AUTONOMOUS UNIVERSITY OF GUADALAJARA

Professional Ethics

Summary of the book 'Course on Ethics'

Marta Hanna

Mónica Aidé Gil Espinosa

2560256

Professor: C.P. Miguel Ángel Rolón

Zapopan, Jalisco.
February 27, 2016
 CHAPTER 1: ANTIQUITY

Socrates. The necessity of the ethical approach.

The concern for morality predates Socrates. However, it was Socrates

the first to fight the battle against the subjectivism of the sophists seeking
to make men understand that there are objective truths, common to all
men.

Socrates understood that the crisis being experienced at that time in Athens was
due to moral causes, as every social crisis is produced by man. It is
he, the one who, through his actions, causes the subversion of values until
then imperative.

Socrates' proposal implies the need for ethical reflection and this
summarize in three points:

1. Reflection of man on himself:

Know yourself is a call to introspection, to the discovery of

the deep ignorance that affects us. Ignorance of ourselves, in
first place, and the ignorance of the universal and general norms that must
to guide our behavior.

This invitation to interiority is personal, it is directed to the concrete man.

Socrates speaks to his contemporaries and invites them to seek the truth that resides
within the man, not the truth of each one but the perception of something
common that exists independently of each of us.

2. Love for the truth:

It translates, first of all, into recognition of one's own ignorance. Love for
The truth is to give up pretending to know what one actually ignores.
Furthermore, this love for the truth is:

1). Self-acceptance, what we are, weaknesses, limitations,

defects and etc.

Recognition of the truth of things, what things are.

3). From the truth of human life, what must be to be complete

human.
3. Ethical considerations regarding man and his life:

Only in regard to man can we speak of ethics or morality, and only he can
freely direct oneself towards one's own end, towards that perfection to which one
order by nature. A reflection on man entails a
consideration of the free action of the same, by reason of which it is a subject
responsible for accountable. Man has the ability to conduct himself,
to address oneself, to order one's actions. For this reason, he is the only being who can
self-degenerate.

In this, Socrates sees the deepest root of the crisis. A society enters into
crisis when men lose the direction of their lives, the connections
existential with those realities that sustain and allow them
identify themselves, distinguishing themselves from others.

Therefore, to overcome any social crisis, it is necessary to start with the

man and his moral recovery by himself.

Three are the key themes of his moral teaching: Happiness, virtue and the
good. The three founded on their vision of man, whom they have discovered as
the only one of the beings in this world that can live like the gods, since
that is endowed with consciousness and is capable of freedom. Socrates understood that
Freedom is not only the absence of external constraints, but it is a capacity.
interior of choosing, unconditionally, the best good.

Socrates firmly believed in the immortality of the soul. Questioning about

of the things that make man happy, he affirmed that everything that is useful or
delightful for one, is able to make him happy. Wealth, health, and beauty,
nobility, power, and wisdom, all these are things that, whether because
They serve to achieve something else that is desired or because of their position, it follows that...

joy.

Everything that is useful and delightful is good, but not using it in any way.
In a way and without measure, to be happy, man must learn to use them.
moderately, otherwise it can become a pleasure.

The ethical approach of Plato and Aristotle.

The strong personality of Socrates and the coherence between his thought and his
life, exerted a great influence on Athenian society and, in particular, on
his young disciples. Some of his disciples will give rise to schools
minors, which did not gain much relevance.

At the age of approximately 60, Socrates became the teacher

of the young Plato, who has gone down in history as the disciple of Socrates. A
In turn, when Plato turns 60 years old, the brilliant will arrive at the academy.
Aristotle, who would come into contact with the thought of the first through
the dialogues of his master. And so for both, Socrates will appear as the
prototype of the prudent man, one who possesses and lives according to phronesis.

Of all the men from that era we have been able to know, Socrates has
was the best and also the wisest and the fairest. This is the image he left of
himself: like the best of men, the most virtuous, the wisest, the most
prudent.

Plato was smart enough to understand the

thought of his teacher and enrich it with his own contributions. He developed
a new, different thought, known as Platonism.

Since virtue is understood, in the first place, as a science, the

Purification is achieved through philosophy. For we cannot attend to two
things at the same time, it is necessary to set aside the consideration of things
from this world to fix our mind on ideas; this is only possible by
What philosophy seeks. Philosophy thus becomes the path of purification by
excellence.

As his teacher, Plato also understands that without virtue there is no happiness.
a vicious person may enjoy many things, but they will always remain dissatisfied and in
deep down, it will never be happy.

Plato understands that each part of the soul must have its own virtue. He is the
first that discovers and enunciates the four cardinal virtues, whose
the definitive systematization that Aristotle will carry out.

A man's life must, if he wants to achieve happiness, be oriented towards the good.
purifying themselves through the philosophy and practice of virtue, to become
able to contemplate it, in such a way that these two means complement each other
purification which, in man, eventually become somewhat identified.

Happiness appears as a reward received by those who seek to fulfill in their

life the goodness and beauty of her soul, making herself similar to the divinity,
because you desire and seek friendship with the divinity, which can be achieved if
he strives to acquire virtues and ascend through philosophical contemplation,
until the good.

Socrates and Plato agree that happiness is demonstrable.

man is to resemble, as far as possible, the divinity, which is
There is no happiness without virtue, without self-control. Aristotle takes up the
four virtues presented by Plato, systematizes and orders them
definitely.
There are various levels and vital strata in man to which it corresponds.
own assets. Man lives and feels, it is the level of physical-psychic life.
that require goods of this kind, which are essential for the conservation of the individual and
of the species, moreover man thinks and is capable of conducting himself.
The goods corresponding to the first level, that of psycho-physical life, are the
more urgent, the essentials for living, but they do not make it human
the life of man is only made possible by them. The ethical-legal goods are already
properly human, but those that perfect man in what
specifically human, are spiritual goods.

