© W. J. R. B.

nsamba 2023

EVOLUTION
This is a gradual process by which advanced forms of living organisms have developed from the
pre-existing less differentiated ancestral organisms under the influence of the prevailing
environmental conditions.

During this process organisms undergo various structural and physiological modifications in
order to fit in the prevailing environmental conditions which are genetically transferred to
subsequent generations thereby forming new species. This has led to diversification of life forms
since they are varying environmental conditions in which organisms have to adopt.

THEORIES FOR THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

1. SPECIAL CREATION

It is believed that living organisms were created by the almighty God in the very forms they exist
today. This implies that there has not been any evolution or change of life form.

2. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION

This theory suggests that living organisms emerged from non-living forms spontaneously
(suddenly).

i. This is supported by the fact that dead decomposing materials may lead to formation
of maggots.
ii. A newly constructed pond of water may eventually contain certain organisms such as
fish
iii. Dirt may lead to the emergence of lice in the hair.

However, this theory was rejected by scientists who believe that living organism must originate
from the already existing living organisms of their kind (Pre-existing life).

3. ORGANIC EVOLUTION THEORY

This theory suggests that life did not start from planet earth but instead from other planets.
According to this theory, life came into planet earth in form of meteorites (fragments) from other
planets which contained organic materials. These fragments later joined to form living
organisms. This theory therefore presupposes that a living organism must give rise to new
individuals of its own origin.

4. THE SYNTHETIC THEORY

It suggests that inorganic elements such as oxygen, ammonia, water, carbon dioxide e.t.c.
Inorganic compounds joined together to form organic material from which the living organisms
emerged. It was believed that forces from the earth crust facilitated the joining together of these

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materials to form living organisms. This is supported by the fact that inorganic compounds like
water and carbon dioxide can be used to synthesise organic compounds under sunlight energy by
green plants.

5. STEADY STATE THEORY (COSMOZOAN OR POSPERMIA) THEORY

This theory suggests that life has no origin. It has been available and there has never been any
change and it will continue to be available. According to this theory life could have arisen once
or several times in various parts of the universe and then remained the way it was.

THEORIES TO EXPLAIN THE MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

DARWINISM

This theory was proposed by Charles Darwin from his voyage around the world which took him
to many places particularly Galapagos Islands of South America. His theory states that change
in environmental conditions make organisms which are better adapted to survive and reproduce
at the expense of the poorly adapted organisms which are gradually eliminated before reaching
the reproductive age, thereby leading to the formation of new species from the pre-existing
species.

Darwin’s theory is based on three observations and two deductions. In this theory Charles
Darwin observed that;

1. Organisms within a population tend to produce far more off springs than what the
environment can support.
2. Despite the tendency to increase the numbers of the species due to over production of off
springs, most populations actually maintain relatively constant numbers.
3. He also observed that different individuals show variations advantageous to their
environment (i.e. the fit) while other individuals show variations disadvantageous to their
environment (i.e. the unfit)

From the observations he concluded that there’s struggle for existence within a population and
so many individuals fail to survive or reproduce. Organisms always compete for the limited
resources with each other in an effort to survive. This competition is based on the adaptations of
organisms such that when variations in the environment factors exerts a selection pressure,
individuals with best suited characters (variations) to the new prevailing environment survive
and reproduce at the expense of those individuals who are poorly adapted that are eventually
eliminated from the population, thereby limiting population size.

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From these observations Darwin also concluded that in the struggle for existence individuals
showing variations better adopted to their environment (the fit) survive and reproduce more off
springs for the next generation that the least adapted organisms (un fit) which die before the
reproductive age and fail to pass on their characteristics to the next generation. Individuals which
survive pass on their favorable characteristics to the next generation. Individuals with
unfavorable variations are eventually eliminated in the struggle for their existence. Nature
therefore allows the survival of those organisms whose characteristics fit them in the prevailing
environmental conditions and eliminates those with poor characteristics so that they are not
given chance to survive and reproduce. This is called survival for the fittest by natural
selection. Organisms which survive to reproduce are likely to produce off springs similar to
themselves i.e. the like produces the like. This leads to the emergence of new species under the
constantly changing environmental conditions.

NOTE;

A. Natural selection is a process by which organisms that are better adapted to their
environment survive while those that are less adapted are eliminated.
B. Natural selection promotes speciation (emergence of new species ) as follows;
Individuals with unfavorable characteristics are less likely to survive long enough to
reproduce as nature causes their death unlike those with favorable characteristics which
survive long enough and reproduce. Over very many generations, their numbers in the
population will decrease while for those with favorable characteristics their numbers will
increase. Individuals with favorable characteristics breed with consequent increase in
their numbers with in the population due to the development of a number of favorable
variations in them.
The development of a number of favorable variations in these individuals over many
generations greatly leads to the emergency of new species.
C. According to Darwin the original giraffes had variations in the length of their necks
varying from short to long. When they over produced there was competition for the
ground vegetation during which the short necked giraffes were eliminated while the long
necked giraffes which could reach the leaves of the trees survived and therefore passed
on their genes to the next generation which came with only long necks

DARWIN’S FINCHES

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The Galapagos finches show an example of

adaptive radiation. It is assumed that a
stock of ancestral finches reached the
islands from the mainland and then, in the
absence of competition, evolved to fill all
the empty ecological niches occupied by
other species on the mainland. The large
ground finch, the closest to the mainland
finch in form and function, has a typical
finch-like beak for crushing seeds. The
cactus ground finches have a long straight
beak and split tongue for getting nectar out
of the flowers of the prickly pear cactus.
The vegetarian tree finch has a curved
parrot-like beak with which it feeds on
fruits and buds. The insectivorous tree
finches have a similar beak which they use
to feed on beetles and other smaller insects.
The Warbler finch uses its slender beak to
feed on small insects which it catches on the
wings. The woodpecker finch, lacks a long
tongue, therefore it uses its beak to pick up
a stick which it uses to poke it a hole full of
insects. When the insects emerge, the bird
drops the stick and devours the insects (this
tool handling is only thought to be in man
and monkeys).

LAMARCKCISM

According to Lamarck organisms acquire certain structural and physiological characteristics

according to the environmental need for survival. These characteristics acquired are then passed
on to the offsprings of the organisms genetically. Gradually a group of organisms better adapted
to the environment are produced and therefore evolution occurs. Lamarck concluded that
characteristics acquired through an organism’s interaction with the environment can be inherited
by the offsprings i.e. inheritance of acquired characteristics.

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According to Lamarck when an organism constantly uses part of its body that part develops
greatly to better fit in the environment. However, the part which is not constantly used begins to
degenerate (Becomes vestigial).

