DESIGN CONSTRUCTION OF PAVEMENTS ING.

SERGIO
Arrieta Vera

TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF CERRO AZUL

Civil Engineering

SUBJECT: DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF

PAVEMENTS

TEACHER: ENG. SERGIO ARRIETA VERA

UNIT 1 GENERALITIES OF THE

PAVEMENTS

TEAM MEMBERS:
SOLIS MUÑOZ MARIO
MORALES CRUZ JULIO CESAR
Diego Cruz Luis Manuel
Eduardo Salas Vigueras

CERRO AZUL JANUARY 30, 2015

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UNIT 1 GENERALITIES OF PAVEMENTS

1. BACKGROUND

The pavements are the superstructure of the roads; they are composed of
through a set of layers of different soil thicknesses, with
various characteristics, treaties, either mechanically through
compaction processes or with some binder or stabilizing agent,
relatively horizontal, resting on the subgrade layer they have
how functions:

Provide vehicles with a surface for driving.

comfortable, safe, uniform and permanent, according to its life of
project and with the proper maintenance.

They must withstand the efforts generated by the passage of vehicles

spreading them in such a way that the magnitude of the solicitations that
they are transmitted to the earthworks should be lower than the resistance of
these materials.

They must be able to withstand the action of the environment, about

due to the action of water and extreme temperatures.
To fulfill those functions, the pavements must have several
functional and structural characteristics, with the former being those that
directly affect the quality of the service they provide to the user of
the road network, while the latter refer to the properties, about
all mechanics of the materials that make up the structure of the
floor.

The functional characteristics are:

Surface regularity.- It refers to the deformations, both

longitudinal and transverse, with respect to the ideal surface.
It causes vertical movements in the vehicle suspension and
for the same reason it generates the most discomfort to users and their
times the one that most affects vehicle operating costs. Affects
also in safety since the deformations can cause
loss of control for the driver in addition to making it difficult to drain water
the tread surface, which increases the risk of
aquaplaning

Skid resistance - The texture of the surface of

the bearing must be such that it provides a friction coefficient
sufficient for the efficient operation of the vehicles at speed
of the project of the road still in the presence of precipitation.

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Surface drainage.- The combination of surface regularity,

transverse slope and texture must prevent the occurrence of a
water film on the surface of the pavement, as it facilitates the
aquaplaning phenomenon in addition to the dew generated by the
The tires of a vehicle while driving reduce the visibility of those around it.
they continue.

Reduce noise.- Noise is an environmental problem that generates

serious health problems, a well-designed pavement and
constructed can considerably reduce the noise
that is perceived both inside the vehicles and in their
environment.
A pavement project must focus on ensuring that it provides
required service, optimizing costs so that the solution
the proposal should be profitable. The cost analysis must take into account not
only the construction costs, in addition to these in the analysis
the costs of conservation, the costs of vehicle operation, and the
cost of pavement reconstruction once it reaches its useful life,
when comparing various paving alternatives it is necessary
that comparative analyses extend beyond the project life of
the longest duration option, so that when conducting the study it
include at least one reconstruction of this alternative.

1.1. HISTORY OF PAVEMENTS

In the world
The stone was one of the first materials that man had, already
that served as raw material for the construction of objects.

It is estimated that it was around 3000 B.C. that the Hilita Empire (on the peninsula
from Anatonia) built the first solid ground roads. Another
a highlighted antecedent are the paths taken by slaves
Egyptians around the pyramids.

The religious orders that flourished in Europe during the Middle Ages
they promote the construction of roads for pilgrimages, in towns
from France, Italy, and Spain.

In the mid-18th century, the use of lime develops in countries like

England, through the work of men like the engineer John

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Smeaton. Constructor of the Eddystone Lighthouse, Smeaton was one of the

responsible for the road change in the British city.

During the 19th century, England was a pioneer in implementing laws of

paving, with the creation of the Paving Commissioner,
dependent on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Its task was limited to the
care and improvement of the road network.

19th century Europe is characterized by a development in the

construction of paved roads. In towns like Tressaget (in
France) the first roads made of
large stones.

With the arrival of the Industrial Era, exploration is carried out with greater care.

making pavement routes using smaller stones

(cobblestones). The emergence of the automobile encourages the layout of
longer roads, suitable for the transport of heavy vehicles.

Tar is incorporated into the paving of streets in London and Madrid.

But the major advances in the field are happening in the United States,
through the manufacture of new asphalt layers, which allow for a
greater flexibility in the movement of cars.

The use of rigid pavements occurred in the United States, due to the
need of the Northern country for roads and passable routes for the
mass transportation. The demographic growth experienced during
The 19th century sought new ways of transportation.

It was the Scottish engineer John Loundon McAdam who invented the
"macadam", a new type of surface, suitable for supporting weight of
the renewed vehicles and cargo transports. Scottish engineer, to
principles of the 19th century Mc Adam publishes writings on his
discovery.

Macadam consisted of small gravel stones and layers of rocks,

what allowed for optimal drainage of rainwater. In 1830 it

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build the "National Road" in the State of Ohio, the first route
built under this method.

Starting in 1905, concrete began to be used as a material for the

construction of the roads, leading to the public works project
most important in history: the interstate highway system, with
a length of almost 28,000 km.