Hence, the happiness of man, although it requires in this life all of the
the aforementioned goods consist properly in contemplating God and rejoicing in
Hello, something that is possible for man because he has something divine: his intelligence.
it makes him resemble the gods.

Only in this contemplation of God does Aristotle find the supreme good of
man, because only that which can be called the highest good is:

Perfect, whole, without a mix of evil, sufficient, gratifying.

Loved by oneself, true ultimate end of all actions.
3. Present, for the mere possibility of acquiring it is not enough; for it to be...
Full happiness requires the current possession of the supreme good.

Capable of making man good, that is to say, not only perfect but also
possible to perfect.
Stable, so that once achieved, its possession is continuous.
6. Providing the highest power of man, that is, his
intelligence and for that reason, possible for every man, according to his ability, already
from this life.
However, Aristotle notes that this theoretical or contemplative life seems
exceed the powers of man.

Well then, in all his actions, man seeks a good, of which

consequence where happiness and pleasure follow. But, this happiness is not a
gift from the gods nor is it a result of chance; it is a conquest. It is in the power of the
man to achieve it through asceticism, through the struggle and practice of the
virtue.

Virtue is the balance between two vicious extremes, one of which is

by default and the other by excess; it is the middle ground between too little and too much. Thus, the
prudence is the right balance between perplexity and haste, just like
justice is the mean between weakness and iniquity, selfishness, etc. The
Fortitude establishes a balance between a vice, cowardice, and an excess.
The Hellenistic-Roman philosophy.

After the death of Aristotle and the disbandment of Alexander's army,

Greece is entering a clear decline. On the other hand, world power is
moves to Rome. This will provoke a new change in philosophical interest.
There will be no discussion of Greek philosophy, but rather Hellenistic-Roman.

In Hellenistic-Roman philosophy, two main stages can be noted;

first, where the ethical problem prevails and the intellectual center remains,
initially in Athens; and the second, where the concern shifts to
religious sphere and the intellectual center, to Alexandria in Egypt and to Rome. To the
the first stage corresponds to four schools: Epicurean, Stoic, Skeptical and
eclectic. The second belongs to the different currents of Neoplatonism.

The moralist schools of decadence.

Epicureanism.

Founded by Epicurus of Samos in Athens, as the school of the garden and that
it survived until the 4th century of our era. It has in common with the other schools
contemporary to reduce philosophy to an ethics, conceived as the science
of happiness.

To begin with, Epicurus warns that there are four ideas that disturb man,
immersing him in restlessness and preventing him from enjoying. Such ideas are: the fear of
the gods, the fear of death, the desire to enjoy and the sorrow of pain.
philosophy as he conceives it will be the science that allows man to free himself
of these four ideas, addressing fear; by the path of philosophy,
the wise understands:

1. That the gods live too happily to worry about men;

Therefore, it is absurd to expect prizes from them or fear punishments.

2. That death brings the loss of sensitivity; if there is death, already

there is no pain, when we exist, death does not exist, and when she
If it exists, we cease to exist.
3. With this, the other two difficulties are also eliminated, for the
The wise no longer seeks positive pleasure nor fears pain. On the contrary, they rise up.
in search of a serene and lasting inner pleasure and negative, that eliminates
the desire for pleasure and the sorrow of pain.

Epicurus distinguishes two types of pleasures:

1. The positive pleasure that follows from the satisfaction of a need, in

against the negative pleasure which is the absence of need and joy
what this produces.
2. Sensible pleasure, always limited and fleeting, contrary to internal pleasure, which
it is more stable and susceptible to the will.

Stoicism.

Contemporary of Epicurus, Zeno of Citium was the founder of the school of

door, which emerged in Athens, as the heir of the asceticism of the cynics and of
dynamism of Heraclitus.

The Stoic ideal is the imperturbability of the spirit enjoyed by one who has achieved
to perfectly master the passions. That's precisely what it's about, as it
it has passions for disordered movements and therefore morally
bad.

Three historical stages can be identified in Stoicism.

1. The Athenian stage, which corresponds to the emergence of this school, the
primitive stoicism, with Zeno at the helm.
2. The intermediate stage, without much weight, in which it merges with eclecticism.

3. The Roman stage in which Stoicism was enriched and deepened.

he found his brightest exhibitor, the Cordoban philosopher Seneca.
Skepticism.

More than a school, skepticism is an attitude towards life that

usually appears in times of decline and crisis. When everything is
crumbles, when it seems that everyone lies, that everything is the same, easily one
instills doubt and disbelief in the heart of man, the result of his own
insecurity.

In Greece, skepticism was established as a school, contemporaneously with the two.

previous and as a result of the prevailing confusion and decay.

Pirrho of Elis was his initiator in Athens and disputed with Stoics and Epicureans.
academics and peripatetics.

The skeptical stance tends not to judge things tranquilly in what is debatable.
Do not get into deciding what is true and what is not, as everything involves turmoil.
of mood, and eventually, also, frustration.

Just as it is not possible to know for certain what is true, it is also not possible to
to know where good is and where evil is.

Eclecticism.

The confrontation of the various moralist schools, to which were added the
academics and the peripatetics, also decadent.
After the conquest of Greece, Rome comes into contact with philosophy, the
moralist schools spread among the Roman nobles.

Cicero collected and popularized among the Romans the teachings of the philosophers
Greeks, thus contributing to the formation of the Latin philosophical language, until
then practically non-existent.

His great contribution is made to the legal world, with his distinction of the three
rights and teachings about natural law. This is an expression of the
divine intelligence that governs all; hence its eternity and immutability.
Cicero admitted the existence of a single God, spirituality, and immortality.
of the soul and the freedom of will.

