HIGHER TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

OF TRANSPORT
Accredited by CACES
Resolution No. 066-SO-07-CEAACES-2018

1.3 INJECTION PARAMETERS

Today we are going to address a topic that, in our opinion, may interest us.
It is about the injection. We will try to explain how it works and what the differences are.

they have these fuel systems in gasoline and diesel engines, in two
different articles, as there is a lot of information on this topic. The first
referring to gasoline injection and the second to diesel engines.

About 30 years ago, normal gasoline engines, not high performance.

benefits, they used what we call a carburetor to make the mixture
gas-air inside the combustion chamber.

Carburetors have reached a very high level of development, but with the
With the arrival of electronics, it has been possible to surpass the capabilities of the

carburetors, along with the increase in costs of

acquisition and maintenance. For all this, this system was used in
competition vehicles, such as NASCAR, have continued to use
carbureted engines until very recently.

With the entry into force of the new anti-pollution regulations, much more
strict regulations, the carburetors have become very limited, so the systems
injection have had to replace them, as they are much more precise and with
ability to control its operation according to different
engine parameters.

Mechanical or electronic injection?

As a first classification, we find mechanical control systems and

electronic. Mechanical injection is managed and regulated by means of signals.
mechanical input-output (kinetic energy of the intake air, pressure of
gasoline), while in electronic injection, its primary signals are
transformed into electrical signals that will be used for the calculation of the
exit signs. Currently, mechanical systems are assisted by
means of electronics.

To give you an idea, its operation starts in the tank of

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gasoline, from where the fuel is extracted by means of a pump

electrical. This passes through a filter to the galleries, where the pressure is
stabilizes through a regulator.

From the main gallery, both the injectors of the cylinders and
the cold start injector. The amount of gasoline injected depends on the
air mass drawn by the engine, which is measured with the flow meter of
hatch and a temperature probe that report to the control unit. This
Finally, calculate the time that the injectors should be open in each cycle.
of the motor, as well as the opening frequency of these in relation to the speed
of the engine.

In the image below, we can also see the throttle butterfly.

whose opening or closing position is read by the throttle switch. The latter
allows us to cut off the fuel injection during engine retentions, in order to
reduce consumption and pollutant emissions.

During cold start, the additional timed air valve remains

open for a determined time to accelerate the idle.

Air mixture and catalysis

In the case that we want to use a three-way catalyst, it will be necessary

that the air-fuel mixture is stoichiometric, meaning that the air contains
all the oxygen necessary to react with the carbon in the fuel, and
due to the information about the air consumption of the engine that provides the
The flow meter is not entirely accurate; an O2 detector is used in the exhaust.

This detector is what we call a lambda probe. With the set of information
received by both systems, we will correct the gasoline input to achieve
a stoichiometric mixture.

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The second classification will depend on the type of system that will be used.
in the engines depending on their different particularities. Therefore,
we are going to find two large groups:

Single point injection in gasoline engines

This system uses only one injector, as a substitute for the carburetor, for the
fuel supply. The supply is done through a duct
common for all cylinders.

In this case, the fuel supply is continuous and is regulated by pressure.

from the injection. It is a system that is more economical than the
multi-point injection (we see it below), is much more precise and allows
more possibilities than the carburetor. We have been able to see this technology in
small vehicles, until a few years ago, since today, they have been replaced
for more efficient injection systems.

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Resolution No. 066-SO-07-CEAACES-2018

Multi-point injection

this technology has a basic difference compared to injection

monopoint: The introduction of an injector in each cylinder, instead of just one.
injector for all cylinders. In addition, it is placed in the manifold of
admission, very close to the valve, directing the jet towards it
fuel. We will find it in both indirect injection and injection
direct (Mitsubishi GDi engines or Renault Ide).

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In turn, this system is divided into different configurations, depending on the

injection mode that we will apply to the fuel. So we are going to find
the following classification:

Continuous injection

The amount of fuel is regulated by the supply pressure of the injector.

This is of the mechanical type, where its resting position is produced by a needle.
forced by a spring against its seat and the outlet nozzle. The displacement
The needle is produced by pressure.

The fact that the injection is continuous implies that it will be injected continuously.
flammable even with the intake valve closed, accumulating the
gasoline in the tank until the valve opens.

Intermittent injection

This system injects once per cycle. The opening of the injectors is
managed by means of an electrical signal. The lifting of the needle of the
The injector is made by electromagnetism.

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Simultaneous injection:

It is based on a modification of intermittent injection, where the fuel

is injected into the cylinders by all the injectors at the same time, that is; they open and
they close all the injectors at the same time.

Sequential injection

on this occasion, each injector supplies fuel to its cylinder during the
admission phase, taking advantage of the airflow to generate a more optimal mixture
homogeneous, improving the combustion process.