Lamarck referred to this as the principle of use and disuse. For example, Lamarck speculated
that earlier giraffes had short necks and time came when they over produced and competed for
the existing vegetation. This made them to stretch their neck heights to eat the tall vegetation
eventually the necks became longer. However, Lamarck was not scientific in his explanation
because acquired characteristics cannot be passed on to the next generation. The use and disuse
of somatic cells that make up body parts have no influence on gamete formation and cannot be
inherited to cause evolution.

Assignment;

Read and make briefs notes on

a. disappearance of dinosaurs

NEODARWINISM (Modern synthetic theory of organic evolution)

This theory was improved from the views of Darwin by including in Mendel’s genetic principles,
ethology, paleontology, molecular biology and ecology.

This theory therefore suggests that in sexually reproducing organisms, there is always genetic
variation which occurs during gamete formation as a result of crossing over, reshuffling of the
genes, mutations, random fertilization and cross breeding. This provides a gene pool from
which natural selection occurs to eliminate the unfit individuals from the population.

Consequently the prevailing environmental conditions will favour and allow propagation of the
fit individuals by eliminating individuals with unfavourable genes from the population.

According to this theory a population rather than an individual organism evolves and therefore it
is the gene pool that evolves. Therefore, Neo-Darwinism theory is the theory of organic
evolution by natural selection of inherited characteristics. Genetic recombination between
sexually reproducing organisms produce most of the variations in the characteristics that make
adaptations possible. New combinations of genes produce unique genotypes according to this
theory whose phenotypes undergo environmental selection pressures which continually select
and determine which genes pass on to the next generation.

A gene pool is the total variety of genes and alleles present in a sexually reproducing population.
A selection pressure is any factor that can increase or decrease the frequency of an allele within
the gene pool by acting as an environmental resistance factor thereby leading to an evolutionary
change. A selection pressure may be predation, disease outbreak or competition.

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

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The proof that evolution occurs or occurred includes the following;

1. Comparative embryology 6. taxonomy

2. comparative anatomy 7. biogeography
3. Palaeontology 8. Industrial mechanism.
4. comparative biochemistry 9. artificial selection
5. cell biology 10. Resistance to drugs

COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY

Embryology refers to the study of the developmental stages of embryos.

Critical observations of these embryos during various stages of growth such as cleavage,
gastrulation and differentiation indicate that embryos tend to go through or repeat the
developmental stages of their ancestors and this is called ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny i.e.
the developmental stages (ontogeny) repeats (recapitulates) the evolutionary history of the
ancestors (phylogeny).

The developmental stages of embryo reveal striking similarities between embryos of different
species which shows that these species evolved from the same ancestor. The more closely related
the species are the more they go through similar developmental stages due to having a common
ancestor therefore organisms tend to show developmental patterns that their ancestors went
through which proves that evolution occurs.

For example, all vertebrate embryos begin as one cell which undergoes cleavage (rapid cell
division) to form many cells which later leads to the formation of organisms (gastrulation) and
later the whole/entire organism is formed through differentiation of the tissues.

However, some organisms remain as one cell an indicator that multi-cellular organisms evolved
from unicellular organisms.

OTHER EXAMPLES

a. All vertebrate embryos begin as one cell and later undergo cleavage to form many cells.
One cell is retained in primitive organisms like amoeba. This indicates that multicellular
organism evolved from unicellular organisms.
b. Comparable stages of growth e.g. 1 month of growth, all vertebrate embryos possess the
following features; A single blood circulation with a two chambered heart showing no
separation between left and right halves a situation retained only in fish the ancestor of
other vertebrates. Others include possession of a tail, visceral clefts and the gill pouches.
In human embryos the gill pouches disappear leaving the Eustachian tube of the ear.
c. A human embryo and a tadpole of amphibians possess a tail which later breaks. This
indicates that amphibians and humans share the same anatomy.

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d. The larvae of a sea squirt and amphioxus possess a notochord like vertebrae embryo
which is later replaced by the vertebral bones excepting amphioxus. This shows that all
vertebrates have common ancestors.

PALEONTOLOGY (The study of fossils)

Fossils are preserved remains of an organism that lived long ago in sedimentary rocks.
When fossils are compared with the present day organisms, there are striking similarities
and differences which is an indicator of evolution from a common ancestor, if the fossils
of different species are compared.
The differences between fossils and living species also reveal the evolutionary trends that
these organisms went through in the course of evolution to become more modified and
complex i.e. they reveal that organisms change gradually in a course of evolution. Indeed
most fossils found so far can be classified in to the same taxonomic groups with a present
day living organisms.
Example
Fossil records indicate that amphibians evolved from fish and then gave rise to reptiles
which finally evolved into birds and mammals.
e. Birds
f.
Fish (ancestral group) Amphibians Reptiles
g.
h. Such an evolutionary trend is an indication that organisms undergo modifications
Mammals so as to
(most advanced)
fit in the prevailing environmental conditions by acquiring special adaptations for such
environments.
Fossils also indicate the time at which species originated and became extinct i.e.
geological time scale. This is because fossils, being preserved remains of organisms that
existed long ago in the past found in sedimentary rocks, can be excavated from
underground and then their age determined by carbon dating. From carbon dating an
evolutionary trend the organisms, supplemented in similarities in structure, is established
where by a group of organisms have better modified structures than another group.
Paleontology also shows that geographical regions and climatic conditions have varied
throughout the earth`s history and since organisms are adapted to particular
environmental conditions the constantly changing conditions in the world may have
created progressive changes in the structures of organisms as shown by the fossil records.
Indeed the preserved parts in the sedimentary rocks show that the structural parts of
ancestral organisms have been modified into advanced structures of the present
organisms appeared first and survived hundreds of years before the appearance of more
advanced organisms when environmental conditions changed.
Each successive layer of sedimentary rocks from the bottom to the top represent a more
recent period of time i.e. the older fossils are in the bottom layers of their rocks while the
recent fossils are in the upper layers which gives the relative time of appearance of

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organisms by carbon dating e.g. for vertebrates the whole body may decompose to live an
impression and or a mould this is because which animal is fossilized and is discovered is
a matter of chance. In addition, fossils are usually broken down by forces of nature and
therefore paleontology gives incomplete information. However, paleontologists have
constructed geological periods calculating the ages of the discovered fossils which are a
strong evidence for evolution.
It should be noted that paleontology is limited as an evidence for evolution because
extinction is a frequent event, so that only very few fossils are represented among
organisms living today.

CELL BIOLOGY

The study of cell structure and physiology reveals a lot of evidence for evolution e.g. the
presence of common cell component in different species serving the same function is a clear
indicator that organisms having them have a common ancestor. Such structures include,
mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, nucleus e.t.c.

TAXONOMY (CLASSIFICATION)

This is the grouping of organisms using their similarities and differences particularly in their
structures. Classification is based on the presence of common homologous structure such as the
pentadactyl limb.

