Autonomous Popular University of the State of Puebla

Juan David Carreón Reynoso

Task 2: Summary chapter 2

Chapter 2: General Characteristics of Concrete and Steel

Concrete is a stone-like, artificial material obtained from the mixture, in determined proportions,
of cement, aggregates, and water. The cement and water form a paste that surrounds the aggregates,
constituting a heterogeneous material.

The volumetric weight of concrete ranges between 1.9 and 2.5 ton/m3 depending mainly on the
stone aggregates that are used. Simple concrete, without reinforcement, is resistant to compression,
but it is weak in tension, To withstand tensions, steel reinforcement is used, generally in
bar form, placed in the areas where tensions are expected to develop under the
service actions. It is also used in compression areas to increase strength.
reinforced element, to reduce deformations due to long-term loads and to
provide lateral confinement to the concrete.

Modes of failure

Simple concrete cylinder tested in axial compression, in cylinders with a side ratio of
diameter equal to two the fault usually presents itself through inclined planes with respect to the
direction of the load. This inclination is mainly due to the restriction provided by the
support plates of the machine against lateral movements.

Stress-strain curves

The stress-strain curves are obtained from the testing of prisms subjected to distributed axial load.
uniformly in the cross-section using a rigid plate. The values of the stress
result from dividing the total applied load, P, by the area of the cross-section of the prism, A.

Typical curve under short-term load

It can be seen that concrete is not an elastic material and that the initial part of these curves
it is not strictly straight. It is also observed that the curve reaches a maximum and then
a descending branch. The collapse of the prism occurs in short-duration tests at
deformations that vary between 0.003 and 0.007.

Due to the continuous hydration process of the cement, the concrete increases its capacity to
strength increases with age, in addition the type of cement enhances the resistance, especially at ages
early. The shape of the stress-strain curve varies with the strength of the concrete.

Effect of deformation rate

If the deformation rate is very high, the downward branch is abrupt, while if the
deformation is applied slowly, the descending branch is quite smooth.
Popular Autonomous University of the State of Puebla

Juan David Carreón Reynoso

Task 2: Summary chapter 2

Effect of slenderness and specimen size

As a measure of slenderness, the ratio between the length, measured in the direction of the load,
and the smaller side of a prism, or the diameter of a cylinder. For slenderness greater than two, the
low resistance, reaching up to 85 percent, approximately, for slenderness of six or more.
On the contrary, for specimens with slenderness less than two, the resistance increases.
indefinitely.

Triaxial compression

The tests carried out on concrete cylinders under triaxial compression show that the
Resistance and the corresponding unit deformation increase with the increase of lateral pressure.
confinement. In these tests, the triaxial stress state is created by surrounding the specimen with
oil at a certain pressure and applying an axial load until failure using devices.

Tension

The stress-strain curve of concrete in tension was obtained by testing a specimen of

rectangular section, variable along it. To fix it in the testing machine, one
they used plates glued with resin to the ends of the specimen, which in turn were
screwed to the machine. This testing setup requires a lot of care to achieve results.
trustworthy, For concrete under axial tension, both the strengths and the deformations
the corresponding values are approximately one-tenth of the respective values
in axial compression.

Flexion

The flexural strength of plain concrete is often determined by testing a prism.

freely supported concrete, subjected to one or two concentrated loads. The failure is abrupt, with
a unique crack that fractures the specimen.
The theoretical tensile stress is calculated with the expression: Fr = Mc / I

In which fr is the breaking module, M is the bending moment corresponding to the load
maximum applied, c is the mean camber, e 1 is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the
prisma. When applying the expression, it is assumed that the concrete is elastic until failure, a hypothesis that,
As indicated, it is not correct for the entire load scale.

Failure criteria

Despite the studies that have been conducted, there is still no simple failure theory that
allow for reasonably accurate prediction of the strength of plain concrete.