As a more modern usage system, we find integrated systems of

injection and ignition, where a control unit manages both the injection
like the electric ignition of the engine.

The fuel injection is an engine feeding system

internal combustion, which replaces the carburetor in gasoline engines,
what is used by practically all European cars since 1990,
due to the obligation to reduce pollutant emissions and so that it is
Possible and durable use of the catalyst through an optimal adjustment of the factor
lambda.

The fuel supply and mixture formation system

complements the ignition system of the engine in Otto engines, which is the
which is responsible for triggering the combustion of the air/fuel mixture.

This system has been used, mandatorily, in the diesel cycle since forever,
since the fuel has to be injected into the chamber in the
moment of combustion (although the chamber is not always over the head
of the piston).

In gasoline engines, the carburetor is currently eliminated in favor of

from the injection, since it allows for better fuel dosing and on
everything from the application of the electronic control through a calculator that
uses information from various sensors placed on the engine to
manage the different phases of operation, always obeying the
driver requests first and the anti-pollution regulations in
Matrix: Sabanilla Oe6-133 and Elicio Flor - Phone: (593-2) 2597686–0996847539; 0960464407
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a second place.

Initially, mechanical injection was used, but currently injection

electronics is common even in diesel engines.

Injection systems are divided into:

Multipoint and single point injection: To save costs, sometimes a

single injector for all cylinders, that is, single-point, instead of one for each
cylinder, or multipoint. Currently, and due to anti-pollution regulations
existing in the vast majority of countries, the single point injection has fallen into
disuse.

Direct and indirect. In gasoline engines, it is indirect if it is sprayed.

combustible in the collector or intake manifold instead of inside the chamber
combustion, that is, in the cylinder. In diesel engines, on the other hand, it is referred to

indirectly if injected into a pre-chamber that is connected to

the combustion chamber or main chamber that is usually in the injectors
directly found within the heads of the pistons.

Thanks to today's electronics, the advantages of the

electronic injection. It is important to clarify that at present all the
Electronic Injection Calculators (most commonly known as ECU
"Engine Control Unit" or ECM "Engine Control Module") also handles the part
of the engine ignition in the combustion process. Apart from having a map
injection for all loading conditions and engine regime, this
the system allows some techniques such as cutting the ignition during acceleration
(to prevent the engine from revving excessively), and the cut of the
injection when stopping the vehicle with the engine, or decelerating, to increase the
retention, avoiding unnecessary fuel expense and mainly avoiding the
pollution.

In diesel engines, the fuel must be more atomized because it has

what to mix in a shorter period and for the combustion of it to be
complete. In a gasoline engine, the fuel has the entire stroke of
admission and compression to mix; on the other hand, in a diesel, during

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The admission and compression strokes have only air in the cylinder. When it
it reaches the end of the compression, the air has been compressed and therefore has some
high pressure and temperature, which allow for the injection of fuel
this may inflame. Due to the high pressures prevailing in the chamber
combustion has been designed among other systems, the Common-Rail and the element
injector pump in order to achieve better results in terms of performance,
fuel economy and anti-pollution.

Injection map

The fuel injection map of a gasoline or diesel car is a

cartography or various, depending on the technology equipped on the vehicle, in which there
they find three-dimensional graphs (three axes x, y, z) and determine the
operating points of the engine, while the one that runs and checks and
controlling all this data is the fuel injection calculator.

A simple and characteristic cartography of the first gasoline injections

electronically controlled is the one that involves the following parameters:

The fundamental parameters: intake air pressure or flow rate, as

parameter 'x' and motor regime as parameter 'y', resulting in a
injection time given 'z'. These are the two base parameters that define
what is called motor load.

Fundamental parameters: Accelerator pedal position as parameter 'x', and

Motor regime as parameter "y", resulting in a pressure of
injection "z" combined with an injection time "ti". In this case we are
talking about a 4-dimensional map. Additionally, and so that it can be
To produce the start, a third piece of information is necessary, it is the phase of the motor

to determine which injector is to inject, from the two cylinders that are
they find parallels at the end of escape and the end of compression
respectively. Regarding diesel injections, the mapping is based on
en:

Correction parameters, with the most important being the engine temperature.
This data arrives at the electronic calculator from a sensor in the cylinder head, and corrects

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the basic value of the injection time calculated in the mapping, increasing it
the colder the engine is. Its influence is null when the engine
it is the operating temperature.

Another very important correction parameter in gasoline engines is the

from the position of the butterfly, to correct the idle and full load mixture,
as well as detect the speed of acceleration and enrich the mixture in
consequence. This data comes from another sensor, the throttle potentiometer.