Organisms with the same homologous structure are put under the same taxonomic group e.g.
same phylum, class, order, e.t.c which indicate that they evolved from a common ancestor e.g. all
organisms under phylum chordata have a notochord and a post anal tail at least one time in their
life time. This indicates that chordates (vertebrates) evolved from the same ancestor since the
genes for these characteristics are inherited from generation to generation.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

The study of comparative anatomy brings out similarities in the structures which indicate a
common ancestor.

When homologous structures of organisms of different species are compared and found to be
basically similar they indicate a common ancestor or an evolutionary trend of organisms which is
the evidence for evolution. This is because homologous structure arises through adaptive
radiations. Due to the different environmental conditions in their habitat which make organisms
possessing these structures become different species due to the differences in the environmental
conditions which is evidence for evolution.

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Presence of homologous structures in different species of organisms is an indicator of evolution

through adaptive radiation i.e. specialisation of homologous structures to serve different
functions in different environment in apparently similar organisms e.g. the mouth parts of
butterfly are modified for sucking while that of cockroaches are modified for biting and chewing.
The hind legs of ducks are modified for swimming by being webbed while those of rats are
modified for hopping to bring about fast locomotion.

In addition, vestigial organs possessed by some organisms give evidence of changes from
ancestral conditions to the present conditions and seem to represent a revolutionary link with the
previous species. The vestigial organs include the vestigial tail and appendix of humans which
suggests that they were well developed in the ancestors of man but later degenerated and became
functionless in man. This shows that many organs have changed in the course of evolution e.g.
the salivary glands of the snake have been modified into poison glands.

Comparative anatomy therefore confirms that the present organisms are descendants of the
ancient organisms through change of structures by adaptive radiation.

NOTE

a) Adaptation refers to the structural and physiological modifications of an organism

brought about by evolution to enable the organism survive in its environment.
b) Analogous structures and convergent evolution
These are structure having different basic plan in different organisms but serving the
same functions in organisms of different ancestral background e.g. the wings of bats and
insects (both are used for flight but have different structures and are in organisms of
different ancestral organisms, the hind legs of a frog and grasshopper, the eyes of
octopus and vertebrates e.t.c.
These analogous structure and physiological functions reveal convergent evolution i.e.
the type of evolution which creates similarities in organisms of different ancestral origins
due to natural selection and adaptation to the same environmental conditions making such
organs perform the same functions. Convergent evolution suggests that organisms from
different ancestral origins tend to evolve along the same lines.
c) Homologous structure and physiological functions reveal divergent evolution i.e. the
evolution of organisms from a common ancestor through great modifications of their
homologous structure to serve different functions in different environment due to
adaptive evolution

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d) Homologous structures are those structures that have the same basic
plan in different species of organisms having the same ancestral origin
but modified to serve different functions in different environments due
to adaptive radiation e.g. the pentadactyl limb of vertebrates which is
modified in different species of vertebrates for different functions, the
wings of birds and legs of horses as well as the limbs of man are all
similar in number of arrangement of bones because they have evidently
evolved from the same type of ancestral appendage.
e) The modifications of homologous structures include the following
i. Monkeys
The pentadactyl limb is modified for grasping tree branches by being
highly flexible while in man it is modified as a tool of manipulation.
ii. In pigs and dogs this limb is modified for walking by having hooves
which are hard enough to support the process of walking. While in
rodents it is modified for digging tunnels by having highly flexible
toes and blunt claws.
f)Presence of homologous structures in different species of organisms is
an indicator of divergent evolution from common ancestor as they
indicate adaptive radiations. Adaptive radiation is important because
it enables organisms with the same basic structure (same homologous
structures) to exploit different ecological niches thereby decreasing
competition for resources.
COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY

Evidence under comparative biochemistry includes the following;

A. SEROLOGY (serum studies)

Blood tests are based on antigen antibody reactions, which antigens and antibodies are
synthesized according to the genetic makeup of the organism. Blood tests indicate that all
primates have the ABO blood group system and the rhesus blood group system. This indicates
that they possibly originated from the same ancestors and that man could have evolved from
primitive primates such as monkeys, baboons, gorillas, etc

Since blood tests are based on antigen antibody reactions, when serum from different species is
mixed this reaction occurs if the species are related leading to the formation of a precipitate. The
larger the precipitate formed, the more closely related the two species are, by having similar
antigens and antibodies that can easily react, indicating that the two species are closely related as
they have similar protein structure.

B. AMINO ACID SEQUENCE

Proteins have similar amino acid sequences in different species which shows that these species
have a similar ancestral origin e.g. chemical analysis have shown that cytochrome C has 35
amino acids in humans, rabbits, fish, snakes e.t.c arranged in the same sequence. This reveals the

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common ancestor for vertebrates since the synthesis of cytochrome C is the base of the gene
frequency of organisms controlled DNA.

C. DNA HYBRIDISATION

This is where DNA molecules of the different organisms which are assumed to be related are
separated into individual strands. When these DNA strands are mixed together they may show
complementary base pairing to reform the DNA molecules of different species whose strands
were mixed earlier depending on how closely related these species are. Pairing of the separated
DNA bases of different species indicates that the organism have a common ancestor and are
therefore closely related.

D. BLOOD PIGMENTS

These provide evidence to evolution because some organisms have similar blood pigments and
therefore believed to be closely related as they belong to different species e.g. haemoglobin
exists in all vertebrates and also in some few invertebrates such as the earthworm an indicator
that possibly vertebrates evolved from invertebrates. Other blood pigments used as evidence for
evolution include the following; Chlorocruorin (made of iron) found in some lower organisms
called Polychaetae e.g. the lugworm. Haemocyanin (made of copper) found in molluses and
arthropods such as crustaceans.

These pigments indicate the common ancestor of organisms having them

E. CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
Some organisms of different species have the same chromosome structure and the same
chromosome number which is evidence of evolution since the chromosomes in their cells
are an indicator of the same ancestral origin. For example humans, gorillas and
chimpanzees have 46 chromosomes.

BIOGEOGRAPHY (SPECIES DISTRIBUTION)

In the past, the present day continents were all joined together to form a single land mass known
as Pangaea which floated on the denser molten core of the earth. During this period all animals
were mainly found in the northern hemisphere particularly North America, from where they used
to migrate to other areas and later returned to the same northern hemisphere. However, due to the
pressure in the earth crust (plate tectonics) the Pangaea split up into the current continents which
became separated by water bodies immediately.

The splitting of the Pangaea into the current continents resulted in geographical isolation of
animals which got trapped in these new continents and therefore in the new environmental
conditions since they could not cross the large water bodies. This isolation made animals in the
new continents to undergo adaptive radiations so as to survive in the new environmental

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conditions permanently which resulted into the formation of many new species and therefore
evolution of new species.