This transportation system connects all the major cities of

country. It was created in 1956, thanks to the collaboration of the government of
Dwight Eisenhower, after fifteen years of construction work.

The development of oil encourages the use of asphalt bitumens

for the construction of roadways and runways.

Starting from the 20th century, aviation develops at a rapid pace, because
what is necessary is the construction of runways that can support the weight of the
aircraft. The first airport is built in Amsterdam (Holland)
in 1912.

Starting from the 1930s, the rise of commercial aviation makes

necessary the construction of concrete runways at airports. The
the arrival of World War II expanded the number of runways
landing in European areas, in light of the urgency of the strategies
military.

The end of the 20th century sees new techniques in the development of new
roads that improve grip and drainage capacity against
adverse weather conditions.

In Mexico

In our country, the pre-Hispanic roads were not traveled by

vehicles as they consisted of simple paths of compact dirt,
filled with stones and limited by the surrounding vegetation, having been
located small segments of well-preserved roads and walkways, without
Some segments of roads have been well placed under embargo.
preserved, that arrive and leave from the main archaeological sites.

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Notable examples of this are the sacbés, white roads of the Maya.
which were built using sascab (limestone) as a foundation
altered), compacted with stone cylinders, and with pavement a
paving of the same limestone nature.

The Aztecs efficiently took advantage of the scarce possibilities.

of available transportation and developed a system of
communication that was essential for the conservation of the empire. The
main roads of Tenochtitlan started from the ceremonial center in
direction of the four cardinal points. Made with stone - and with
a width of up to 7 m and a length of up to 8 km – they reached the
north, west, and south shores of the lake. Beyond the city, the roads were
of earth and were formed according to the needs of each day. The
the roads of Tenochtitlan connected it with its tributaries; those who
they united the most important population centers, rather than going
directly from one to another generally passed through smaller centers,
except when the ground conditions allowed for communication
directly, like on the shores of the lakes of the Basin of Mexico. In the
Ancient Mexico, the roads ran through mountains and valleys, although they
I sought for them to be as direct as possible (that is, shorter),
ignoring minor obstacles such as hills or ravines that could be
crossed on foot.

At the fall of the Roman Empire and its segregation into small nations,
Communication between the towns partially disappeared. In that
Religious orders promote communication at
through the pilgrim paths in Spain, France, etc., taking charge
the feudal lords of the preservation and improvement of the roads in their
territories. In the Middle Ages, although on a smaller scale, it was common to
paving with stone slabs and also the use of stones of
smaller size as the surface for horse transit
cattle.

In Mexico, after the conquest, the Spanish way of doing things was imposed.
exchanges. This manifested mainly in the expansion of the
trade routes and the orientation of the economy towards the outside.
Both factors required a network of roads that complied with the
new economic conditions, while also taking into account the
geography. This new road network almost entirely replaced the
pre-Columbian routes due, fundamentally, to technological factors,
well, the pre-Hispanic routes, in the absence of pack and draft animals,
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little considered aspects such as the slope of the roads or the

closed off the curves: an aspect that they should have taken into account when
build routes along which loaded animals would travel and
carts.

At the end of the 18th century, a new technological vision begins to emerge.
urban pavements for transport improvement reasons. At that time the
The typology of stone pavements is very diverse. Some examples
son

Paving stone of 20 x 30 cm and 18 or 20 cm thick

settling on a layer of sand (figure 4)

Paving stone of 10 x 18 cm, 6 to 8 cm thick, jointed with

cement mortar on a hydraulic concrete base of 20 to 30 cm of
thickness (figure 5)

In the mid-18th century, Pierre MerieTrésaguet started in France the

construction of pavements made up of three layers of crushed stone

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by hand, the first two with a maximum size of 7.6 cm and a thickness
set of about 20 cm, on top of them a third one was placed
5 cm thick layer with a maximum size of 2.5 cm, these paths
they were built with lateral ditches and cross slope to accommodate
the drainage problems. This type of procedure was replicated by
Thomas Telford in Scotland at the beginning of the 19th century. Later John
McAdam introduced his paving system (macadam) constructed
with layers of stone of uniform granulation, with maximum size and
thicknesses similar to those used by Telford, agglutinating the
particles with applied ligands by irrigation.

With the 20th century begins the new era of pavements, the growth
The population and the industrial revolution made transportation necessary
of increasingly larger volumes of goods and people, with the
appearance of vehicles with internal combustion engines on the roads
terrestrial had to be modified to provide the service
required by these changes, despite the hydraulic concretes and
asphalt binders had been used rudimentarily by
A long time ago, with the development of the oil industry, it began
to use asphalt cements for the production of asphalt mixtures,
which are currently essential for paving.

Likewise, in the second decade of the 19th century, Vicat in his theory of the
Hydraulicity defines that by calcining an intimate mixture of limestone and clay.
ground together in wet form, a hydraulic lime is obtained. The
Vicat studies and the subsequent modifications that were made later.
they were used as a basis for the production of Portland cement,
which propelled the development of hydraulic concretes, currently
essential in the construction of infrastructure.