Effects of time on hardened concrete

When a load is applied to a concrete specimen, it acquires a deformation. If the

load remains applied, the deformation increases with time, even when it does not increase
the load.
Autonomous Popular University of the State of Puebla

Juan David Carreón Reynoso

Task 2: Summary of chapter 2

The deformations that occur over time in concrete are essentially due to two
causes: contraction and plastic flow.

It can be seen that when applying the load in a relatively small time, the concrete suffers a
initial deformation, which for practical purposes can be considered instantaneous. If it
maintain the load, the concrete continues to deform, with a high rate of deformation at
principle, which gradually decreases with time.

Contraction

The shrinkage deformations are essentially due to changes in the water content of the
concrete over time. The factors that most affect contraction are the original amount
of water in the mixture and the environmental conditions, especially at early ages.

The contraction refers to producing efforts due to restrictions on the free movement of
elements that generally exist in reality. If concrete could shrink freely, the
contraction would produce neither strains nor cracks.

It can be estimated that the unit deformations due to contraction vary between 0.0002 and
0.001

Plastic flow

Plastic flow is a phenomenon related to the application of a load. It is essentially about

of a deformation phenomenon under continuous load, due to an internal rearrangement of the
particles that occur at the same time as the hydration of cement.

Some factors that affect plastic flow deformations are the properties of the
constituent materials of concrete, the proportions of the mix and the ambient humidity.

The long-term unit deformations produced by plastic flow can be estimated at

part of the instantaneous elastic deformations produced by a certain stress in the
concrete, multiplying these last ones by a coefficient, C,, called flow coefficient
plastic, whose value varies between 2 and 4, with an average value in common conditions of 2.35.

Effect of charge permanence:

It can be said, with a certain degree of certainty, that concrete can take indefinitely, without
fail, loads up to 60 percent of their capacity. Loads greater than 70-80 percent,
Applied permanently, they always end up causing the specimen's failure.

Fatga:

Various studies have been conducted on concrete elements subjected to repeated loading.
When an element fails after a very large number of load repetitions, it is said
that has failed due to fatigue. When a concrete element is subjected to compressions on the order of
half of its static resistance, fails after approximately ten million
load repetitions.
Popular Autonomous University of the State of Puebla

Juan David Carreón Reynoso

Summary chapter 2

Elastic modules

The modulus of elasticity is primarily a function of the strength of the concrete and its weight.
volumetric. Several expressions have been proposed to predict the modulus of elasticity apart from
of these variables.

The ACI Code presents the equation Ec =1.54000

w √f ¨ c
Where Ec is the modulus of elasticity in kg/cm2, w is the volumetric weight of concrete in ton/m3
f'c is the concrete strength in kg/cm2.

Deformations due to temperature change

Concrete is subjected to volumetric changes due to temperature. Some have been determined.
thermal coefficients that oscillate between 0.000007 and 0.00001 unit strain per degree
degrees of temperature change.

Some characteristics of reinforcing steels

Steel for reinforcing concrete is used in various forms. The most common is the bar or rod.
both hot rolled steel and cold worked steel are manufactured. The diameters
The usual sizes of the bars produced in Mexico range from 1/4 inch to 1 1/2 inches.

Generally, the type of steel is characterized by the Yield strength or stress. In Mexico, the
Hot rolled bars can be obtained with yield strengths from 2300 to 4200.
kg/cm2.

An important property that must be taken into account in reinforcements with welded details is the
solubility, Another important property is the ease of bending.
The use of mesh as reinforcement for slabs, walls, and some elements has started to become generalized.
prefabricated. These meshes are made up of smooth wires joined by welding points in
the intersections.

The modulus of elasticity of different types of steel changes very little. From the comparison of
the curves of steel and concrete, it can be inferred that if both work in an element of
reinforced concrete subject to axial compression, the collapse of the assembly will be governed by the
deformation of concrete that, under long-term loads, can be up to 0.010 or 0.012.