The existence of similar organisms occupying similar ecological niches in different continents
together with the fact that some species exist in only one particular continent supports the origin
of organisms from the common ancestor mainly from North America. In addition, the absence of
more advanced forms of organisms from a region usually indicates the prior separation of that
region from the Pangaea or from other regions of the world where these organisms originated

Indeed the distribution of fossils and the present day organisms can be precisely related to the
positions of continents in the past before the Pangaea split up. For example the Bison of North
America has similar adaptations to the Zebra of Africa, an indicator of the same ancestral origin.
The lung fish species are found separately in tropical areas of South America (lepidosiren),
Africa (protopterus), Australia (neoceratodus). These species acquired different structures in
different tropical continents by adaptive radiation which made them become separate species.
Biogeography also shows that in evolution, the more adapted organisms survive at the expense
of the poorly adapted ones due to changes in environmental conditions e.g. when placental
mammals (eutherian mammals) evolved in the world, Australia had first broken away from the
Pangaea and therefore they never migrated into Australia.

In other parts of the world, these mammals eliminated the more primitive marsupials e.g. the
kangaroo and monotremes e.g. the dark billed platypus from their ecological niches except
Australia which earlier broke away. This is supported by the many fossils of these primitive
mammals that are found in most of other continents.

INDUSTRIAL MELANISM

This supports evolution because industrial activity changes the background of an area from white
to black due to soot (smoke) from these industries, which contains sulphur dioxide gas that kills
the lichens thereby changing the back ground to black. This environmental change affects the
predation selection pressure by promoting camouflage of the melanic organisms against
predators on the black background. Greater predation of the non-melanic forms of organisms

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that are easily seen on the black background compared to the inconspicuous melanic forms,
selects the few melanic forms to survive, reproduce and greatly increase in number as the non-
melanic organisms greatly decrease in number.

For example, before industrialization in Britain, the majority of the peppered moth, Biston
betularia were white due to their camouflage against the predatory birds on the white
background made of mainly lichens and very few moths were black but during industrialisation,
sulphur dioxide killed the lichens, thereby changing the background from white to black, which
allowed the back mutant peppered moths to survive and greatly reproduce to increase their
numbers as the white peppered moths were decreasing in numbers.

The camouflage provided by the black environment sets up a basis for natural selection that
allowed the black forms of moth to survive and reproduce rapidly while the white forms of moth
were being selected against as they became conspicuous to predators.

CROSS BREEDING/ ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

Artificial selection is a type of selection where humans eliminate organisms with undesirable
characteristics, leaving only those with good characteristics which may become new species after
several generations.

When closely related different species of organisms are allowed to cross breed together, through
selective mating, selective propagation or selective pollination, they can develop a new breed
(hybrid vigour). Hybrids have better characteristics like increased size, high yields, quick
maturity and increased resistance to diseases. Selection for these advantageous characteristics
over several generations may become a new species with better characteristics than the parental
organisms (ancestral organisms).

Continued selective breeding by humans has produced the varieties of domestic animals and
plants of agricultural importance seen today. Therefore from cross breeding new species can be
easily evolved through human activities. Therefore humans are preserving animal and plant
genes which are considered to be desirable and eliminating those genes which are undesirable.

RESISTANCE TO DRUGS AND PESTICIDES

When these are first administered a large population of a non-mutant strains die leaving very few
mutant strains. The few mutant resistant strains reproduce greatly and pass on their mutant gene
for resistance against the drug or pesticide to the next generation. Eventually the resistant strains
of the pest or bacteria become the majority in the population and after several generations may
become new species. In addition some plant species grow on the heap of highly poisonous metals
such as gold, copper, lead, silver, etc because such plants have mutated and developed the ability
to tolerate such poisonous heavy metals.

SELECTION

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There are 4 major types of selection as a key factor for evolution and these include the following;

A. Natural selection
B. Sexual selection
C. Kin and group selection
D. Artificial selection

A. NATURAL SELECTION

This is a process by which organisms that are better adapted to their environment survive and
reproduce while those that are poorly adapted to their environment are eliminated.

Natural selection promotes speciation as described below; Natural selection occurs because
different individuals in the population show variations advantageous to the environment while
others show variations disadvantageous to their environment. Individuals with favorable
variations in the population survive, grow and reproduce thereby passing on their favorable
characteristics to the next generation while those with unfavorable variations are less likely to
survive long enough to reproduce and are therefore eliminated in the struggle for existence by
the various selection pressures as nature selects against them.

A selection pressure is any factor that can increase or decrease the frequency of an allele within
the gene pool by acting as an environmental resistance factor thereby leading to an evolutionary
change. A selection pressure may be predation, disease outbreak or competition.

Environment influences natural selections in that it exerts a selection pressure on organisms’

population, which eliminates those with unfavorable variations for the population.

Natural selection is important in the following ways;

i. It promotes the emergence of new species under the constantly changing environmental
conditions.
ii. It enables organisms which are best adapted for a particular environment (the fit) to survive
and reproduce there by passing on their genes to the next generation.
[Link] ensures that undesirable genes are eliminated from the population as it causes elimination
of the unfit organisms.
[Link] ensures that undesirable genes (deleterious genes) are eliminated from the population.

There are 3 types of natural selection and these include the following

I. Stabilising selection
II. Directional selection
III. Disruptive selection

I. STABILISING SELECTION

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It is defined as the selection which occurs when selection acts to eliminate both extremes from
the phenotypes of the population resulting into increase in the frequency of the already common
intermediate phenotype

If there is a little change in the environmental conditions and little competition within the
population individuals which do not show adaptation to extreme conditions survive and
reproduce while those which show adaptations to extreme conditions die out without reaching
reproductive age i.e. both extremes are removed from the population leaving only the
intermediate organisms.

Examples of the extreme conditions include very hot or very cold climate. Organisms which are
adapted to such extreme conditions die because little change in the environment does not result
into such extreme conditions. This stabilises the population as it removes extremes within the
population hence reducing chances of evolution.

Stabilising selection therefore occurs when optimum environmental conditions do not favour
organisms with extreme characteristics but instead favour those in intermediate phenotypes
within a population. The extreme phenotypes are eliminated by natural selection because they are
adapted to extreme conditions.

TRAIT

Examples include;

i. Wing length in hawks. wing spans larger or smaller than the optimum wing length
will have reduced breeding potential which eliminates those birds with wings larger
or smaller than the optimum.
ii. .Similarly children born with extreme weights (very small or very large weight) die
while those born with intermediate weight (3 to 4 kgs) have the highest chances to
survive.
iii. In ducks and chicken, the eggs laid with intermediate weight have the highest chances
of hatching compared to the ones laid with extreme weights.