The metaphysical-religious schools.

Adopting the division of history established by the Enlightenment thinkers of the eighteenth century,
we can talk about philosophy in the last times of ancient age, it is
to speak of the centuries I to V of our Christian era.

Ethics yields its place to religion. Philosophy ceases to be moral philosophy to

to become religious metaphysics. It is the time of the predominance of ideas
religious.

Man naturally seeks God, and if he does not unite with the true God...
religion, raises an idol and worships it; It makes a God to its measure.

Neoplatonism.

Alexandrian Neoplatonism has its greatest exponent in Plotinus, an Egyptian.

educated in Alexandria, who knew how to bring together in a brilliant and original synthesis,
elements of Greek philosophy, particularly from Plato hence the name,
but also from Aristotle and Stoicism, from Eastern spiritualism and from the
pagan religiosity.

With Neoplatonism, philosophy definitively stops being a task.

intellectual to become a religious way of life. In the line of
Platonic thought, Plotinus understands that true human wisdom is
philosophy and Plato, the wisest of mortals. Religion is nothing other than
that philosophy popularized, through the introduction of accessible images to
the uneducated.

Like the ancient physicists, Plotinus also seeks the answer to the question
First: What are things made of? And answer that all things
they proceed from God by emanation. The God of Plotinus is far from being the God of
Aristotle.

Gnosticism
With open opposition to Christianity, it is a metaphysical expression of
religious syncretism of the Hellenistic sphere that has been encountered with the
Christian religion and wants to don its expressions, naturalizing them.

CHAPTER 2: CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY

When we observe that at a specific moment in history of the

humanity, in a very precise place, whose limits can be established with
clarity seemed to awaken a handful of men who, freeing themselves from mere
empiricism, they set out to conquer the knowledge of the world, making
almost all the sciences and disciplines of the human spirit arise, we cannot
less than to surprise us.

Paul of Tarsus (+64)

Saul or Paul was not a philosopher. It does not seem that the consideration of his
lessons can have a place in the history of ethical thought. But
whoever wishes to understand European thought from the 1st century onward must
approaching the Pauline writings.

In his writings, many of which are preserved, there is a new

moral unique to Christians, quite elaborate. Similar to the
classical thought, we also find here as a key theme that of the
happiness, referred to as bliss, which is definitively acquired a
soteriological character.

Saint Paul summarizes Jewish morality in the observance of God's law in view
of the rewards given to the faithful and out of fear of the punishments and curses that
message about the wicked.

Christian morality is based solely on faith in Jesus Christ. To

establishing this foundation, Saint Paul cannot avoid the clash with wisdom
pagan and with the justice of the Jews; but he does not want to avoid it either, because
Those people only serve to hide man's sin.

In Jesus dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily.

He mystically, the Christian becomes by participation in divine life.

The Church Fathers.

Christianity is not a philosophy; however, it will give rise to a philosophy.

own. It is not the result of human intelligence, it is not natural wisdom
achieved solely with the forces of reason; but it does not despise reason and therefore
Hello gives rise to wisdom. It is not a theology, in the sense of
knowledge or science of God, as understood by the ancients.

The pagans had discovered that man's happiness lies in

to resemble God; but they would never have dreamed that God would become similar
the man to make him happy. They had understood that God is somewhat like the
good idea, but they were unaware that God is love.

During the following centuries, after what has come to be known

mistakenly the fall of the western Roman Empire, the wisdom of the
ancient teachings and the teachings of the parents will be saved from destruction and will
they will be transmitted thanks to the silent work of the monks and scribes.

Then Christian philosophy will enter its second period, the Scholasticism.

Saint Augustine (354 – 410).

Saint Augustine marked a decisive stage in the formation of theology.

Christian and general philosophy, of Western thought; he is the greatest moralist.
from the history of the church, along with Saint Thomas Aquinas.

In the West, the first to have thoroughly worked on the subject.

theological; especially in the domain of morality: development of a
Christian vocabulary, overall reflection on morality and original integration
of the principles given by ancient philosophy.

His thought is an original work that takes and integrates philosophical elements.
Greco-Roman with the Christian faith. After having sought the truth with
all his soul, and having fallen, even into skepticism, by embracing faith and the
Christian life directs all its attacks against that skepticism.

Saint Augustine weaves into his thought Christian and Platonic elements. Without
fully admit Platonic dualism, nor accept the preexistence of the soul
contrary to the Catholic faith. Saint Augustine, however, distinguishes between man
interior and exterior. The spiritual soul is the image of God; precisely for that reason,
being one diversifies into three powers, in the likeness of God, who is one and
trino

The three functions or powers of the spiritual soul are: memory,

intelligence and will. Through memory, man keeps himself present.
same, in the timeline. Through intelligence, one can know the truth, which
It dwells within and by will or love can direct itself freely
towards its end.
Diving into his personal experience, Saint Augustine speaks of the existence of
a natural tendency that makes man a seeker of God.

To achieve this good, man must purify himself. Saint Augustine takes up the
Platonic and Stoic teaching, on this topic, presents virtues as the
means for purification. Basically, its language is identical to that of the
philosophers; but the meaning is much deeper, for it has gone through the
cleaning of the gospel. The four cardinal virtues are, for the bishop of
Hippo, four faces of love, charity.

And this is not a virtue that man can acquire by himself, but a gift.
of God in the believer. Charity is nothing other than the very love of God,
participated in the men.

Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274)

Saint Thomas along with Saint Augustine are considered the greatest.
moralists of history. Pinckaers writes about this: 'The structure of the
the moral of Saint Thomas constitutes the most important historical fact for the
moral, in relation to its predecessors. With the theological sum, we have by
first time in theology and ethics a point of perfection that has been
reached and that will not be matched in the establishment of the principles and the
fundamental elements...