Finally, in recent years, the catalyst has been imposed.

oxygen sensor or lambda sensor, which permanently corrects the time of
injection in a very narrow margin, to achieve maximum performance of
catalyst.

The current electronic injection calculators for both Diesel engines

like gasoline, they have extensive and varied operating maps for
each stage of the engine, including specially designed map settings
to operate in case of detection of a failure of an element of the system
injection, allowing the driver to approach the dealership or workshop more
close with the peace of mind that nothing harmful will happen to the engine. By
Example in gasoline engines, the absence of signal or excessive deviation.
the same in the parameter 'flow or intake air pressure' allows to be
replaced by the throttle position sensor.

The engine operation signal, essential for synchronization, does not allow to be
replaced once it disappears. The engine stops.

In gasoline engines, the aim has always been to achieve the mixture
perfect stoichiometric balance between air and fuel, with 14 parts of air and one
of fuel to achieve the maximum possible efficiency, and in the process reduce
the emissions of polluting gases into the atmosphere, mainly CO2.
For almost a century, the one in charge of making that mixture was the carburetor, which
it consisted of a completely mechanical fuel injection system
manipulated by levers, throats, and 'kites' and by physical principles of flow
of air.

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Resolution No. 066-SO-07-CEAACES-2018

However, being a low-pressure system, it required maintenance every so often.

synchronized and when starting the vehicle it turned out to be extremely
pollutant while the engine was heating up.

Thanks to information technologies, sensors, and actuators that are breaking into
the market to replace the outdated carburetor and thus give way to injection
electronics, a whole revolution that allowed for exact dosage of
combustible, while varying the injection time of the mixture
depending on the engine revolutions, the load situation, and the gases
produced by combustion.

In the case of cylinder injectors, a better mixture is obtained at the same time.
that achieve a faster and more effective regulation. Likewise, the elimination of
The carburetor required the modification of the intake system tubes to
obtain more suitable air currents that optimize air flow
towards the injector and in this way achieve a better filling of the cylinders.

Here we show you the types of Distribution of the systems of

injection

Indirect injection: fuel injection occurs at the bifurcation of the

intake manifold, or just before the intake valve. The valve can
to be open or closed.

Direct injection: the fuel injection is done directly into the

combustion chamber. This system allows for a drastic reduction in consumption
and improves combustion by reducing the emission of pollutants.

By number of injectors:

Single point (TBI): it involves a single gasoline injector for all cylinders.
It is generally located behind the throttle butterfly to feed the
admission multiple.

Multipoint (MPI): uses one injector for each cylinder. The injection is performed
about the intake manifold or directly in the combustion chamber.
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Control system

Mechanical: as its name indicates, it is controlled by fully injected.

mechanics. (Derived from aviation in the 1950s)

Electromechanical (Probe Plate): it is an evolution of the previous one, which

they combine electronics with mechanics.

Electronic: the system control is carried out through an ECU computer

and the injectors are electronically controlled.

Number of injections

Continuous Injection: the fuel is continuously injected into the manifold of

admission with a certain pressure and proportion, which can be constant
or variables, depending on the different parameters of the system used.

Intermittent Injection: the electronic control unit (ECU) is responsible for

send some pulses to the injectors in order to open them for a period of
fixed time. This system has three modes of execution:

Sequential: The sequential intermittent injection injects fuel to each

cylinder separately, through thorough control by the Unit of
Command (ECU), thus appealing to pure efficiency

Semi-sequential: Just like sequential injection, semi-sequential follows the

same principle, but in this case it is done two by two. That is to say, it is an engine
of four cylinders, supplies fuel first to cylinders one and two,
followed by an injection in cylinders three and four (the combinations
they can be varied and almost infinite).

Simultaneous: This last intermittent system is used in the most engines.

generally powerful. Utilizing the advantages of the intermittent system, in
in this case, the injection is performed on all the cylinders at the same time. No
they separate, but when the Command Unit (ECU) gives the order that the
engine needs fuel, these simply spread the flow everywhere.
cylinders.

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Injection systems for diesel engines.

One of the keys to the success of diesel engines has been the development of
injection equipment capable of providing many requirements
defendants. In fact, the development of a satisfactory system was not achieved.
up to 20 years after Rudolf Diesel first demonstrated the
concepts of the diesel combustion system. Among the basic requirements
What differentiates the fuel supply systems in diesel engines from
other systems are:

• Very high injection pressure required to achieve a short period

injection with an acceptable atomization and fuel mixing.

• High precision in the control of the start and duration of the injection is required.
to control fuel consumption, the maximum peak pressure and the
emissions.

• High precision in measuring the fuel to be injected for control

output power, the smoke limit, and ensure that the cylinders develop
equal power.

• Ability to utilize a wide range of diesel fuels, with

variations in density, viscosity, and lubricity.