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II. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION

Directional selection is defined as the one which occurs when gradual changes in environmental
conditions favour a particular extreme characteristic in the population to survive more as the
intermediate and the other extreme characteristic are less favoured which lowers their
population.

If there is a gradual change in environmental conditions organisms that are best adapted to the
new environmental conditions survive and breed at the expense of the poorly adopted ones which
get eliminated. This selection occurs so as to eliminate one extreme character from a group of
phenotypes there by making the genes promoting this extreme phenotype become less frequent
in the population as compared to the frequency of the genes promoting the intermediate and
another extreme phenotype in the population with beneficial characteristics and reduces the
frequency of those with poor characteristics in the population.

This kind of selection brings about evolutionary change by producing a selection pressure which
favours increase in frequency of the new alleles in the population usually of the extreme
characteristic. Therefore it exerts a selection pressure which moves the mean phenotype towards
one extreme phenotype.

It is the commonest type of selection. And examples include industrial melanism of the peppered
moth (B. betularia) in England whereby the black peppered moths are the majority and the white
peppered moths are extremely very rare. It also includes artificial selection whereby humans
promote the survival of organisms with beneficial characteristics and cause those with poor
characteristics to become less frequent in the population.

III. DISRUPTIVE SELECTION

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Disruptive selection is defined as the selection which occurs when fluctuations in environmental
conditions favour the survival of more than one extreme phenotype within the population
resulting into two discrete forms of the species each adapted to one set of extreme conditions.

If the environment takes a number of distinct/discrete forms in its variations e.g. very hot
climate or temperature which suddenly changes to rapidly very cold with no intermediate
temperatures, selection may occur to favour two discrete forms in the population with each form
of the species adapted to one set of the extreme conditions. This selection rapidly causes
evolutionary change by splitting the population into two demes (subpopulations) which after
several generations become new species. A deme is a genetically isolated population that forms
a new species.

Examples of disruptive selection include organisms adapting to very cold conditions and very
hot conditions but not to intermediate conditions, the different beak sizes of the African seed
cracker finch bird (Pyrenestes astrinus). Populations of these birds contain individuals with large
and small beaks but very few individuals with intermediate sized beaks. The large beaks are used
for opening very tough seed coats while the small beaks are used for opening very small seeds.
The intermediate beaks are unable to open both large and small seeds and are therefore selected
against by lack of food. Other examples include; A, B, O blood group system and red green color
blindness in humans.

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Disruptive selection occurs due to selection pressures acting from within a population usually
as a result of increased competition from resources which may push the phenotypes away from
the population mean towards the extremes thereby leading to the formation of new species. This
can split the population into two new demes. If gene flow between the demes is prevented, each
deme may give rise to a new species, due to the different selection pressures exerted on each
deme. Gene flow is the movement of alleles from one population to another mainly through
breeding. The genetically isolated population usually undergoes selection to form a new species.

Disruptive selection may result into appearance of different phenotypes within the population a
phenomenon called polymorphism. Polymorphism is a phenomenon whereby forms of
organisms of species show differences in body structure and reproductive potential which
determines their roles in the habitat. There are 2 types of polymorphism namely;

i. Stable or balanced polymorphism.

ii. Unstable or transient polymorphism.

i. STABLE OR BALANCED POLYMORPHISM

This is a form of polymorphism in which different forms of a species co-exist within the same
population in a stable environment and their genotype frequencies show equilibrium as each
form has a selective advantage of equal intensity.

This type of polymorphism selects for the heterozygotes and gives them an advantage over the
homozygotes. In humans, sickle cell trait individuals (heterozygotes) do not suffer from malarias
as compared to the homozygous individuals.

Examples include;

 A, B and O blood group system.  Workers, drones and queen bees.

 Red-green colour blindness.  Workers, queen and soldier termites.

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ii. UNSTABLE OR TRANSIENT POLYMORPHISM

This is a form of polymorphism which arises when different forms of species exist in a
population undergoing a strong selection pressure which determines the genotypic and
phenotypic frequencies of each form, thereby making one form posses a higher frequency than
another e.g. the melanic and non-melanic forms of peppered moth (B. betularia) in England
where the melanic form has a higher a frequency in industrial areas and a very low frequency in
the rural non-industrialised areas.

Polymorphism increases adaptation of organisms to their environment which sets up natural

selection in the population hence allowing evolution to occur.

B. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

This is where humans deliberately allow some organisms with desirable characteristic to survive,
reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generations while preventing other organisms with
undesirable characteristics to survive and reproduce. This eventually leads to the formation of
new species having beneficial characteristics.

C. SEXUAL SELECTION

This is where organisms’ mating success is selected for or against depending on the organisms’
sexual behaviours and sexual structural dimorphism.

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Sexual dimorphism is a situation where by different sexes have different or unique

morphological makeup’s for sexual attraction (secondary sexual characteristics) to the members
of the opposite sex e.g. the male birds have bright plumage (feathers) purposely for camouflage
during incubation of their eggs.

Sexual selection brings about reservation of species because different species have specific
reproductive behaviors and genitalia. This brings about sexual selection which contributes to
evolution because different species adopt unique reproductive behaviors and genital organs
during the course of evolution which restricts reproduction within a particular species only, their
by preventing inter-breeding within different species.

Organisms which are sexually selected for reproduction, reproduce and pass on their genes to the
next generation, which causes variations in the population by bringing about natural selection
and formation of new species. Organisms which are selected against reproduction are described
as genetically dead organisms such as the sterile organisms.

Genetic death is the failure of an organism to reproduce and pass on its genes to the next
generation which may disappear from the gene pool upon death of such an organism.

Sexual selection is important because it brings about preservation of the species, as different
species have specific reproductive behaviours and genitalia which allow reproduction to occur
only within that particular population. This enables sexual reproduction to contribute to
evolution because different organisms have unique reproductive behaviours and genital organs
which restricts reproduction within one particular species only thereby preventing interbreeding
between different species. Sexual selection leads to evolution

NOTE:

i. Genetic load: is the existence within the population of disadvantageous alleles in the
heterozygous genotypes which enable them to be easily transmitted by carriers to the next
generation e.g. the existence of the sickle cell trait individuals in human population.
Genetic load can also be defined as a condition when a population harbors disadvantageous
alleles in its gene pool due to the heterozygous advantage of the carriers.
Genetic load is advantageous because it confers the selective advantage of the phenotype in
certain environmental conditions e.g. a sickle cell trait individuals are highly resistant to
malaria.
ii. Genetic drift: this refers to random changes in allele frequency of a small population
occurring by chance alone rather than natural selection. It affects the amount of genetic
variations within very small populations as explained below;
The effect of a few individuals within a small population not contributing their alleles to
the next generation can have a great effect on allele frequencies. This is because certain
alleles may become lost as the only alleles for the genes present may be eliminated if the
individual with the alleles dies.