In his short life, he read the main Greco-Roman thinkers and the
Fathers of the Church, also knowing the works of the Arab philosophers and
his contemporaries. The argument from authority, which is one of the
characteristics of the scholastic method, it was only valuable for him regarding the
scope of faith and revealed morality, as it is based on God and that it does not
it can neither deceive itself nor deceive us and because that mystery is inaccessible to reason
human.

A true freedom, but also the strictest scientific rigor. Hence,

an authentic progress is discovered in your thinking, although it shows since
the principle its rooting to a set of realistic principles, it does not cling to its
own thought, but rather it rectifies and corrects its previous ideas
in specific points. The result of all this is the distinction between theology and
philosophy.

Theology is supreme wisdom and sacred science that has as its formal object
to God and everything He has created. Philosophy is the science of being and its object
Formal is being, as it can be known by reason. Philosophy has its
own certainty and is not based on the authority of anyone.

The theme of man and his ultimate destiny.

The Summa Theologica of Saint Thomas has been compared to a Gothic cathedral.
each detail is related to the others, occupying a place and function
specifies. The work of the Angelic Doctor that has a great resemblance to Saint
Agustin has an extraordinary unity and internal coherence, "Because it tries
reproduce the same movement of wisdom and divine action in your work
of creation, which culminates in man as the image of God and of his work of
government that takes God as its ultimate end and happiness for all
creatures, especially man, through his free will that makes him
owner of his actions and capable of enjoying God.

This provides you with an inner movement that descends from God.
even the creatures stop at that which is in their image and is called
to live in communion with their creator and to live the same life of God in God.

The parts into which theological sum is divided are:

The first part, about God, one and triune, creator and governor of all things.
things. Although it is theology, this first part opens with the five ways of
knowledge of God, which are metaphysical arguments, demonstrative of His
existence.

The second part. It is the morality that begins with the question about the
blessedness of man, studies human actions in themselves and in their
principles and virtues. Starting the study of morality by introducing the topic of
the ultimate end of man, which is nothing other than happiness.

The third focuses on Jesus Christ, the incarnate word, for through him we have
access to the Father. "Our savior and Lord Jesus Christ, freeing his people
of sin." However, this third part remained unfinished, as Santo
Tomás suddenly stopped writing.

"The first thing we must study is the ultimate purpose of human life; then,
what allows man to achieve this end or to distance himself from it; for they must
to take from the end the reasons as for what is ordered to him. And because we accept that the
blessedness is the ultimate end of human life, we must study first the
finally in general and then, the bliss.

First the ultimate end, then the means to achieve it, that is, the acts.
humans in themselves and in their principles; Finally, the study in particular
of virtues, intrinsic principles of human actions
Saint Thomas sees in the desire for happiness the converging line of all.
the men towards God. This ultimate goal, called beatitude, does not
it can be no created good, for only happiness can be called good fortune
well perfect that calms the appetite. Otherwise it would not be the ultimate end, if still
something desirable will remain. Moreover, the object of the will is universal good and
this is the only thing that calms the appetite and therefore nothing created is
universal, but rather only participates in the reason of good as long as it has some
degree of perfection, therefore only God can fulfill the will of man.

The most attacked point by the opponents of SantoTomás lies in the primacy.
about intelligence concerning will in happiness. Now, it is the
intelligence that acts as a final cause concerning the will, from there
your priority. But this priority should not be understood as a sense
exclusive, intelligence and will are interrelated and united, in relation to the
human act.

The Christian morality as exposed by the Angelic Doctor is characterized by three

things:
It is an ethics of freedom, not of prohibitions but of positive actions, it is
to speak, about virtues and gifts. Sins and vices are studied as opposites
to the virtues, but do not occupy a central place in Ethics.

It is a morality of love, not of obligation. Love and do what you want, for
when charity moves the acts of man, these can be nothing less than
good. This does not imply denying the existence of moral obligations, but rather
on the contrary, to give meaning to its fulfillment, thus fulfillment is not just a
formality, but rather results from a voluntary act.

It is a supernatural ethics, as it assumes the action of sanctifying grace and the

help from the current graces, as a vital principle of good operations and
supernatural, since it is precisely participation in divine life in the
soul. Thus, what was impossible for man becomes
possible, for nothing is impossible for God.

CHAPTER III: HAPPINESS AS AN IMPOSSIBLE

As we enter modern thought, the change will initially be minimal.

appreciable, but this small difference will grow larger over time
As time goes by. Thus, some of the main exponents of the new
vision, they had as the only first step to place happiness in a second
plain, but its final fruits will be the denial that man can be
happy, this desire will only be a useless passion.

The common denominator of Greco-Roman philosophical thought and theological thought

Christianity was to make ethics the answer to the happiness of the ultimate end.
man. Which referred in the first place to the fact that man has an end
the last which is its highest good, its perfection that when possessed causes the
happiness; in the background, that man has the ability to know that
finally and to love him, which implies will and intelligence; and in third place,
refers to the fact that man is free and can direct himself towards his end, but not
it can do it by itself, but it needs an extra force: the virtues and the
thank you.

The Ockhamite Break

It is said that with Saint Thomas, theology reaches its most complete expression.
mainly on the topic of morality, with the emergence of the Thomist school, without
embargo, this was not always faithful to Santo Tomás, which has generated
controversies, the most significant being that of the Franciscan school against
the Thomist, in which the former opposed the idea of intelligence over
the other powers of the soul and consequently also rejected the
primacy of the will and its proper act, love.

The English Franciscan, Brother William of Ockham, father of nominalism,

generates the first and deepest break with Greco-Roman tradition and
Christianity, giving way to modern philosophy, which affected philosophy and the
theology, laying the foundations for future Protestantism.