• Instantaneous cutoff of injection to prevent emissions, smoke and

clogging of the nozzles.

• Control of the initial injection speed to prevent noise and

emissions.

• Ability to provide rich mixtures for cold starting.

A traditional injection system with inline pump is shown in fig. 1.

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It is important to note that the low-pressure part of the system is common to all.
the diesel engines.

In general, the fuel tank is always below the level of

the injection pump, which makes it necessary to have a propelling pump that
supply the fuel at constant pressure to the injector pump. The filter
The secondary contains the pressure regulation valve and also removes the air.
and other impurities from the fuel, for the injection pump measure in a way
correct the amount of fuel to be injected. The injection pump is coupled
directly to the engine (at half speed for a 4T engine), and controls the
amount and timing of fuel injection fig 2. The amount
The injected fuel will depend on the load fig 3.

The maximum amount that can be injected before there is an escape

excess smoke will depend on the speed, and in the case of the engines
Overfed will also vary with the blowing pressure. The start of the
injection varies with speed, and with load under certain conditions
circumstances. When the engine speed increases, the
start of the injection to maintain the time almost approximately constant
of ignition delay. As the load increases, the delay time
I would reduce it for a fixed injection start, or for the same delay time the
fuel can be injected beforehand. This ensures that the injection and the
combustion is completed soon during the expansion stroke.

In multicylinder engines, equal amounts must be injected

flammable in each cylinder. At maximum load, the variation between them should not
exceed 3%. At idle, the variation can be greater (15%), since the quantity
injected fuel is usually very small (1 mm3 per cycle).

Regarding the shape and type of the combustion chamber in which it

inject the fuel, indirect injection was the technique for half a century
most used in fast diesel engines for light vehicles. The term
"indirect" comes from the fact that the fuel is not injected directly onto
the piston, but in the turbulence chamber (or in the prechamber) of a chamber

divided combustion in two parts [Link]

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Fig. xx.- Types of diesel combustion chambers. Open or of

inyección directa: (a) sin turbulencia. (b) turbulencia media. (c)alta turbulencia.
Split chambers or indirect injection: (d) with turbulence chamber. (e) with
pre-chamber.

The dynamic losses in the duct between chambers and the thermal losses
due to a relatively high heat transfer caused by surfaces
Wall sizes hinder the proper performance of this concept. For this reason
the manufacturers sought a way to adapt the injection system
direct, (implemented since long ago in vehicle engines
heavy, marine and large stationary diesel engines
small automotive. It was achieved after much research and
development to achieve a sufficiently gradual increase in pressure in the
open combustion chambers (not divided) of the engines turning at
high speeds.

In a direct injection diesel engine, the injector is placed directly

on top of the piston, where the combustion chamber is carved. The formation
a good mix is entrusted to injectors with several holes of
small diameter with very high injection pressures (at least 700 bars)
instead of trusting it solely to the turbulence generated by compressed air,
as in the case of engines with a turbulence chamber or prechamber where a
Injection pressure between 125 and 150 bars is sufficient.

Today, injection pressure has exceeded 1600 bars thanks to the

common rail systems and pump injector, both with electronic regulation,
replacing conventional mechanical systems.

The used diesel injection systems can currently be separated.

in four groups:

• Conventional system consisting of a fuel injection pump (inline or

common rotative for all cylinders and high-pressure fuel lines to
each injector.

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• Individual pumps (driven by the engine crankshaft) and lines of

combustible at high pressure for each cylinder.

• Pump-injector in which the pump and the injector are integrated into the same unit.

body for each cylinder, which eliminates the high-pressure lines.

• Common rail in which a pump supplies

combustible at very high pressure to a common duct or accumulator, with
electronically controlled injectors and actuated by actuators
electromagnetic or piezoelectric

The following scheme is an attempt to classify injection systems.

diesel according to the concepts of performance and hydraulic design. All the
cam-driven systems have been produced under mechanical control or with
some form of electronic control. The hydraulically actuated ones (common rail)
some are part in production (HEUI) and some have reached a high level of
development.

Fuel injectors

Directly fixed to the cylinder head by means of the injector holders, the
Injectors or nozzles introduce fuel into the engine in the best way.
possible for optimal combustion. This requires the fragmentation of
combustible in very small droplets, between 20 and 100 microns in diameter, and its
uniform dispersion throughout the combustion chamber

The nozzle must be adapted to the combustion process (pre-chamber,

turbulence chamber or direct injection), and geometry of the chamber of
combustion. Its design is crucial for achieving precision in the points of
opening and closing, in order to measure the amount of fuel to be injected and the
the way it is injected (number, shape, and atomization of the jets). The flow rate
injection is essentially determined by the openings of the nozzles and the
duration of the injection. There are two basic types of nozzles: blind hole and
drill in seat or VCO. Both are shown in figs. 4 and 5.