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In a small breeding population, the fluctuations in allele frequency are more severe because
random changes in a few alleles cause a greater percentage change in allele frequency i.e.
genetic drift occurs.
In a large breeding population, the fluctuations in allele frequency are minimal because the
large number buffers the population against the random loss of alleles therefore on average
losses for each allele type in a large population will be similar in frequency and therefore
little changes occur in such a large population

D. KIN AND GROUP SELECTION

Kin selection is a form of selection where an animal tries to save the lives of other related
animals but usually risks its life for others e.g. the worker bees sting the enemy that has attracted
the bee hive but accidentally if their sting breaks the worker bees dies at the expense of other
bees in the bee hive.

Group selection is where an animal tries to guard other members of the species against danger
although not related to them e.g. some birds try to alert chicken of the presence of eagles, cattle
egrets alert cattle and buffaloes of the incoming danger by suddenly flying away from the
animals.

This kind of behaviour where an individual animal sacrifices its own life purposely to save some
other individuals against enemy is known as altruistic behaviour.

SPECIATION

This is the process by which one species splits into two or more new species which develop into
different genetic lineages.

A species is a population whose members can interbreed and produce viable fertile offsprings,
but are unable to produce viable fertile offsprings with members of other populations.

A single species may give rise to new offsprings i.e. intraspecific hybridisation e.g. breeding
organisms that are pure breeds but one having better characters than another which results in the
formation of a hybrid, with hybrid vigor, that doesn’t resemble any of the parents or two
different species may give rise to one new species i.e. interspecific hybridisation

MECHANISM OF SPECIATION

An isolation mechanism is the one that tries to maintain the gene pool of a genetically isolated
population by preventing successful inter-breeding with members of different species but
restricting reproduction within the members of the same species.

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For the development of a new species to occur the gene flow within the isolated populations
(sub-species or demes) must be interrupted or stopped by isolating mechanisms to ensure
isolated populations stop inter-breeding. The various isolating mechanisms isolating the two
species may be geographical, reproductive or genetic.

The process of speciation, this is initiated by the isolation of the species by isolation mechanisms
occurs through the splitting of one population into two or more separate sub-populations or
demes for a long time each of which will remain with its own gene pool so that any new
variations that arise within these sub-populations will not flow up to the other populations. This
makes these sub-populations to become independent populations after along time of separation.
The demes must be isolated from one another to avoid exchange of genes between them in a
single population. This encourages gene differentiation which results into the formation of the
new species. Gene differentiation refers to the adaptation of genes to particular environmental
conditions. In addition mutation and selection can take place independently in the two demes,
causing each of the demes to develop into a distinct species. This is because when a deme is
isolated and new variations which arise in each deme will not flow to other demes and so,
mutation, natural selection and gene differentiation occur differently. This makes these demes to
become independent populations or new species after a long time of separation by geographical,
genetic or reproductive isolation. Changes in allele and genotype frequencies within the isolated
populations due to the effects of natural selection on the range of phenotypes produced by
mutation and sexual recombination lead to the formation of the sub-populations which become
new species after several generations. If isolation persists for a long period of time and the sub-
species come together to occupy the same area they may not inter-breed and therefore they will
be described as new species.

NOTE; if the new species formed from each deme come together to occupy the same area, they
cannot interbreed successfully but competition between the different species would occur. The
less adapted species would be eliminated leading to the reduction in the number of species.
Alternatively, the species may occupy different ecological niches thereby avoiding direct
competition between the species hence all the spies would survive.

Isolation mechanisms are significant in evolution because they permit stabilisation of the
population, generation after generation, and also they enable organisms to evolve along different
lines as they prevent inter-breeding. This isolation mechanism is possible as a result of various
isolation mechanisms described below;

A. GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION

This is isolation whereby the population splits into sub-populations or demes due to separation
by geographical barriers such as larger water bodies, mountains and deserts which prevent the
sub-populations from inter-breeding to exchange their demes. This may occur when some
members migrate or are dispersed, or when the geography changes catastrophically e.g.

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earthquakes, floods, volcano eruptions or gradually e.g. erosion, continental drift. This may lead
to evolution in that when species become separated geographically they undergo adaptive
evolution because the y experience different selection pressures due to the different abiotic and
biotic factors within their environments, which brings about divergent evolution. Even if the
abiotic and biotic factors are the same, the populations may change by random genetic drift,
especially if the populations are small.

If the separated population come together after many generations each may have changed
physiologically or genetically making inter-breeding difficult and will therefore be called new
species. The new two populations formed therefore adapt to the different environmental
conditions as they are separated by a geographical barriers and such species are called allopatric
species.

Allopatric speciation is therefore the evolution of new species due to separation by

geographical barriers e.g. evolution of Darwin’s finches of Galapagos Islands.

B. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION

This is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede members of two species from
producing viable, fertile offsprings.

It involves the stopping of free inter-breeding by individuals of a population due to differences in

courtship behavior and a non-correspondence of the genitalia even if they occupy the same
habitat. This divides the population into two or more categories and genitalia within the same
area.

Reproductive isolation arises because during evolution, different species acquire unique sexual
behaviours, thereby making them stay together in the same area. This brings about sympatric
speciation i.e. the evolution of new species due to genetic or reproductive isolation in the same
geographical area. The species formed are called sympatric species e.g. the evolution of a lion
and hyena that live in the same habitat.

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Reproductive isolation brings about speciation in that it leads to differential reproduction occurs
only within a few individuals of the population that have similar courtship behaviours and
genitalia. Reproduction therefore occurs in a few individuals who are better adapted for
reproduction and therefore mutation, natural selection and gene differentiation occur only in
these few individuals. This causes new characteristics to accumulate within only this
interbreeding sector which may become a new species. This reproductive isolation occurs
through the following isolation mechanisms;

 mechanical isolation
 seasonal isolation
 behavioral isolation
 habitat isolation

These isolation mechanisms work in such a way that organisms in the same geographical area
belonging to different species fail to interbreed.

i. MECHANICAL ISOLATION
This is whereby the genetalia of the two organisms of the opposite sex of different
species are incompatible (non-correspondent) in that mating and fertilization cannot
occur.
ii. SEASONAL ISOLATION (TEMPORAL ISOLATION)
This is where the reproductive organs of organisms of different species of opposite sex
mature at the different times or seasons of the year thereby resulting into fertilisation
failure. The mating seasons may not overlap therefore between different species e.g. the
stamens and pistil of flowers of different plants mature at different times of the year.
Many animals usually have different reproduction systems.
iii. BEHAVIOURAL ISOLATION
This is where organisms show differences in courtship behaviours such that there is no
attractiveness that can lead to mating. Courtship rituals that attract species for mating are
unique to a species and are very effective reproductive barriers even between closely
related species.
iv. HABITAT (ECOLOGICAL) ISOLATION
This is where habitat preferences keep members of different species or demes apart
though living in the same area therefore preventing mating and fertilisation between
them.