The effects of nominalism have been compared to atomic disintegration:

With Ockhman we witnessed the first atomic explosion of the modern era,
disintegrate the core of the human soul with its faculties from a new
conception of freedom.” Ockham breaks the relationship between freedom and the
triggering a chain reaction: The separation between faith and reason,
philosophy and theology, reason and freedom, freedom and nature, person and society,
among others.

Nominalism influences the conception of ethics, which will gain strength the
concept of freedom as the key to everything and to which a series of follows
consequences:

If only the individual is real, then individualism in the realm of action

Human will imply that each free act is an atomic unit, uncommunicable.
with none other. For this reason, it is not possible to establish an objective judgment of the
human acts in general, but rather each act must be judged in itself.
Each free act has its own purpose.

1. Freedom must necessarily come before intelligence.

It must necessarily be independent of any kind of trend.
whether natural or acquired. Hence the break between freedom and nature.

2. Outside the topic of happiness, the treatment of the

virtues, within moral matters. Given that virtues are habits
determined to act in a specific way, are opposed
then to freedom.

3. Eliminating the principle of purpose, human behavior is not susceptible to

moral judgment, One cannot speak of good or bad behavior. The only judgment
The valid moral is the one that pertains to each concrete act and takes into account the freedom of
which proceeds.

As can be seen, this is nothing more than a consequence of their voluntarism.

Denying the priority of intelligence over will, one must deny that the
will loves an object by virtue of the goodness it discovers in it, goodness that
intelligence knows and shows. If the relationship between will-freedom is
independent of intelligence, then, I do not love the good because it is good,
but loving causes the goodness of the object. This means according to
Ockham argues that nothing is morally good or bad in itself.

The Lutheran Reformation and the idea of double predestination.

In a history of philosophy, Martin Luther, the monk, generally does not appear.
German considered the father of Protestantism. This is because he was not
a philosopher, but rather a religious reformer. However, it cannot be
to understand Western thought of modernity if it is unknown
to Luther.

Luther was a man with a strong desire to feel in grace, justified and
saved. He was a man dominated by his passions and feelings to which
Socrates would call: A Slave.

Given his intellectual background, it could be expected that he would be an anti-intellectualist.

and so it was. He strongly opposed Aristotle and of course Saint Thomas.
He hated philosophy as an enemy of Theology, as he considered that the
human reason is incapable of knowing God. "Reason is contrary to Faith, it
it directly opposes faith, for which reason, it must be dead in the believers and
buried.

One of the first reasons to study Luther is the distinction he made

between ethics and morality, which remains current. By ethics, it will be understood
the principles and general foundations of human work and moral judgment,
while by morality we will refer to the more specific prescriptions,
referred to the customs that are considered good or acceptable in a
period or specific society.

Due to his experience, he concludes that concupiscence is invincible and the

identifies as original sin, which is susceptible to being governed by the
reason. Now, if this concupiscence as sin is indelible, this
it means that he has corrupted all men and that man then
it is naturally bad, so it cannot do anything good. From this one
It follows then that baptism does not erase original sin, it merely leaves behind
under natural corruption. So if man is naturally evil, then not
there is nothing that can be done to save us; But this is not correct, for it is
God is the only one who can work to save us.

The Catholic Church has always taught us that God wants everyone to be
men be saved and come to the knowledge of the truth, and this is what
will set them free. This love of God is effective and grants all men the
sufficient grace to be saved. On the contrary, Luther believes that God
he has predestined some for salvation and others for condemnation and there is nothing more
What to do since the die is cast.

The Protestant ethic spreads the following ideas:

There is no grace or virtues.

There is no happiness for all, only for the predestined.

3. Good and evil do not have existence in themselves in human acts, nor are they
better to comply with the law than to disregard it.

4. The only thing that saves is faith, being united with Christ through a feeling of
blind trust.

Only those works that are born from this feeling have value,
in accordance with the law or not.

Kant: The categorical imperative.

To understand Kant, three things must be considered. The first is that he had
Protestant and ordinary training, for which it is faithful to the postulates of the
moral of obligation. Second, he considered that to human knowledge
Only that which is in contact with its senses is accessible. For this reason, nothing
Can pure reason know about things like the existence of God. Without
embargo, to establish a morality, one must consider freedom as real,
immortality of the soul and God.

The philosophical thinking of man has three cognitive faculties: The

sensitivity, understanding, and reason. To pure practical reason, Kant the
will call.

The Kantian ideas were, first of all, the idea that the existence of the
morality is presented as a fact whose value is given a priori,
the one he calls pure law. It does not matter the object or the end, but the way in which it
the man drives.

The second idea is that theirs is an autonomous morality, as their own

will is law, and that according to Kant the only good is a good will,
what is an inner disposition to act. Furthermore, it is a formalist morality, for
it only concerns the form of the act, as long as it is fulfillment of duty, it is
to say, the fulfillment of duty, for the duty itself and it can only be fulfilled if
one has the freedom to do so, hence it is accepted that man is free and for
he can answer for his actions. To what morality demands rewards or
punishment, however, these will not be received in this life, which is accepted by the
immortality of the soul and a future life in which there are rewards and punishments.
In this way, one must admit the existence of a just God, who keeps account.
of human acts, to reward or punish according to what they deserve.

Utilitarian positivism.

Hand in hand with empiricism, an ethical movement called arose in England.

utilitarianism, as it is based on reducing good to what is useful. This current has
As a basis of hedonism: Man, being an animal, moves in search of pleasure.
as the end of all his actions. Now, what brings him pleasure is that which
it is useful to him, thus each one seeking what is useful to him, it is possible to achieve a state
well-being for all.

Existential amoralism.