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Fig 4. Issued: Rounded nozzle and cylindrical blind hole. Allows great freedom.
regarding the number of holes, their length, and the angle of jet dispersion.
Dch: Conical taper and blind hole. The volume of the conical blind hole is smaller.
that the cylindrical

Fig. 5. VCO Nozzle. Here the volume of the blind hole has been reduced such that
in such a way that the openings can be closed and the fuel does not vaporize
residual. From the mechanical and fluidic points of view, this type of nozzles is
the most suitable for light automotive.

Other types of nozzles are shown in fig. 6. All of them have a needle.
that closes under the load of a spring when it is not spraying. The
Opening occurs due to the axial force exerted by the pressurized fuel.
about the conical surface of the needle. Needle valves are used for
prevent dripping after the injection has finished, in order to
control the emission of hydrocarbons.

The current trend of using four valves per cylinder, (even in

small diesel engines), improves volumetric efficiency, centers the position
from the injector providing better combustion control reducing emissions,
but reduces the level of turbulence. A low level of turbulence means that the
injector nozzles must have a greater number of holes to
disperse the fuel as widely as possible in the air. The more
the higher the injection pressure achieved, the size of the openings must
be as small as possible (from 0.15 to 0.1 mm in diameter). A problem that arises is

present according to the type of nozzle and related to the volume of fuel
what occupies the cavity downstream of the needle seat (blind hole) is that,
once the injection is complete, the fuel is heated due to the
combustion, favoring the creation of deposits in the nozzle and combustion
partial from this when entering out of time into the combustion chamber
causing an increase in emissions. One way to avoid this problem is to
use VCO nozzles like the one shown in fig. 5, in which the needle is seated
about the exit holes and this reduces the amount of fuel that can
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exit the injector once the injection process is completed.

In figure xxx, the combination of injector holder and injector is shown.

for use with classic inline pump systems or rotary distributors with
mechanical or electronic control. The injector holders can be combined with
various nozzles. There are two types: standard or spring type (fig. xxx), and injector holder.
of two springs (fig xx). In high-pressure common rail injection systems
in the injector-pump, the nozzle is integrated into the injector, so in
these equipment do not require injector holder.

The injector operates as follows: Before the pump

injection starts supplying fuel, the nozzle valve is
closed by the pressure exerted by the spring on the needle. Once the pump
the pumping career begins, the fuel enters at high pressure into the injector
and is guided through the filter rod in the body of the support towards the disk
intermediate and from there through the body of the injector to the seat of the body
from the nozzle. The fuel pressure is increased to a preset value
forcing the lifting of the needle valve, and the fuel is injected
through the injection orifices in the combustion chamber in the form of a jet
finely powdered. The injection concludes when the injection pressure
it falls to a value where the compression spring presses the injector needle
against its seat. The excess fuel is evacuated through the channel (14) to the
return duct (13).

To minimize the combustion noise level in diesel engines and maintain

reduce the mechanical load, it is necessary for the pressure increase in the chamber
combustion occurs smoothly.

In the case of indirect injection engines, this is achieved, first,

for the gradual injection of fuel using nozzle injectors in the
pre-chamber or in the turbulence chamber.

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For direct injection engines, an injector has been developed

two springs with different thickness, allowing the injection to be carried out in two
stages. The springs have been calibrated in such a way that the nozzle needle
It separates from its seat (race 1, usually less than 0.1 mm) against the
force of the first spring when injection begins. A small amount
fuel between 1 and 2 mm3 (the typical injection in an automotive engine)
about 70 mm3/cycle) is injected at low pressure. This pre-injection
known as pilot injection produces a smooth increase in pressure and creates
the conditions for the autoignition of the main amount of fuel.

As the pump supplies more fuel than can flow through the opening
from pre-injection, the pressure increases. The force of the second spring is

surpassed and the nozzle needle rises a distance H2 producing

the main injection of the cycle at high pressure.

Accurately predicting the behavior of fuel within the

The injection system requires very sophisticated hydraulic models. Without
embargo, the amount of fuel injected through the injector nozzle
It can be estimated approximately if the injection pressure is known.
(estimated or measured), and assuming that the flow in the nozzle is quasi-steady,
incomprehensible, and one-dimensional. Thus, the mass flow of injected fuel
is given by

where Af is the flow area of the nozzle by opening, Cd the coefficient of

download, ρf the fuel density, and ΔP pressure drop across the
spout.