NOTE: another form of reproductive isolation occurs through unrandom mating i.e. selective
choosing of individuals in the population for mating. Unrandom mating ensures that some
individuals in the population have increased reproductive potential than others and therefore
their alleles are likely to be inherited in subsequent generations. Individuals with unfavorable
characteristics for reproduction may not be selected for mating and therefore their alleles are less
likely to be inherited in subsequent generations which alleles may be eliminated from the

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population over several generations. This results into a divergent population from the parental
population i.e. a new population different from the parental population due to new variations
acquired. This divergent population is better adapted for reproduction and survival and over
several generations may completely become a new species.

C. GENETIC ISOLATION

This is where mating between two sub-populations or demes may occur but fertilisation is
prevented due to the fundamental differences in the genetic constitution of the different
organisms resulting into failure of the male gametes to survive into the female reproductive
system e.g. in plants the pollen tube may not grow down to the style to cause fertilisation while
in animals the sperms may not survive in the female genetalia.

The fusion of gametes may not take place due to different make up of the gametes, the
production of infertile hybrids (hybrid sterility) and the failure of the hybrid to grow and
develop up to maturity (hybrid inviability).

The organism formed may fail to adapt to the environmental conditions or they may be inferior
sterile offsprings. Therefore the two isolated populations (demes) only reproduce successfully by
breeding independently within the demes, thereby resulting into the formation of new species.

Genetic isolation may also arise through reduced hybrid fertility. In this case, even if hybrids
are viable, they may be sterile especially if the chromosomes of the two parent species differ in
number or structure, which leads to failure of meiosis in the hybrids, so that they cannot produce
normal gametes. Since the infertile hybrids cannot produce offsprings when they mate with
either the parental species or between themselves, then genes cannot flow freely between the
species.

Genetic isolation may also occur through the following;

a. Polyploidy
b. Hybrid breakdown.
c. Hybrid sterility.

POLYPLOIDY

This is a chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete
chromosome sets. It is a result of an accident of cell division.

This brings about hybrid sterility due to the odd number of chromosomes that cause sterility.
Even numbered polyploids are fertile and polyploidy therefore divide the population into two
groups i.e. one group being fertile and another group being infertile which is genetically isolated
as a result. This restricts breeding in only polyploidy species with even numbered chromosomes.

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Polyploidy therefore results into the formation of new species having very good characteristics
such as greater resistance to diseases and adverse environmental conditions, high yields, early
maturity e.t.c. such characteristics arise mainly due to gene mixing during cross breeding to form
the hybrid vigour organisms, especially in plants. Selection for these characteristics in nature
leads to the formation of new species.

HYBRID BREAKDOWN

This is a situation where the first generation hybrids (F1 hybrids) are fertile but later generations
(F2 hybrids) hybrids are infertile.

HYBRID STERILITY

This is a condition where by hybrids fail to produce functional gametes and this leads to genetic
isolation of such organisms i.e. it usually occurs when two species mate or flower at different
times of the year or when the species have different genetic composition. For example, the
formation of the mule (2n=63) from the cross between the horse (2n=60) and donkey (2n=66).

NOTE: In addition to the isolation mechanisms mentioned above, new species may be formed
from the following;

a. Genetic drift and founder`s effect

b. Adverse environmental effects like drought
c. Drug and pesticide resistance
d. Mutations
e. Migrations
f. Predations

These selection mechanisms may be directional or disruptive.

GENETIC DRIFT AND FOUNDER`S EFFECT

Genetic drift causes speciation in that loss of individuals before reproduction from a small
population may lead to loss of an allele from the small population thereby greatly changing the
allele frequency of the gene pool e.g. premature accidental death of organisms prior to mating or
death of an organism which is the sole possessor of that particular allele would result in the
elimination of that allele from the population. It is also possible for an allele to increase to a
higher frequency by chance.

These changes in allele frequency in a small population lead to a divergent population from the
parental population that may form new species over several generations. Genetic drift is not
common in large populations because the changes in allele frequency are usually buffered by the
large population and so, they become negligible.

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Related to genetic drift is a condition known as founder`s effect or founder`s principle. This
principle refers to one or few individuals of the parental population moving away to another
place and then establishing a new small isolated population at some distance away from the
original location. The new small population has a gene pool which is not reflective of the
original population.

ADVERSE ENVIROMENTAL EFFECTS

Adverse effects such as floods, bush burning, excessive heat e.t.c. may lead to the formation of
new species. The survivors of such an occurrence may be few and there genotypes may not
resemble those of the original population. Mutations that may happen as a result of such events
leading to speciation. Breeding may also be of closely related homozygous members only,
resulting into heterozygotes that may emerge into new species.

MUTATIONS

New species may form through mutations because mutations may bring about a new allele in the
population thereby introducing a new variation within the population. If the new variation
confers an advantage on the mutants, especially when environmental conditions drastically
change, the mutant is favoured to survive and reproduce to increase its numbers. When there is
no gene flow between the mutants and the non-mutants, further increase in genetic differences of
the two gene pools occurs hence leading to the formation of new species.

MIGRATIONS

These result into the transfer of genes from one population into another. This reduces the size of
the gene pools if all the genes are taken away from the population and the demes may eventually
become non-identical thereby resulting into the formation of new species. Migrations also
encourage the spread of mutant genes in the population hence leading to a change in allele
frequency which may lead to the formation of new species.

PREDATION

This forms new specie because it puts up a selection pressure of nature among the predators. As
the predator population increases the prey population decreases and competition arises among
the many predators for the few remaining prey. The well adapted predators to compete for the
prey are naturally favoured to survive. While the poorly adapted predators to compete for the
prey die or migrate away. The well adapted predators reproduce and pass on their adaptive
characteristics to their offsprings. The offsprings eventually undergo adaptive radiation and form
new species of the predator.

Selection mechanisms may also favour the formation of new species as they determine alleles to
be passed on to the next generation and they also determine the way alleles spread in the gene

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pool. This may lead to the formation of new species as it results into changes in allele frequency
in the new population thereby leading into an evolutionary change that results into speciation.

EXTINCTION OF SPECIES

Extinction is the terminal of a genealogical lineage. The term is used most frequently in the
context of species, but applicable also to populations and taxa higher than species.

A specie may become extinct if it fails to adapt to its environment and as a result it is at a
selective disadvantage. This selection pressure can include excessive predation, whereby
organisms of a species are preyed upon up to the level where there is no existing member of that
kind in the wilderness.