With Jean Paul Sartre, ethics seems to come to an end. Based on his conception
of man as a being that "is what it is not and is not what it is," there is no
there are no objective norms or values, but there are also no transcendent goods or ends
toward which to go. The moral character is subjective, dependent, and created
by the same man according to his situation, therefore each one can
to choose your existence freely and thus choose your value for everyone.

CHAPTER IV: THE ETHICAL PROBLEM NEED FOR THE PRESENTATION

MORAL.

Man as a moral subject.

A reading of human behavior, conducted without prejudices, in ideas

preconceived notions about man, allows us to notice those that
the ancients called physis or nature, which manifests as an order
appetitive towards those things that perfect or plan an entity, whatever it may be
the sea. This is what has allowed, since ancient times, to distinguish the healthy from the unhealthy.
morbid, the normal of the abnormal and the lawful of the unlawful in the moral domain
legal.

Man, like other beings, is also inclined, by virtue of

its essence, towards those goods that perfect it, however, man
he is the only one who can strive for his perfection knowingly, knowing that such
what is good because it benefits, because it brings it closer to its end. This is the effect of
the spiritual power of man, of intelligence and will, that allows him
to know its end and the suitable means to achieve it, for this man can
to be distinguished as a moral animal.
Endowed with intelligence and will, man moves himself in a way
particular: consenting and freely; this, not only by virtue of its natural form,
those of forms apprehended by him, known as good and desirable,
choosing the best among them. This is their particular way of organizing themselves.
perfection, a way of acting that is a consequence of its way of being or
nature. Being rational, man can know his purpose in terms of purpose and
the means to achieve it, but it can also deceive itself regarding its end and
the means, and thus distance himself from it. In this way, man appears as the only
an entity that can be voluntarily transformed or degenerated.

Concepts and types of freedom.

As all philosophers have understood, one can only speak of morality.

assuming that man is free, for this it is said that he is a moral subject and
therefore responsible for the effects that their actions produce.

The concept of freedom has varied over the centuries, but whatever the case may be
the way it is understood, in all cases, the essential thing is that it is about
an ability to act spontaneously, but this allows for various meanings, the
they are not identical but they are not misleading either.

Keeping in mind the meaning of the name freedom, it is evident that among the
animals, devoid of reasoning, there exists a pale reflection of freedom: Freedom
Physics. This physical freedom, like any other, has its limits.

Now, when we talk about freedom, we are referring to something more. This type
of inner freedom, that even a prisoner, a slave, a captive,
quadriplegic, etc., they can have it as long as it is sufficiently
detached from things.

Therefore, as Socrates said, a man may have free hands, but

being bound by their passions, their vices, their fears, hatred, etc. This type of
the freedom we refer to when discussing will, is psychic freedom. In
this is the foundation of morality and therefore also of law. For this reason, freedom
Psychic implies mental health and a certain psychological maturity.

In psychological freedom, the freedom of exercise is distinguished, which implies the

freedom to decide between acting and not acting; and the freedom of specification, which
it is the choice between doing this or that, taking this or that, giving this or the other.

Finally, we will talk about moral freedom, which is the real possibility of choosing.
between acting and refraining, to do this or that, but always within the
framework of what is lawful and convenient for the perfection of man. From this arise
certain consequences:
In the face of moral obligation, there is no freedom to default.

2. There is no moral obligation without freedom, since it is only in the capacity of

understanding and choosing the better good is based on the possibility of assuming certain
behaviors and reject others, as well as be accountable for their actions.

There is no moral freedom to carry out actions that violate the

human nature, distancing it from the perfection it strives for.

4. Moral freedom is not the freedom to choose between good and evil, since the
Evil is never chosen by moral freedom. It can be chosen by psychic freedom.

5. There is moral freedom regarding the way to fulfill obligations. It is in this

type of freedom, where the greatness of man is judged.

Freedom and education: Ability to educate and self-direction.

Without contradicting what we have been affirming, we can confirm that it is not always
We do what we want, we don't always know why we act in such a way.
way, so we always choose what we are going to do after judging our
intelligence. In many cases, we act not out of necessity, but out of whim,
without prior reflection. For this reason, we can specify that man is not
free but capable of freedom, is not born free but makes itself free.
freedom is not a right, but a conquest that is achieved over oneself.
Without inner freedom, there is no other freedom that is worth anything.

Being psychically free is not easy, especially in a world where education

it is off-center because it points to the knowledge of what things are
the man is and does not worry about what they should be, seeing themselves affected by
passions. It is not easy to be psychically free, unless one finds oneself in
new, in fact, the deeper meaning of education, which must
tender to achieve the dynamic fullness of man.

All of this speaks to the clear need for education, since the
man is called to be fully free, master and lord of himself,
conductor of your own life and responsible for your actions. Education cannot
It should not be reduced only to the technical, but must address man as a whole,
in all its potentials.

Responsibility for accountability

Responsibility is a property of the free actions of man, knowing that

what they are doing. He who has control over his actions must answer for
they and realize the effects that their actions produce. Being responsible is
to assume the acts performed and their effects, and knowing that by these it will be
creditor of a merit or a punishment.

Attribution is a qualification of human acts, which follows from the

freedom. It implies that as long as an individual acts freely, they can be attributed
the consequences of these acts.

In the human act, two aspects can be distinguished:

Its physical entity, as it is an act that proceeds from a subject.

2. Its moral entity, inasmuch as it implies ordering towards a known and desired end.
by the subject.

Both accountability and responsibility are based on freedom of the

person, known as the ability of self-driving.

An act is attributed when it has the power of control over its actions; such
domain belongs to him by virtue of his free will. Everything that increases or
decreases the use of freedom increases or attenuates accountability and the
responsibility. The morality of the action is not the foundation of the
accountability, but its substance.

