that let current flows through.
Wires
Battery
Light bulb
Electrical source
Electrical load
converts non-electric energy to
converts electric energy to
non-electric energy electric energy and vice versa.
•light bulb: electric light •battery: chemical electric
•motor: electric mechanical •generator: mechanical electric
Symbolic representation (circuit) of an electrical system
e-
Source Load
Ideal voltage source Resistor
Ideal current source Inductor
Capacitor
active elements, capable of
generating electric energy passive elements, incapable of
generating electric energy
Electrical sources can either deliver or absorb power
Electrical Resistance
Resistance: Resistance is the opposition of material to the current
flow. Resistance of the material is represented with a circuit
element called resistor.
Circuit symbol of an ideal resistor
R ( resistance) denotes the ability to resist the
flow of electric current.
Unit: Volts per Ampere ≡ ohms (Ω)
Ohm’s Law
The current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the
voltage difference applied to the terminals. This proportionality,
resistance, is constant and can be calculated as
vRi
For passive circuit elements, we need to define voltage polarities and
current directions according to the passive sign convention.
• Assumed positive current enters the assumed positive voltage
terminal.
˗ Either voltage polarity or current direction can be
chosen arbitrarily.
˗ Once one is chosen, it dictates the choice of the other.
i- v characteristic of an ideal resistor
Resistance related to physical parameters
l: length (m)
A: cross-sectional area (mm2)
ρ : resistivity of the material
(Ω·mm2/m)
l
R ()
A
The resistance of metals increases as the temperature increases.
2
(mm /m)
2
1
t q
q 2 q (C)
1
τ: critical temperature (different for every material)
Assuming that as the temperature changes, length and the cross
sectional area of the material remain constant,
Temperature coefficient of resistance (1/ºC)
Example 2.1
An aluminium coil has a resistance of R=1.3Ω at 20ºC. Find its
resistance value at 95ºC.
Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivities,
while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivities.
Power dissipated (absorbed) by a resistor
Using Ohm’s Law,
p v i ( Ri )i i R
2
2
v v
p v i v
R R
Note that p> 0 always, for a resistor →a resistor dissipates
electric energy
Electrical Conductance
Conductance: the reciprocal of resistance
Conductance denotes the ability to conduct electric current.
Symbol: G
1
G
R
Unit: Siemens (S) or mho ( )
1
σ : coductivity of an element (m/Ω•mm2)
Ideal Voltage Source
Symbols
+ +
Vs _ Vs
_
A special case : DC sources
(ideal battery)
Ideal Voltage Source
Ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a
specified voltage across its terminals, regardless of the
current flowing in those terminals.
• Voltage is known but current is determined by the circuit to which
the source is connected.
• Voltage can be constant or time-varying.
iV
Vs Circuit
vs(t)
i- v characteristic of an ideal DC voltage source
iv
Vs
generating power
iv
Vs
absorbing power
Vs>0 →i>0 supply power; i<0 absorb power
When analyzing circuits, start with the assumption that the ideal
voltage source is generating power. That means, according to the
passive sign convention, current is entering from the negative polarity
of the voltage.
iv
Vs
If you find iv >0, then the source is generating power.
If you find iv <0, then the source is absorbing power. That means,
according to the passive sign convention, current is entering from the
positive polarity of the voltage.
Ideal Current Source
Symbols
Ideal Current Source
Ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a
specified current through its terminals, regardless of the
voltage across those terminals.
• Current is known but voltage is determined by the circuit to which
the source is connected.
• Current can be constant or time-varying.
+
Is vI Circuit
is(t) -
i- v characteristic of an ideal DC current source
- +
Is VI Is VI
absorbing power generating power
+ -
Is>0
Is>0 →V>0 supply power; V<0 absorb power
When analyzing circuits, start with the assumption that the ideal
current source is generating power. That means, according to the
passive sign convention, current is entering from the negative polarity
of the voltage.
+
Is VI
-
If you find VI >0, then the source is generating power.
If you find VI <0, then the source is absorbing power. That means,
according to the passive sign convention, current is entering from the
positive polarity of the voltage.
These sources are called independent sources
Independent sources provide specified voltage or current that
is completely independent of other circuit elements.
Dependent sources provide voltage or current that is
controlled by another voltage or current in the circuit.
•Dependent sources are useful in modeling electronic circuit
elements.
Dependent Sources
μ and β are unitless constants.
r : constant (Ω)
g: constant (S)
Branches, Nodes and Loops
Branch: A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or
a resistor. A branch represents any two-terminal element.
Node: Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are
connected
If a wire (conductor) connects two points, the two points constitute a
single node.
Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A closed path is
formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes
and returning to the starting node without passing through any
node more than once.
Mesh: A mesh is a loop that doesn’t contain other loops.
(independent loop)