The diameter of the nozzle holes is between 0.15 and 1 mm.

aspect ratios (length/diameter) from 2 to 8. The increase of the ratio
of appearance causes a jet that diverges less and penetrates more. The pressure
differential, which is invariably above 300 bar. produces a jet of
high speed (greater than 250 m/s) which becomes turbulent and extends
dragged by the surrounding air with which it mixes decomposed into droplets
of the order of 10 microns in diameter. The jet diverges due to the air inlet in
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its breast and the speed decreases. Figure 10.19 shows the structure of a jet
of pulverized fuel in a direct injection diesel engine and the
parameters that define it: the penetration depth (S) and the distribution of
drop sizes (Dd).

Many correlations based on experimental data and theory of

turbulent gas jet, has been proposed to predict the penetration of a
atomized jet through the combustion chamber without turbulence, (as
occurs in large diesel engines) as a function of time. A correlation
typical given by Dent for penetration is: where t is the time after the
start of the injection, and in the diameter of the nozzle opening.

A more recent work by Arcomanis has divided the penetration of

jet in two stages: before the breakup of the jet into drops (breakup)
where it behaves like a liquid and after decomposition what is
behaves like gas with the time of breakage or decomposition given by the effect
of the turbulence of the combustion air on the jet penetration
shown in figure 10-27a. It is noted that the shape, location, and penetration
The jet's characteristics vary with the increase in turbulence. The penetration of the
jet but disperses more quickly. Data is shown in 10-27b.
obtained from the correlation between penetration and SS turbulence and without

turbulence S where RS is the relationship between turbulence in revolutions per

minute divided by the engine speed N (rpm), and vj the initial speed
from the fuel jet (m/s)

We have seen so far that if the distribution of fuel via

the trajectory of the jet through the combustion chamber is important, the
Atomization of liquid fuel into small droplets is also necessary.
to create a large surface through which it can evaporate.

During the injection period, the conditions under which it takes place
such as injection pressure, nozzle orifice area, and law of
injection, may vary. Consequently, the distribution of droplet sizes
At a certain point of the jet, it can change over time during the
injection period. In addition, the details of the atomization process are not
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equal in the core of the jet and in its contour, the trajectory of each
It depends on its size, initial speed, and its location, with which
that the distribution will also vary with the position within the jet.
None of these variations have been properly addressed yet.
quantified. Most of the results obtained come from the
studies of fuel injection in constant volume chambers
filled with air at rest at room temperature.

The aerodynamic theory that the fuel jet disperses like

surface wave results allow the prediction of the average diameter
the initial of the droplets is proportional to the length of the surface wave plus
unstable where the surface tension of the liquid fuel is (N/m), vj the
initial speed of the fuel jet (m/s), and C a constant between 3 and 4.5

A convenient way to characterize the fuel jet is the diameter.

Sauter mean, which is the diameter of a droplet that has the same ratio.
surface/volume that of the total jet. where n is the number of drops in
each group with an average diameter D.

The choice of injector type and the number and size of the orifices are
critical factors that condition the proper functioning of the engine in all
operating conditions. The engines with indirect injection and the small ones
with direct injection have only one injector. Large engines with injection
Direct injectors can have several injectors distributed around the cylinder.

Online Bombs

After many attempts to develop a reliable system and

durable, the original technology that emerged was that of the pulsating or inline pump
that uses the principle outlined in fig.10, in which a moving plunger
by levers, it is used to pump the fuel (previously supplied by
a low-pressure transfer pump that fills the cavity in front of the
embolus) to the injectors through high-pressure lines. Thus, the mass
Injected is the independent variable and the fuel pressure is adjusted
conveniently.

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The beginning and end of the injection is determined by the relationship of the edge
upper end of the embolus and the lower helical groove with the filling openings
rebates practiced in the cylinder in which the piston moves with motion
alternative. The information about the time of the injection and the amount of
the supplied fuel was contained in the often intricate form of the
embolus, in combination with other design features, such as the profile
of the lever, flow in the injector nozzle and the configuration of the valve of
download.

The embolus moves upward, closes the entry hole, and, as

the fuel is incompressible, it quickly increases the pressure of it. It
create a pressure imbalance on the injector nozzle needle
causing its opening and allowing the fuel to discharge inside
of the cylinder. Once the pressure drops to a certain value, a spring forces
to the needle to lower by closing the injector.

Fig. 11. Use of a helical cut in the pumping plunger of a pump

button to vary the effective stroke. The zipper rotates the piston relative to
at the opening to measure the injected fuel

The injected fuel mass is controlled by varying the displacement.

of the piston. The helical cut of the piston opens the entry hole in a
intermediate position of this race. Through a pinion and a rack
the effective stroke varies by rotating the piston and thus the position in the
which allows the fuel to escape with the consequent drop in pressure and
end of the injection.