CHAPTER 5: THE ETHICAL PROBLEM METAPHYSICAL FOUNDATION SEL

MORAL ORDER

The finalist structure of free action

Ethical science is based on anthropology and metaphysics. The reason for

this is easily noticed, if we take into account that, of what man is,
it will depend on its own way of acting, as well as the fullness of the form
to which it tends.

The End is commonly understood as a limit or imperfection, however End

can be defined as 'That for which something is done' and that once
achieved, implies the possession of a form. In this sense, the End is
perfection, fullness.

In the case of human dynamism, the principle of intentionality replaces the

principle of purpose, because man acts for a known and desired end,
choosing the means that lead him to that end.

Without the ultimate purpose of human life, our will would not act, because everything
his act is directed at things that are goods in so far as they participate in the
goodness, from the fullness of being.
Therefore, in the dynamism of human action, it is possible to distinguish two types of
fines:

The ultimate end, for which ultimately, everything that is done is done for the ultimate end.
it is necessarily a good sought for itself, to such a perfect point and
the perfective of the agent, which once achieved produces the total calming of the appetite
that has achieved its own purpose.

2. Intermediate ends, which are ends insofar as they imply

completion or perfection in a certain order, but which at the same time,
subordinate to another good, which is sought for itself and from which they depend
essentially and in this sense, they are means and not an end.

Making another distinction regarding the end in the actions of the rational agent, there
you can make another distinction:

1. Ending executions at the end of the act: it is the object of that act, which is
simply that which it reaches by itself, independently of what the
the agent intends to obtain by doing it.

2. The final intention of the agent: what they aim to achieve

with the act. This is what we call the purpose or intention of the agent.

The ultimate goal in human action.

It has been seen that every being is naturally ordered towards what is its
ultimate and perfect act. This is what one desires and towards which one tends.

Now then, as in every movement, human action can also be

distinguish two aspects:

The movement itself (the act itself)

2. The order of the movement.

This allows for several alternatives regarding movement:

Both the movement and the order of it must be external to the entity.
mobile

2. That the movement proceeds intrinsically from the mobile entity, but the
ordering of the same for a given purpose.

3. That both the movement and its arrangement in the end be intrinsic to
agent that moves itself towards the end.

This ultimate end must consist of some good, which is capable of satisfying all the
wishes and cover all the needs of man. For this it is clarified the
the concept of Good as 'that which all things tend towards'. Thus, well...
die:

1. The useful or suitable for achieving something else, which is not sought for itself.
but for his ability to obtain something else.

2. The delightful, which is desired for itself due to the pleasure that
provides.

3. The honest, which is desired because of its intrinsic perfection, as

good or "act that perfects our nature".

For many, what makes a man fully happy is some of the goods.
What we can achieve with our own strength, the goods of this world.
Some place it in external goods, whether physical or moral. Others them
they are placed in internal goods, which can be corporeal or spiritual

Ethics is the science that studies the nature and properties of

human behavior in relation to its ultimate end. Its material object is behavior
human. Its formal final object is that quality by virtue of which
Human acts can be classified as good or bad.

Well and end. Analogy of the good.

In ordinary language, good and evil, goodness and wickedness are understood in terms of
moral category. What is considered good is what is convenient, what should be
to do what is in accordance with moral demands,
putting it in the role of end. This responds to that natural metaphysics of the
human intelligence that understands that if something is sought or desired, it is
because it is good. For what Aristotle could say is good is what all
things are desirable. The above is not strictly a definition of good but
a description of one of its effects is something that appears desirable or
desirable, but for something to be desirable it must necessarily be something that
exists.

The good is something analogous and signifies realities in similar parts and in parts.
diverse. It's something that one craves.

Moral good and evil

Ethics does not consider human acts in themselves, in what they have of
acts. It should be noted that every act, in what it has of act, is good,
It is perfect; it has a goodness that corresponds to everything that exists.
Those acts by which man effectively organizes himself towards his
perfection demanded by their nature will be good, while those others
that they will separate him from her, they will be bad. What is considered according to Saint Augustine: The

Evil has no existence in itself, it is not something, but rather a lack of good in something.
What exists is in itself good

Non-being is not, evil is nothing in itself. For this reason, it will always be relative. Relative
it does not mean subjective, in the sense that what is good for one may be bad
for others. Relative comes from 'relation' and means that something is good or bad
considering it in relation to the end for which it is ordered.

So it can be said that ethics is the science of the end, because morality
it implies an order that reason can impose morality implies an order that
reason can be found in human actions.

CHAPTER 6: MORAL ACTION

The voluntary act

The man appears before himself as the only physical entity that possesses aptitudes for
self-realization. This is precisely the root of morality. Being
Subject of acts, it is of two types: the acts of man and the human acts.
volunteers.

A voluntary act is one that proceeds from an intrinsic principle, with

knowledge of the end. From this definition, spontaneity arises. The
made of being a vital operation of the subject, whose engine is the will. Now
well there are various levels of will:

The first place; voluntary designates that which is natural by contrast.

to the violent.

2. In a second, stricter sense, voluntary means deliberate and it

understood by contrast to unconscious, in that one cannot want
what is not known or how much one is hindered from knowing.

3. Finally, volunteer refers to that which expresses adhesion to a good.

known, means necessary and also free.

Division of the voluntary act

We found various types of voluntary acts, according to the different

possibilities of combination of the material or formal element. Of the
numerous divisions that are offered, we will only take the most significant ones:
1. Licit and prohibited acts: there is a first division, whose criterion is the
the role that will plays, in that it can itself carry out an act or
you can move to another power to make it act.

2. Omission: to omit means to abstain from doing something, which is understood as

voluntary abstention for what he did not do. For the omission to be attributed
The subject who did not act must meet three conditions:

That the omission was voluntary, deliberate, and consented.