By 1930, there were 1,426 km, 541 km paved, 256 km surfaced, 629
Km of earthworks By 1935 there were 1,823 Km (28% higher than in 1930)
Roads and Bridges Directorate in 1917 By 1940, there were 9,929 km.
of which 4,781 km. (48%) were paved

The total allowable load in the vehicles was between 7 to 8 tons, while
currently reaches up to 60 tons. The pavement thicknesses
they were very modest (less than 40 cm in total)

In 1949, the National Committee of Local Roads was created.

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Starting in 1970, an accelerated process of relationship and birth begins.

of rural roads to connect to the trunk network. This as a
response to the demand that required the current development model in
that time

The Labor Evolution Roads program started in 1971.

historical, 1980s toll roads

Between 1989-1994, 2,500 KM of highways through private investment

By the year 2000, it totaled 323,065 KM. Between 2000 - 2006 Growth.
annual of 1.6% in total length

THE CITY OF ALAMO TEMAPACHE VERACRUZ, GOLDEN VALLEY

OF THE ORANGE; ACCOUNTS FOR 68% OF THE TOTAL OF ITS
STREETS AND AVENUES PAVED WITH RIGID CONCRETE AND
IN ADDITION, IT BORDERS THE NATIONAL HIGHWAY ALAMO-
Tantoyuca, which is built with paving.
FLEXIBLE.

1.2. TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

1. Asphalt or Flexible Pavements:

They are those constructed with asphalt materials and granular materials.

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2. Concrete or Rigid Pavements:

Pavements constructed with Portland cement concrete and materials
granular.

Others
Bricks, cobblestones, cement floor

1. FLEXIBLE OR ASPHALTIC PAVEMENTS

In general, they are made up of a thin layer of asphalt mix.

built on a base layer and a subbase layer which are usually
they are made of granular material.

These layers rest on a layer of compacted soil, called subgrade.

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In the upper layers where the stresses are greater, materials are used.
with greater load capacity and in the lower layers where the stresses are
Lower capacity materials are placed.

The use of materials with lower requirements allows for the use of materials
locales, resulting in more practical designs.

2. HYDRAULIC OR RIGID PAVEMENT

Rigid pavements consist of a layer (slab) of cement concrete.

Portland supported by a subbase layer, made up of gravel; this layer
it rests on a layer of compacted soil, called subgrade.

The structural resistance mainly depends on the concrete slab.

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The low levels of effort beneath the pavement make it unnecessary to have
resistant foundation materials, including making possible the placement of the
slab directly on the subgrade when the quality of the soil type allows it
allows.

It is very important that the support ground for the pavement is uniform,
without sudden changes in its support capacity.

In the rehabilitation of pavements, both rigid and flexible, are used

hydraulic concrete overlays (white topping) that not only restore
road and highway capacity improves their safety and comfort.

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1.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF PAVEMENT TYPES

1.- FLEXIBLE OR ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Regularity.- With the new transportation and laying equipment (figure 10) it is
it is possible to achieve very smooth finishes through continuous shots without joints
construction more than at the beginning and end of each workday.

However, in Mexican practice, outdated technology is still applied.

in the selection of materials, in the design of asphalt mixtures as
in the construction processes, what makes it difficult to achieve good finishes,
in addition, these same conditions combined with deficiencies in the project

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they cause some flexible pavements to exhibit deformations

plastics prematurely, thus affecting durability conditions.

Slip Resistance and Surface Drainage.- The resistance to

skidding occurs primarily due to the texture of the layer of
tread that provides a good coefficient of friction
tire pavement and a good surface drainage that prevents the
formation of a water film on the running surface,
thus avoiding hydroplaning. The texture, in turn, has as components
regarding friction to
the macrotexture, which is defined as the deviation that presents
its surface in relation to a flat surface of dimensions
longitudinal characteristics ranging from 0.5 to 50
mm, is mainly governed by the granulometry of the layer of
bearing.
the microtexture, which is defined as the deviation it presents
surface with respect to a flat surface of dimensions
longitudinal characteristics less than 0.5 mm, and it is
an intrinsic characteristic of the aggregate is precisely the
surface texture of the aggregate particles and tends to
reduce over time due to the abrasive action of traffic
vehicular and the climate, this decrease is known as
polishing, and depends on the mineralogical composition of the
aggregates, for example, limestone aggregates are very
susceptible to polishing
With a good selection of materials and current design technology
the construction of asphalt pavements now has a range of
options that allow for the achievement of excellent pavements
characteristics of skid resistance, taking into account both the
texture like surface drainage. The draining mats, the mixtures
of discontinuous gradation, systems such as SMA, CASAA, among others, and
even dense mixtures have been used worldwide with very
good results. There are also very good options for the
sliding surface problems based on treatments
superficial. However, the custom persists in national practice.
to use local aggregates for initial cost reasons, although not
have appropriate characteristics, in addition to the new technologies of
design and construction of mixtures are not yet sufficient
extended. Therefore, it is common to find surfaces with problems of
origin slip-ups, which worsen over time as they appear
the phenomenon of polishing and/or ruts that prevent adequate drainage
thus increasing the risk of aquaplaning.