Until the fuel systems with electronic control start

to be available, the supply characteristics were determined for
the entire operating range of the engine (load, speed, altitude, status
stationary or transient, etc.) by relatively hydromechanical elements
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simple. For example, the torque curve could be manipulated by changing the valve.
of download, the injector nozzle, and the geometry of the piston. Similarly, the
the start of the injection programming was determined through the edge of
attack and the helical profile of the piston, opening pressure of the nozzle, and the
volume of the high-pressure line. As the demands on the engine are made
more restrictive, for example, smoke-free operation with supercharging,
or better driving, additional controls were added beyond the
basic characteristics of the injection pump. Examples of this include
compensation for altitude and blowing pressure, and reform of the torque curve.

Despite these limitations, such systems have been manufactured to give

an acceptable operation, and they are widely used today in engines
between 20 and 100 Kw. per cylinder that equip medium transport vehicles and
heavyweights, agricultural and construction machinery, etc. However, the
incapacity of this type of injection to meet the most demanding
emission requirements of the late 1990s have led to the development
of more sophisticated fuel systems with electronic control

Rotary pumps

Rotary pumps or distributors have a single element for measurement.

and pump the fuel. The pumping piston describes a movement
combined rotation and longitudinal displacement (stroke) due to the spin
from an eccentric dish. The fuel is measured precisely and distributed
successively to each injector through this plunger. These units are more
more compact and cheaper than inline pumps with several elements of
measurement and pumping. They have fewer moving parts and are
they avoid calibration problems in this way. However, they could not reach
the same injection pressure as inline pumps, which means its use is
became popular for many years in cost-sensitive applications, where not
high levels of performance were required for the injection system, for example
in lightweight marine engines, agriculture, power generation. Subsequently
they have been developed to be used in diesel injection engines
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directly, that equip passenger vehicles in the European market since

mid 80s to today. To achieve the necessary performance for
its application to passenger vehicles, these mechanical pumps have
very complex tornadoes, when performing control functions with simple elements
hydromechanical. Typical characteristics of mechanical control include
idle and high-speed regulators, temperature compensation
engine/environment, including excess fuel for cold starting,
control of the air-fuel ratio during transient periods, and of the moment
from the injection.

With the introduction of the European Union emission standards

for light diesel vehicles at the beginning of the 90s, better ones were demanded
performance in the engines that equip them. Consequently, the manufacturers
fuel systems developed advanced versions of pumps
rotary with electronic control and improvement of hydraulic performance.
Typically, the injection continues to be controlled by ports and pistons.
but the performance is no longer mechanical. Solenoid valves are used to
control the fuel pressure in the pump body and this
indirectly, it controls the amount and timing of its injection, as seen in
Figure 12. The solenoid valves are under the control of a central unit.
that monitors a series of sensors distributed throughout the engine and the system of
flammable, such as, engine speed, turbo boost pressure,
intake air temperature and coolant temperature, etc., providing a
total control of the engine including the recirculation of exhaust gases. By
for example, a sensor allows changes in the moment of ignition to be
detected, and the control unit can then optimize the moment
appropriate for injection

Fig. 12. Solenoid valves are used to control pressures of

fuel in the body of the rotary pump, and these indirectly control
the start and duration of the injection

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This generation of rotary pumps increased the pressure from values

typical from 600 bars up to around 900 bars. At high speeds the pressure
In the injection nozzles, it can exceed 1000 bar.

Future injection systems, capable of adapting to regulations

EURO-IV emissions will increase pressure in the system and control
electronic injection. Faster acting solenoid valves,
will operate directly on the fuel at high pressure to control the
beginning and end of the injection, reducing response times for
both events (figure 2xx). It is expected to reach pressures in the pump
greater than 1000 bar, allowing for the nozzles of the injectors to
get the 1500 bar at high speeds.

Interconnection of traditional pumps and injectors

The behavior of a complete injection system is influenced by the

length and diameter of the connecting ducts and due to the compressibility of
flammable.

Between the opening of the supply valve on the pump and the start
from the injection into the cylinder, there will be a delay of about 1 millisecond due to
length of the duct. To maintain this delay time in all
the cylinders, the length of all the ducts must be the same.

The compressibility of the fuel is such that an increase in pressure

at 180 bar causes a 1% reduction in volume. Incidentally, an increase
A temperature of 10 K causes a volume increase of 1%, and since the
Combustible is measured volumetrically, which would lead to a loss of power.
As the ducts are thin, the change in volume is small in comparison.
with the effects due to the compressibility of the fuel. Pressure waves
(compression and rarefaction) are formed and move at the speed of sound between
the pump and the injector, causing variations in the pressure that influence the
injection period, injection pressure, and even cause an injection
secondary, leading to an increase in fuel consumption, is formed
carbon in the injector nozzle and there is excessive smoke in the exhaust.