Other selection pressures include the following;

I. Lack of the basic nutrients for the survival of the organisms or elimination of a link
in a food chain which cause starvation of the organisms that used to survive on that
link. This may seriously affect the availability of the species hence leading to their
extinction.
II. An organism can become extinct through excessive competition from development
of new species which render the less adapted species extinct due to failure of such
species to adapt to the highly competitive environment. As its population declines due
to the competition, gene flow from within the species is interrupted hence leading to
the extinction.
III. Species may become extinct due to the destruction of their habitats which exposes
them to their predators that eventually wipe them out, thereby leading to extinction.
IV. It may be due to climatic changes which result into the change in the average
conditions of the habitat that drastically affect the population hence leading to
extinction.
V. It may be due to pests and diseases in that the pathogen micro-organism which
attacks the population may kill the organism may kill them in large numbers as these
organism fail to develop resistance quickly enough. This may lead to extinction of the
species as they may take long to become resistant and even the young ones that would
reproduce may be killed before reaching the reproductive stage.
VI. Other factors include drastic environmental changes such as drought, volcanic
eruptions, fire, floods etc.

ALLELE/ GENE FREQUENCY

This refers to the total number of individuals in the population baring a particular gene. It can be
affected by the following factors in addition to what has already been described;

a) Closeness of the population

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b) Mutation
c) Selection
d) Genetic drift
e) Migrations

CLOSENESS OF THE POPULATION

This allows free movement between individuals in the population and therefore increases the
chances of random mating which results into gene mixing, from where hybrid individuals with
altered gene frequencies arise.

INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDISATION

This is the form of sympatric speciation which occurs when a new specie is produced by the
crossing of individuals from two unrelated species.

A Fertile hybrid usually appears and only increases the chances of chromosome mutations to
occur in that hybrid which makes it betted adapted to the environment. Such hybrids are
normally formed by alloploidy e.g. a cross between cabbage and radish.

An allopolyploid is a fertile individual that has more than two chromosome sets as a result of two
different species interbreeding and combining their chromosomes.

As formed in the above cross, during meiosis to the form F1 hybrid, the chromosomes from each
parent cannot pair together within the gametes to form homologous chromosomes and this makes
the F1 hybrids sterile. However, non-dysfunction of F1 hybrids produces gametes within diploid
sets of chromosomes (2n=18) to form tetraploids (F2 hybrids) which are fertile. Homologous
pairing can occur in meiosis and F2 hybrids since the two sets of parental chromosomes are
present.

Non-disjunction is an error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous

chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other.
F1 X F1

2n=18 2n =
18

F2 hybrids (4n=36)

Allopatric speciation; occurs when a species separates into two separate groups which are
isolated from one another. A physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a waterway, makes
it impossible for them to breed with one another. Thus organism adapt independently leading to
formation of new species.

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MUTATION

Mutations change the allele frequency by bringing about a new allele in the population which
can form a basis for natural selection by conferring an advantage onto the mutants, especially
when the environment changes, thereby leading to the formation of new species. Mutations can
also confer disadvantages to the mutants which decreases the allele frequency as some of the
mutants may die or reduce their reproductive potential.

SELECTION

Selection favours certain alleles in the population and eliminates others in a certain environment
and in so doing, the alleles increase or decrease respectively. The more favoured individuals with
increased reproductive potential are able to pass on their alleles to the next generation while the
less favoured individuals usually have decreased reproductive potential which reduces their
chances of passing on their alleles to the next generation.

GENETIC DRIFT

Variations in genes within a small population can occur by chance rather than by natural
selection. In a small population, not all the alleles that represent a gene pool of that species
population are present e.g. some may be lost through premature accidental death prior to mating
of an organism which happens to be the sole possessor of that allele from the population which
will decrease that allele frequency.

THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

This states that the frequency of the dominant and recessive alleles in the population remains
constant generation after generation as long as environmental conditions do not change.

However, in nature, this principle is never realised as organisms always vary from each other and
therefore adapt differently to the environmental conditions which causes natural selection so that
evolution occurs.

This principle is used to determine the gene frequencies in a given population.

CONDITIONS FOR THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE TO BE HELD TRUE

 When the population is large.

 When there are no mutations in the population.
 When mating is random.
 When there is no natural selection
 When there’s no genetic drift
 When generations do not overlap.

THE HARDY-WEINBERG EQUATION

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This equation is used to determine the genotype and allele frequencies in the population.

If a gene controlling a particular character A and a with allele frequencies P and Q respectively,
then P + Q = 1.0 or P + Q = 100%.

Where P = frequency of the dominant allele.

Q = frequency of the recessive allele.

In this population, individuals will have the following possible genotypes; AA, Aa and aa where
A is dominant over a.

If heterozygous individuals in the first cross are crossed, the genotypes and frequencies in the F2
generation will be as follows;

Aa x Aa b) Genotype frequency of
heterozygote’s = 2PQ.
c) Genotype frequency of recessive
All A a
individuals = Q2.

Punnet square to show the fusion of gametes In this population therefore, the total
genotype frequency of genes if the
a
heterozygous individuals are selfed is 100%
A
and this is obtained using the hardy-
Weinberg equation shown below;
(P) (Q)
P2 +2PQ + Q2 = 100% OR P2 +2 PQ + Q2 =
1.

A
AA (P2) Aa (PQ)
(P)

a
Aa (PQ) Aa (Q2)
(Q)

From the Punnet square

a) Genotype frequency of homozygous

dominant individuals = P2.

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Example

In a population of 5,000 individuals, 84% of them are non-albinos and 16% are albinos. Using
the hardy Weinberg formula determine the number of individuals who are;

a) Heterozygous normal for melanin formation.

b) Homozygous normal for melanin formation.
c) Albinos.

SOLUTION

Hardy-Weinberg formula; 48
Heterozygotes = x 5,000 = 2,400
100
P2+2PQ+Q2 =1.0 individuals
Where p = frequency of dominant allele. b. Homozygous dominant individuals
Q = frequency of recessive allele. are represented by P2

a. Heterozygotes are represented by P2+2PQ+Q2 =1.0

2PQ P2 + 0.48 + 0.16 =1.0
Q2 = 0.16 P2 = 1.0 – 0.64
Q = √ 0.16 P2 = 0.36
Q = 0.4 = 0.36 X 100 = 36%
But P + Q =1.0 36
Homozygotes = x 5,000 = 1,800
100
P = 1.0 – Q
individuals
P = 1.0- 0.4
c. Albinos
P = 0.6
16
= x 5,000 = 800 individuals
Therefore 2PQ = 2 X 0.6 X 0.4 = 0.48 or 100
48%

END

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