Structural Capacity.- In Mexico, traditionally the pavements

flexibles have been designed for estimated project lives of around 10 and
15 years, however, mistakes in the projects, the use of materials
with insufficient quality, obsolete construction processes, control of
insufficient quality, lack of control over vehicle weights, among others

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factors have caused it to be common for pavements not to reach

to the expected useful life. In other parts of the world, it is common to find
that flexible pavements are designed to last between 20 and 30 years,
it is common to meet these expectations.
The advances in asphalt binder modification technology, in the
mix design and the use of better quality stone materials has
allowed that currently asphalt mixtures can be achieved with
resistances much higher than conventional ones, with current technology
it is possible to achieve blends with dynamic modules higher than
10,000MPa (more than triple what is obtained with a conventional one).
Likewise, these technological advancements have allowed, with designs
different from those of high modulus mixes, increase the resistance
to fatigue cracking.
The combination of these elements has allowed for a more rational approach.
in the design of flexible pavements, designing the pavement with various
types of asphalt mixtures, each designed to withstand the
most important efforts to which it will be subjected according to the position
that occupy the structure of the pavement. As mentioned
Previously, this methodology is known as long pavements.
duration (figure 8) that is being implemented in several countries
successfully, with life expectancies of 50 years, similar to those of the
rigid pavements. In Mexico, the first ones are being carried out
jobs with this technology, however, these first attempts have
designed with expected lifespans of 25 years, but the results have been
motivating, every time high modulus mixtures have been obtained
modules higher than 10,000MPa and the mixtures for the layers
tension absorbers met expectations.

Recyclable.- The reuse of asphalt mixtures that have been fulfilled with
its lifespan has been commonly used for a long time, the advancements
technological advancements have allowed for a wide range of options for the
use of materials recovered from rehabilitation work
of flexible pavements, these materials can be used, both in
structural layers such as on wearing surfaces, forming part of
hot mixes, warm mixes, cold mixes, in base layers
stabilized or as part of a granular base.
Maintenance.- Like any civil engineering work, pavements
flexibles require that maintenance actions be adequate and
timely to provide good service during the useful life
projected. Modern auscultation equipment can provide
abundant and accurate information to observe the conditions in which it
they find, both in the structural and in the functional, as well as the
evolution of these characteristics. Advances in technology provide
a very wide range of maintenance alternatives, both with
higher quality materials as in more efficient procedures,
additionally, the management systems, fed with information
adequate can be a very valuable tool to optimize the
application of the available resources.

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2.- RIGID PAVEMENT

Regularity.- With modern paving equipment (figure 11) it is possible to

achieve very good finishes in hydraulic concrete pavements,
Moreover, its great structural capacity allows them to remain without
considerable deformations throughout its useful life, however the
The presence of the boards affects regularity in some way. On the other hand,
It is common to find both projects on streets and secondary roads.
deficiencies such as inadequate construction procedures, generating
problems of regularity due to cracking, stepping, breaking of
tiles, etc.

Slip Resistance and Surface Drainage - The texture in a

concrete flooring is achieved through brushing, due to its
characteristics of coarse aggregate are usually not exposed to
contact with the tires, so the contribution of the microtexture to the
slip resistance, likewise the contribution of the macrotexture occurs in
the paste (sand-cement) of the concrete, due to the nature of Portland cement
it is a material susceptible to polishing, so the loss of strength to
sliding is relatively fast. There are milling machines with discs.
of diamond (figure 12), which allow, in maintenance actions, to give a
new texturing for rigid pavements with skidding problems.
As for the surface drainage, it is not susceptible to the formation of
A well-constructed rigid pavement allows for surface drainage.
very efficient.

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Figure 12

Structural Capacity.- In international practice, it is common that the

hydraulic concrete pavements are projected for useful lives of 40 to
50 years, in Mexico, project lives of 25 to 30 years are common.
well-designed and constructed concrete pavement, and with maintenance
suitable has excellent structural capabilities, however it can
to present premature failures due to construction defects, such as sealing of
efficient joints, misaligned sawing of the same, insufficient curing or
poorly placed joints can also be affected by overload
of the vehicles that circulate on the road.

Recyclable.- The great resistance achieved in concrete of

paving makes it a difficult material to demolish, complicating with
Hello the possibilities of being reused, however there are technological advances
which allow for more efficient demolition teams
rigid pavements. Among these techniques, in my opinion, rubblizing stands out,
which consists of the fragmentation or pulverization of concrete slabs in
particles with maximum sizes of 5 cm. The equipment used to achieve this is
a high-frequency, low-amplitude resonance hammer, the pulverization
It is achieved with a fracturing pattern like the one shown in the figure.
13, with minimal impact on the lower layers.

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Figure 13

Maintenance.- The maintenance required for a rigid pavement is

minimal, but that does not mean it is not essential, the joints without the seal
inadequate or untreated cracks can cause
pumping problems, chipping, and even breaking of slabs. It is very
It is important that maintenance is done with the materials and techniques.
appropriate, it is common to find that chipping in joints is
it involves placing asphalt mix, which becomes an obstacle to
the free expansion of the slabs when the temperature rises causing the
the problem is increasing.

1.4. STRUCTURES OF PAVEMENTS.

1.- FLEXIBLE OR ASPHALT PAVEMENT

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CUNETS: It is a trench or channel that is opened on the sides of terrestrial roads.

communication, like paths or roads and that due to its lower level, receives
the rainwater and directs it to a place that does not cause damage.
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SLOPE: It is the difference in thickness in a wall that is thicker at the bottom than
at the top, so that it can withstand the pressure of the earth behind it.