What could have been done, in fact, the omitted act.

That he was obliged to carry out the omitted act.

3. Indirect voluntary act: it is the act that is desired by the subject and carried out
in view of an end; it causes an unwanted effect.
4. Act of double effect: it is morally permissible to carry out this act when the following conditions are met

the following conditions:

May the act be at least indifferent.

Let what specifies the action be the good effect.

May the bad effect not be attempted but only tolerated.

May the good effect be greater than the bad one.

5. Cooperation: it deals with those acts through which a subject cooperates.

in the act of another. Firstly, there can be material cooperation by the
simple presence or physical proximity. Secondly, there is cooperation.
formally, both one and the agent want the same thing. In both ways, they
and various degrees of cooperation resulting in the following types:
Positive formal cooperation: it orders the act to be performed, here it is the one who
the mastermind is the intellectual author and the one who executes it is the material author advises

its realization
Negative formal cooperation: remains silent about what will be done does not put obstacles to
What is being carried out does not report a contained fact.

Obstacle of the voluntary act

Properly human action is a free action, which implies the use of the
spiritual powers, intelligence, and will. For this, the voluntary act
define as 'one who proceeds from an intrinsic principle with knowledge'
"of the end", since it is also caused by intelligence and will.
There are various factors that hinder intelligence:

Obstacles that affect cognitive power: they decrease or prevent the

deliberation, indirectly affecting voluntariness.

Ignorance: It is the absence of knowledge due to its subject.

capable. Every lack of knowledge diminishes will.

- Knowledge-level obstacles: These operate similarly to

ignorance reduces the subject's responsibility only when
he has not been able to get out of this state.

2. Obstacles that affect freedom, diminishing it: If freedom is understood

like the real possibility of choosing between two or more options, there are factors that it
condition

Passion: here we mainly address the movements of appetite

concupiscible, vehement, and transient, which appear with some
body mutations

Fear: It is understood as an inner disturbance caused by the

threat of an imminent evil. This passion influences the will,
hindering her in the execution of her own act.

Violence: the violence against the physical freedom of the subject, who carries out the
act under physical or psychological pressure from another. It is an external action of a
subject over another.

Moral specification of the voluntary act

Man can, according to his specific nature, freely support his

natural trends aimed at perfection, but it can also
to guide them towards their degeneration. For this reason, human actions are susceptible to being
qualified.

Morality is a specific quality of human acts, by virtue of the

which of these are either good or bad. Every human act must be considered.
from two distinct but complementary angles:

1. The act in itself, independently of its concrete realization. This

The objective and material aspect of the act is regulated by moral law.

2. This specific act, done by this man and under these circumstances. Here
it addresses the particular and concrete aspects of the act, as far as
relate to the man who made it.
A human act is morally good when it is suitable to the demands
of pure reason, when it responds to the demands of human perfection.

The first and essential moral quality of the voluntary act is given by the object.
moral of the mime, the second and accidental, that of the act in relation to the subject that it
It is carried out, as given by the purpose it aims to achieve.

CHAPTER 7: THE STANDARD OF MORALITY.

Man in his actions always seeks to achieve some good, which can be it.
really or only in appearance. Whether it is will depend on the reason of
convenience of the sought thing and of the being of man, of his nature.

The next objective norm: The law

The voluntary act is susceptible to moral qualification. Now, the quality

The morality of the act can be assessed from two points of view:

1. From the object or purpose of the act: Take into account the act in itself,
considering it in an abstract and universal way, as far as that act
is arranged for an end

2. From the end of the agent: The act is taken into account as it is performed, here
now for an agent, for this, he considers it in a concrete and particular way.

The moral law and conscience constitute the normativity of morality.

While moral law is the proximate objective norm, conscience is the norm.
next subjective.

The law is a norm because it is a rule, model, and exemplary cause of the good act. It
it indicates the measure and direction of the human act, having as its end that which
complete to the man as much man

Definition of law

In a broad sense, we can say that Law is any rule that regulates a
act or operation, whatever it may be, in order to achieve an end. Let us emphasize that
Firstly, the law can only be something of reason. The reason for
this is that the law is a rule and measure
The law is the ordering of reason, oriented towards the common good and promulgated by
Who is responsible for the care of the community?

The law is an act of the empire of practical reason, since it relates to

human action, which it directs and measures, commanding or prohibiting it, for which
is inseparably linked to the will.

According to reason, the law exists in two distinct ways:

1. Essentially: In the intelligence of the one who orders or rules, this is of

legislator who knows the end and orders those behaviors that are suitable.

2. By participation: In the intelligence of those who are governed by it, in

as much as they can understand the reasonableness of what is commanded or prohibited.

Types of law

We can distinguish three types of laws:

1. The eternal law: It is what the ancients called the Logos or divine Nous, which
establish an order in the universe. Order of divine wisdom regarding
organizes and directs the actions and movements of all beings in view of
ensure the common good of the universe.

2. The natural moral law: The ordering of right reason with respect to acts
humans in view of the perfect end of man or also participation of the
rational creature in the eternal law.

The characteristics of natural law are:

Intrinsically: man discovers it within himself, as a perfective tendency.

It does not follow from your knowledge, but rather your knowledge is based on it.
what is.

Universal: it encompasses all men, for they all have the same
nature. It does not change either time or place.

Immutable: those that every man easily knows, natural law does not.
change.

Cognizable: One that is perceived as a natural inclination to do and

pursue good, avoiding evil.

Indelible: Man can deny secondary principles and even more so, the ...
remote conclusions, where errors are more easily made.

3. Positive law: It must update and specify the principles of natural law.
endowing them with relevance in a specific historical moment and society.
this corresponds to recognizing, respecting, and guaranteeing the goods that perfect
human nature.