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Compression waves can be totally or partially reflected at the

it will behave like compression waves if it is closed, or as a wave of
rarefaction if it is open. During the few milliseconds that the period lasts.
from injection, the waves will travel from the pump to the injector several times,
being able to increase the pressure in the supply line and therefore the pressure
of injection, causing it to last up to 50% longer.

Figure 5.30 shows the variation of pressure in the supply line.

of the fuel in which there is a pressure wave after the injection
main that is sufficient to open the injector and trigger a second
injection. Secondary injection can be avoided by increasing the length of the
conducting or varying the fuel volumes in the pump or in the injector.

Another problem in injection systems is the dripping after the

injection.

Phenomenon caused by pressure waves when the injector should be.

closed. If not, some fuel enters the nozzle at a pressure
too low to form its own jet.

These interconnection problems disappear when using injectors.

unitary, since the injector and the pump are combined into a single element,
especially useful in large engines, where the ducts are large
length can be deleted.

Common rail electronic systems and pump injectors.

Common rail fuel injection systems and injector pump

they eliminate the problems associated with the connection of the pump and the injectors in

the traditional systems (with inline or rotary pump). These also have
the ability to provide a pilot injection (in order to control the
amount of fuel injected during the ignition delay), and better
characteristics in injection pressure. Fig. 3 shows how the pressure of
injection varies significantly with the engine speed in systems with
line pump, and as for low speeds only pressures are possible
injection drops, which limit the amount of fuel that can be

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inject due to the improper use of the available air in the cylinder, with the
subsequent decrease in torque at low speed. With injection systems
The common rail pressure control is independent of the rotation speed.
motor.

Figure 13 illustrates the differences of the common rail compared to a system

of low pressure. In this case, the piston is replaced by a needle valve.
what is raised more than forced down. This opens the nozzle through which the
fuel, which is already under high pressure, is discharged inside the cylinder.

Assuming quasi-steady flow of an incompressible fluid for the

combustible, the injected mass will be: expressed in terms of the angle
driven by the crankshaft during the injection time.

It is clear in this equation that to keep constant when the

the motor speed varies, it must increase or decrease the injection pressure
to keep constant. In fact, as the injection pressure is high
compared to that of the cylinder, it must vary with the square of the speed of the
motor.

This is a basic problem that needs to be solved when designing an engine.

diesel that must operate over a wide range of speeds:

if Nmax/Nmin=5 then Pf,max/Pf,min= 25

Thus, if at low speed Pf,min = 5 MPa, for good atomization and

Fuel penetration at high speed will require Pf,max = 125 MPa.
Nowadays, with the new developments in diesel injection systems
electronically controlled pressures can reach around 200
MPa, while acting on the effective area altering it with the speed of
turn

The alteration is achieved by varying the rise of the injector needle. A

example of an electronically controlled injector is shown in fig. 14a. The
measurement is initiated by the action of a solenoid-operated valve. The
The valve closure initiates the pressurization and injection of the fuel.
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The duration of the valve closure determines the amount of fuel injected.
Figure 14 b is a diagram of the needle lift as a function of
Angle rotated by the crankshaft. The injection pressure is around 50 MPa
when the needle opens, and increases up to a maximum of 85 MPa just before
that the needle closes. 14. (a) Electronically controlled diesel unit injector.
b) Injection pressure and needle valve lift

Systems with pump injectors.

Electronic control pump injectors were introduced in the

heavy vehicle engines at the end of the 80s. Although there is a
certain number of implementations with distinct characteristics, the
fundamental principle of operation and the inherent advantages concerning the
online systems are the same for any of them. A pump injector
with electronic control, it is a modular integrated system mounted directly
in the engine block. The fuel pumping element and the nozzle of
supply are integrated into a single piece, and the piston is moved from the
crankshaft, usually by a swinging lever. In the measuring injectors.
directly, the space between the piston and the nozzle opens or closes through a
very fast acting solenoid valve (injection periods on the order of
of 1 ms.). The valve closes to start the injection and opens to finish it,
This way, the timing of the injection and the amount of fuel are controlled.
injected.. Normally, the injection pressure is related to the
moment of the start of this, since the profile of the cam does not allow the amount
injected remains constant throughout the range of the distribution. The success of
the injector pump is based on the dead volume between the piston and the nozzle
injection is very small. This allows operation at very high pressures with a
relatively high performance.

Injectors capable of reaching pressures of up to are now in service.

1600 bars, and it has been proven that they could reach up to 2400 bar. Their use
it predominates in large transport vehicles, achieving the best ratio
between low consumption and low emissions of solid particles and NOx.

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Matrix: Sabanilla Oe6-133 and Elicio Flor - Phone: (593-2) 2597686–0996847539; 0960464407
Headquarters Sto. Domingo: Abraham Calazacón S/N and Los Geranios–Diagonal to the Council of the
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