TERRAPLEN: It is the soil used to fill the ground to raise its level and
to create an appropriate support plan to carry out a work.

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2.- HYDRAULIC OR RIGID PAVEMENT

SUB RASANTE

It is the level of the road, after having made cuts and fills, by
So much so, it is what determines the movement of earth.

SUB BASE
Usually the subgrade conditions are very necessary and almost always.
they demand it. Its functions are:

Eliminate the pumping action.

Increase the support value and provide a more uniform resistance to the
concrete slab.
Minimize the effects of volume change in the subsoils.
rampant.
After selecting the type of concrete pavement, type of sub
base, if necessary and type of shoulders (with or without concrete shoulders,
"mordientes and gutters or integrated mordientes), continues the thickness of"
design, which is determined based on the following design factors:
Flexural strength of concrete (modulus of rupture, MR).
Subgrade resistance, or combination of subgrade and the
sub base (k).
The weights, frequency, and type of truck axle load, which the
the pavement has to support.
Design period, which in this or any other design procedure
the flooring is usually taken for 20 years, but it can be longer
the smallest.

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BASE
It is the layer that is placed under the concrete slabs and above the sub.
base. The base can be made of granular materials such as stone or
crushed gravel, sand and gravel, mixture or mechanical stabilizations
of soils and aggregates, or soil-cement, and even of products
bituminous and stone aggregates. The functions of the base, in the
concrete pavements, in order of importance are:
Prevent pumping.
• Help control volume changes (swelling and
shrinkage), in soils susceptible to experiencing this type of changes.
Provide a uniform surface for the support of the slabs.
Increase the structural capacity of the pavement.
Prevent the desiccation that occurs in granular bases under traffic.

CONCRETE SLAB

It is the surface layer of Portland cement concrete, that is, the slab in
yes, whose functions are:
Provide a high support value, so that it can withstand very well the
concentrated loads coming from heavy wheels, working at
flexion, and it distributes well to the existing material underneath.
Slightly non-slippery surface texture, even when found
wet, unless covered with mud, oil, or other material
sliding.
Protect the surface on which the pavement is constructed from
the destructive effects of traffic.
Prevent the water penetration surface.
Good visibility, due to its light color, provides greater safety to
nighttime vehicle traffic.
Great wear resistance, with low particle production of
powder.

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1.5. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS.

Rigid Pavement Flexible Pavement

Maximum 2 layers It is made up of several layers.

Reinforced concrete slab that absorbs. It has an asphalt layer and each layer.
all the effort. absorbs a certain amount of F.
Higher initial cost Lower initial cost
Smaller deformations Greater deformations
Lifespan is longer Lifespan is shorter
There is less friction on the surface of
rolling rolling
Lower maintenance cost Higher maintenance cost
Light gray Dark gray or black color
Discontinuity is created in the layer of The wearing course is practically
rolling, called joints continue
The execution time is shorter. The execution time is greater.

After understanding the differences between each one, we can see that
the flexible pavement has a lower initial cost in
comparison with rigid pavement that has a higher cost
initial, which can be offset by having a lower cost
of maintenance facing the other.

Although a key feature of flexible pavement is,

there is greater friction on the rolling surface,
giving greater security to the vehicles that would circulate on it
pavement system.

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FAILURES IN RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS.

FLEXIBLE FLOORING.

CRACKS AND FISSURES

Cracks and fissures due to fatigue.

They are a series of interconnected fissures with irregular patterns,

generally located in areas where there are load repetitions. The
Cracking tends to start at the bottom of the asphalt layers, where the
tensile efforts are greater under the action of loads, where
they develop a resemblance to crocodile skin. This type of damage is not
common in asphalt layers laid over concrete pavements.

Possible Causes:

The most common cause is fatigue failure of the structure or of the

asphalt folder mainly due to:

Insufficient structure thickness.

Deformations of the subgrade.

Rigorization of the asphalt mix in loading areas (due to oxidation of

asphalt or aging. Drainage problems affecting the
granular materials.

Efficient compaction of granular or asphalt layers

Deficiencies in the preparation of the asphalt mix: excess of

mortar in the mix, use of high penetration asphalt (makes
deformable mixture), asphalt deficiency in the mixture (reduces the
module).

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Poorly executed repairs, poorly made joints, and implementation

of repairs that do not correct the damage.

2. Edge cracks.

They are cracks with a longitudinal to semicircular trend located near the
roadside, they generally occur due to the absence of
berm or due to the level difference between the berm and the roadway.
They are generally located within a strip parallel to the edge, with
width up to 0.60 m2.

Possible Causes:

The main cause of this damage is the lack of lateral confinement of the
structure due to the lack of curbs, shoulder widths
insufficient or overfolders that reach the edge of the lane and
they are left uneven with the shoulder; in these cases, the fissure is generated
when the traffic flows very close to the edge. The cracks that appear
for this reason they are generally found at distances between 0.30 m to
0.60 m from the edge of the roadway

3. Longitudinal and transverse cracks and fissures.

They correspond to discontinuities in the asphalt layer.

traffic direction or transverse to it. They are an indication of the existence of
tension efforts in some of the layers of the structure, which
they have surpassed the resistance of the affected material. The localization of the
Cracks within the lane may be a good indicator of the cause that leads to them.
generated, since those that are located in areas subject to load
they may be related to fatigue problems of the entire structure
or any of its parts.

Possible Causes: The most common causes of both types of fractures are:

Rigitization of the asphalt mixture due to loss of flexibility due to

an excess of filler, or aging of the asphalt, occurs under low

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high temperatures or thermal gradients (generally above

30°).

Reflection of cracks from the lower layers, generated in materials

stabilized by cracks or existing joints in concrete slabs
underlying hydraulic.

Another cause for the formation of longitudinal fissures is:

Structural fatigue usually arises in the tracks of

transit. Other causes for the formation of transverse fissures are:

They may correspond to contact areas between cutting and embankment due to the
difference in stiffness of the subgrade materials.

Insufficient irrigation or total absence.

Insufficient thickness of the wear layer.

4. SURFACE DETERIORATION.

Deteriorated patches.

The patches correspond to areas where the original pavement was

removed and replaced by a similar or different material, either for
repair the structure (at the level of the asphalt pavement or up to the
granular) or to allow the installation or repair of any network of
services (water, gas, etc.)

Possible Causes:

Efficient construction processes.

Only the damaged area was covered without addressing the causes that led to it.
originated.21

Deficiencies in the joints.

Structurally insufficient patch for the level of demands and

characteristics of the subgrade.

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Poor patch construction (insufficiently compacted base,

poorly designed asphalt mix.

5. Patches on asphalt surfaces and surface treatments.

Cavity, usually rounded, that forms when detaching

asphalt mixture. To consider it a pothole, at least one of its
dimensions must have a minimum of 150 mm.

Possible Causes:

Structurally insufficient pavement for the level of demands

and characteristics of the subgrade.

Inadequate or insufficient drainage.

Construction defect.

Spill of solvents (gasoline, oil, etc.) or burning of elements

about the pavement.

6. Howling.

It is a depression in the area located on the trajectory of the tire.

of the vehicles. It is often found accompanied by a
elevation of the adjacent areas of the depressed zone and of fracturing.
A significant howl can lead to structural failure of
pavement and allow for hydroplaning due to water accumulation.

Possible Causes:

The Ahuellamiento occurs mainly due to a deformation.

permanent of any of the pavement layers or of the subgrade,
generated by plastic deformation of the asphalt pavement or by
deformation of the subgrade due to the fatigue of the structure in the face of the
repetition of loads. The plastic deformation of the asphalt mixture
tends to increase in warm climates, and can also occur due to a
inadequate compaction of the layers during construction, due to the
use of soft asphalt or rounded aggregates

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[Link] deformation.

Displacement cracks are caused by a lack of adhesion.

between the surface layer and the bottom layer. The lack of adhesion
it may be due to the presence of dust, oil, water, or any other
non-adhesive material between these two folders. Generally, the lack of
Adhesion occurs when a tie irrigation has not been placed.
Sometimes poor compaction causes the bond to break.
between the two folders.

Possible Causes:

Insufficient structure for the level of demands and characteristics

of the subgrade.

Inadequate or insufficient drainage.

Construction defect.

Spill of solvents (gasoline, diesel, etc.) or burning of elements

about the pavement.

8. Exudations.

This type of damage appears with a film or blooming of the binder.

asphalt on the surface of the generally glossy pavement,
slippery and usually sticky. It is a process that can reach
affect the resistance to sliding.

Possible Causes:

Exudation occurs when the mixture has excessive amounts of

asphalt making the air void content of the mix low,
it happens especially during times or in warm areas. Also
it can occur due to the use of very soft asphalts or due to the spillage of certain
solvents

9. Wear.

It corresponds to the deterioration of the pavement caused mainly by

the action of transit, abrasive or erosive agents. It is presented as
loss of the binder and mortar. It is usually found in the areas where
vehicles transit. This damage causes acceleration of the deterioration of
pavement due to environmental factors and traffic.
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Possible Causes:

Surface wear is generally a natural deterioration of

flooring, although if it presents with medium or high severities to
early ages may be associated with a hardening
significant of the asphalt.

Lack of adhesion of the asphalt with the aggregates.

Insufficient asphalt dosage in the mixture.

Intense action of water or other abrasive agents besides the

transit.

10. Loss of aggregates.

Also known as disintegration, it corresponds to the dispersal.

superficial of the wearing layer due to a gradual loss of
aggregates, making the surface rougher and exposing in a way
progressive the materials to the action of traffic and the agents
climatic. This type of damage is common in surface treatments,
case in which stretch marks may appear in the direction of the flow and must
to be reported as grooves.

Possible Causes:

Irregular application of the binder in surface treatments.

Adhesion problems between aggregate and asphalt.

Use of aggregates contaminated with fines or very aggregates

absorbents.

Rain during the application or curing of the asphalt binder.

Significant hardening of the asphalt.

Compaction deficiency of the asphalt pavement.

Contamination of the roadway with oil, gasoline, and others.

11. Undulations.

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It is a damage characterized by the presence of waves on the surface of

pavement, generally perpendicular to the direction of traffic,
with wavelengths between crests usually less than 1.0 m.

Possible causes:

The waviness is a plastic deformation of the asphalt layer, due to

generally to a loss of stability of the mixture in climates
warm due to poor asphalt formulation, use of soft binders or
rounded aggregates. Many cases can occur in the
braking or acceleration zones of vehicles. Another cause may be
associated with an excess of moisture in the subgrade, in which case it affects
the whole area of the pavement structure. It can also
occur due to the contamination of the asphalt mixture with fines or
organic matter. In this context, the most probable causes are:

Loss of stability of the asphalt mixture.

Excessive compaction of the asphalt layer.

Excess or poor quality of asphalt.

Insufficient crushing (fractured faces).

Lack of curing of the mixtures on the road.

Traffic action in braking and parking areas.

Sliding of the wear layer over the lower layer due to excess
of league irrigation.

Maintenance.
Like any civil engineering work, flexible pavements
require that the maintenance actions be adequate and
timely to provide good service during the useful life
projected. Modern auscultation equipment can
provide abundant and accurate information to observe the
conditions in which they find themselves, both structurally and in the
functional, as well as the evolution of these features. The advances
in technology they offer a very wide range of alternatives for
maintenance, both with better quality materials and in
more efficient procedures, additionally the systems of
management, fed with appropriate information can be a

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a very valuable tool for optimizing the application of resources

available.

RIGID PAVEMENTS.

Together.
Sealing deficiencies.

It refers to any condition that allows for accumulation of

material in the joints or allow significant water infiltration. The
accumulation of incompressible material prevents the movement of the slab,
allowing failures to occur, such as lifting or
joint spalling.

Possible causes:

The most common causes for seal material to be defective,

son

Hardening due to oxidation of the sealing material.

Loss of adhesion with the edges of the slabs.

Lifting of the seal material due to transit effect and

movements of the slabs.

Scarcity or absence of sealing material.

Inadequate sealing material.

2. Skipped meetings.

Breaking, fracturing or disintegration of the edges of the slabs inside

from the 0.50 meters of a joint or a corner and generally does not
extends beyond that distance. Moreover, it does not extend
vertically through the slab but intersect the joint at an angle.

Possible causes:

Chipping occurs as a result of various

factors that can act alone or in combination; excessive
stresses at the joints caused by traffic loads and/or by
infiltration of incompressible materials; weakness of concrete in the

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proximity of the joint due to excessive overfinish

disturbance during the execution of the meeting; deficient design and/or
construction of the load transfer systems of the joint;
water accumulation at the joint level.

3. Separation of the longitudinal joint.

Corresponds to an opening in the longitudinal joint of the pavement. This

the type of damage occurs in all types of rigid pavements

Possible causes:

Differential contraction or expansion of slabs due to the absence of

anchor bars between adjacent rails.

Lateral displacement of the slabs caused by settlement

differential in the subgrade

. Absence of shoulders

Cracks.
[Link] cracks.

It is a crack that intersects the joint or edge that delineates the slab to a
distance less than 1.30 m from each side measured from the corner. The
corner cracks extend vertically through the entire
thickness of the slab.

Possible Causes:

They are caused by the repetition of heavy loads (concrete fatigue)

combined with the draining action, which weakens and erodes the support of
the foundation, as well as by a deficient transfer of
loads through the joint, which favors the occurrence of high levels
corner deflections.

[Link] Cracks.

Fracturing of the slab that occurs approximately parallel to the axis

from the road, dividing it into two planes.

causes:

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They are caused by the repetition of heavy loads, loss of support of

the foundation, gradients of tensions caused by changes of
temperature and humidity, or by the deficiencies in the execution of these
and/or its longitudinal joints. Frequently, the absence of joints
longitudinal and/or slabs, with excessive width/length ratio,
they also lead to the development of longitudinal fissures.

6. Transversal cracks.

Fracture of the slab that occurs approximately perpendicular to

axis of the floor, or at an angle to it, dividing it into two.
plans.

Possible Causes:

They are caused by a combination of the following factors: excessive

repetitions of heavy loads (fatigue), deficient support of the slabs,
foundations settlements, excessive length/width ratio of the
deficiencies in the execution of these. The absence of joints
transverse slabs or slabs with an excessive length/width ratio,
they lead to transverse or diagonal fissures, regularly distributed
or close to the center of the tiles, respectively. Variations
Significant changes in the thickness of the slabs also cause cracks.
transversals.

7. Superficial deterioration.

Cracking due to shrinkage (mesh type).

It is the breaking of the surface of the slab to a depth of the order

from 5 to 15 mm, due to the detachment of small pieces of concrete.
Capillary fissures refer to a mesh or network of superficial fissures.
very fine, which extends only to the surface of the concrete. The same
that tend to intersect at angles of 120º.

Possible causes:

Capillary fissures are generally the result of an excess of

finish of the fresh concrete placed, producing exudation of the
mortar and water, resulting in the surface of the concrete being
very weak against retraction. Capillary fissures can evolve
in many cases due to traffic, giving rise to the
peeling of the surface, allowing for chipping that

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It progresses both in depth and in area. They can also...

chipping manifestations can be observed in pavements of
reinforced concrete, when the reinforcements are placed very close to the
surface.

8. Disintegration.

Progressive disintegration of the pavement surface due to loss of

fine material detached from the sand cement matrix of the concrete,
causing a rough running surface and eventually
small cavities.

Possible causes:

They are caused by the abrasive effect of traffic on concrete.

poor quality, whether due to the use of inadequate dosages (low
cement content, excess water, inappropriate aggregates
granulometry), or due to deficiencies during its execution
segregation of the mixture, insufficient densification, defective curing,
etc.

9. Baches

Decomposition or disintegration of the concrete slab and its removal in

a certain area, forming a cavity with irregular edges.

Possible causes:

Potholes are caused by a combination of several factors: foundations and

unstable lower layers; thicknesses of the pavement structurally
insufficient; construction defects; water retention in areas
sunk and/or cracked. The abrasive action of traffic on sectors
located in areas of greatest weakness of the pavement or over areas where
Block fissures have developed, reaching a high level.
of severity, causes the disintegration and subsequent removal of part
from the surface of the pavement, creating a pothole.

10. Other damages.

Localized lifting.

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Abrupt elevation of the pavement surface, located

generally in areas adjacent to a joint or transverse fissure.

Possible causes:

They are caused by a lack of expansion freedom of the slabs.

concrete, the same that mostly occur in the vicinity of the
transverse joints. The restriction on the expansion of the slabs can
to generate considerable compressive forces on the joint plane.
When these forces are not completely perpendicular to the plane
from the board or are eccentric to its section, they can cause
the lifting of the slabs adjacent to the joints, accompanied
generally due to the breakage of these slabs.

11. Scaling of joints and cracks.

It is a failure caused by traffic in which a slab of the pavement has

one side of a joint has a height difference compared to a slab
neighbor; it can also manifest in correspondence with cracks.

Possible causes:

It is partly the result of the ascent through the joint or crack of the
loose material coming from the lower layer of the slab (in the direction of
the traffic circulation) as well as by depression of the end of
the rear slab, when decreasing the foundation support. They are
manifestations of the pumping phenomenon, changes in volume that
the soils suffer under the concrete slab and from a deficiency
load transfer between joints.

12. Deteriorated patches.

A patch is an area where the original pavement has been removed and
replaced, either with a similar material or eventually different,
to repair the existing pavement, also a patch by
repair of public services is a patch that has been implemented to
allow the installation or maintenance of any type of public service
underground. The patches reduce the serviceability of the track, to
time that can constitute indicators, both of the intensity of
maintenance demanded by a road, such as the need for
reinforce its structure. In many cases, the patches, due to
Poor execution gives rise to new failures.

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Possible causes:

In the case of asphalt patches, insufficient structural capacity of

patch or poor construction of it.

In replacement for new concrete slabs of similar thickness to that of the

existing pavement, insufficient load transfer at the joints of
contraction or poor construction.

In patches with small concrete dimensions, less than a

slab, curing shrinkage of the patch concrete that detaches it from
ancient concrete.

13. Surge of fines.

It is the expulsion of fines through the joints or fissures, this expulsion

In the presence of water, it is characterized by the deflection that the slab undergoes.
when passing loads. When expelling water, it drags particles of
gravel, sand, clays or silts causing the loss of the support of the
concrete slabs. Pumping can be evidenced by the material that
it appears both in joints and cracks of the slab and on the surface of
flooring.

Possible causes:

Presence of surface water that penetrates between the base and the slab of
concrete.

Erodable material at the base.

Frequent heavy vehicle traffic.

Inadequate transfer of loads between slabs.

14. Multiple fragmentation.

Fracturing of the concrete slab forming a wide mesh,

combining longitudinal, transverse and/or diagonal cracks,
subdividing the slab into four or more planes.

Possible causes:

They are caused by concrete fatigue, triggered by repetition.

of high traffic loads and/or poor foundation support,

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which translate into a sufficient support capacity of the slab.

CAP

Maintenance.
The maintenance required for a rigid pavement is minimal, but
it does not cease to be essential, the meetings without the appropriate stamp or
untreated cracks can cause problems with
pumping, chipping and even breaking of slabs. It is very
It is important that the maintenance is done with the materials and the
appropriate techniques, it is common to find that chipping in
they are attended to by placing asphalt mix, which turns into
an obstacle to the free expansion of the slabs when rising the
temperature causing the problem to increase

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asphalt Institute, Manual MS-22 Construction of Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements, Lexington,
KY 40511, USA., (2001)
Rico, A. and Del Castillo, H., Soil Engineering in Land Routes, Volume 1 &
2, Ed. Limusa, S.A., Mexico City, (1978).
Huang, Y, Pavement Analysis and Design
Yoder, E & Witczak, M., Principles of Pavement Design, John Wiley and Sons, USA.
1975

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Zárate Aquino, M. Flexible Pavement Design First Part, Mexican Association

from Asfalto, Mexico City, Mexico (2003)
Fonseca R., Carlos et al, Structural Project of Asphalt Pavements, Association
Mexican Institute of Civil Engineering for Land Transportation, Mexico City, Mexico (2011)

UNIT 1 GENERALITIES OF PAVEMENTS Page 39