Structures II

Stiffness:
It is the ability of a body to resist being bent or twisted by the action of
external forces acting on its surface.

Elasticity:
The property of a solid body to regain its shape when the force ceases.
change.

Plasticity:
Property of a material to be shaped or worked to change its form.
Its deformation is permanent.

Ductility:
Property of those materials that under the action of astrengththey can be deformed
without breaking.

Fragility:
The quality of a material to fracture with little deformation.

Hardness:
It is the opposition that materials offer to alterations such as penetration,
abrasion, scratching, cutting, permanent deformations, among others.

Effort:
Internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from which it is made
a member to an externally applied load.

Types of efforts:

➢ Compression: It is the tendency of the particles of a material to remain together.

When compressive forces are applied at each end of an element
structural, it contracts slightly. The amount of contraction per unit of
length is the compression effort. (Foundations are a way to reduce
the compression efforts
 ➢ Tension (Tension): It is the tendency of the particles of a material to be separated.
When forces are applied at each end of a structural element that is stretched.
in opposite directions, the structural element elongates (stretches) slightly. The
the amount of extension per unit length is the tensile fatigue. (Steel is
a material with exceptional tensile strength, used in tension elements of
a structure in the form of chains, cables, and solid bars of this material

➢ Shear (Cutting): It is the tendency of the particles of a material to slide against each other.
to pass one over the other by applying two forces in opposite directions and not
aligned. Scissors for cutting paper are an example of a cutting tool. The shear force
It is calculated similarly to compression and tension stresses. A stress
shear is equal to the shear load divided by the area subjected. (It is found in
joints such as: screws, rivets, and welds.)

➢ Torsion: It is the shear stress of rotation that occurs when an element twists.
around its axis

➢ Bending: It is the effort that tends to bend the object. The forces acting are
parallel to the surfaces that support the object. Whenever there is bending,
there is tension and compression effort.

Hooke's Law:
Hooke's law of elasticity states that the unit deformation experienced by
an elastic material is directly proportional to the force applied to it.
Work effort:
Maximum effort unit allowed for thecalculation of a structural element,that
depends on [Link] must be below the elastic limit and the point of
proportionality for Hooke's law to be valid.

Effort by Temperature:
It is aeffortassociated with the indirect effect of thermal expansion. That is,
different length that a structural element will have at different temperatures due to
thermal expansion or contraction.

Concentration of Efforts:
When determining the stresses in axially loaded structural members, we use
the basic formula = F/A, where F is the axial force applied to the member and A is its area
transversal. This formula is based on the hypothesis that the stress distribution is
uniform in the cross-section. In reality, in order to interact with other pieces, the
members of a machine or structure need to have holes, slots, notches,
keys, fillets, strings or other smooth or abrupt changes in their geometry that create
perturbations in the uniform stress pattern. These discontinuities in the geometry
causing high efforts in very small regions of the member and are known as
stress concentrations.

Stress concentrations also occur at the load points;

For example, a concentrated load is rarely evenly distributed over a section.
transversal; it is more likely to act on a small area and produce high stresses in
the region around its point of application.

Efforts in normal planes:

They are those caused by forces perpendicular to the cross section of the element.
Generally, they occur in elements such as wires, bars, or columns subjected to forces.
axial (which act along their own axis), which can be under tension or of
compression. In addition to having strength, materials must have stiffness, that is to say to have
ability to resist deformations since a structure that is too deformable
it may compromise its functionality.
Shear Stress:
Efforts in oblique planes:
Mutually perpendicular direct efforts
 Axial Load.
Force acting along the longitudinal axis of a structural member applied to the
centroid of the cross-section of the same producing a uniform stress. Also
axial force call.

Members Axially Loaded.

They are those structural elements that are only subjected to tension or compression and
the force that affects them acts at the center of gravity of the element

Limit of Proportionality: where the straight part ends, from which it is deduced that 'the
effort is proportional to deformation" (Hooke's Law). The slope of the line or
f/ε, or its tangent is known as the Elasticity Modulus of the Material E. In this
the segment is fulfilled:

Elastic Limit: there are no permanent deformations. After this, the material does not
it returns to its original shape or size when downloaded.

Yield Point (Yielding point): at which a considerable elongation occurs without a

increase in load (That is, the material yields). This is typical only in Structural Steel.

Ultimate effort: the highest point and occurs just before the rupture or failure of the material.

Breaking Stress: it is the stress present when the material fails. The breaking load is
distributes in a very small area.
Allowable Stress: it is one that must be below the yield limit and the point of
proportionality for Hooke's law to be valid on which the Theory is based
Elastic. In this sense, it is customary to use a Safety Factor by Norma since
It is very difficult to determine that point, therefore the Assignor Point is divided by that factor.
to obtain that permissible effort.
In the case of structural steel (A-36), the yield point is 36,000 psi.

F adm. = Fy / F.S

Effort for temperature

Beam:
It is a linear structural element that supports transverse loads (perpendicular to
its axis) and works mainly [Link] the beams, length predominates over the others.
two dimensions and is usually horizontal.

Types of Beam:
Simple Beam
Composite Beam
In other words:
Efforts in Beams:

Basic hypotheses of bending in beams:

Bending Formula:
Distribution of normal stresses in the cross-section of a beam:
Shear Stress:
Distribution of effort in the cross-section of a beam:
Torsion:

Shear modulus
Column Theory:
Column:

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Relationship of Slimness:
Mechanical slenderness, also referred to as slenderness, is a mechanical characteristic of the
structural bars ormechanical prismsthat relates the stiffness of the cross-section
of a prismatic piece with its total length. It is characterized by a dimensionless parameter.
which intervenes in the calculation of stresses and predicts the elastic instabilities of the
bars.

R.E = K L / R
K: Effective length factor (depends on the supports)
L: Free length of the column
R: Turning radius of the cross-section

The radius of gyration (r) is the distance from an axis where it can be assumed that the mass of
a body is concentrated. For the section of a column, the radius of gyration is equal to the
square root of the quotient of the moment of inertia divided by the area.

R = √(I/A)
I = Moment of Inertia (Ix/Iy)
A = Cross-sectional area
The columns are rigid and relatively slender structural members designed
mainly to support axial compression loads applied at the ends of the
members. The relatively short and thick columns are prone to failure due to
crushing more than by buckling. The failure occurs when the direct stress
coming from an axial load exceeds the compressive strength of the material
available in the cross section. However, an eccentric load can produce
bending and leads to an unequal distribution of stresses in the section.

The central core is the main area of any horizontal section of a column or of
a wall in which the resultant of all the compressive loads must be located if they only go
to be present compressive efforts in the section. An applied compressive load
Outside this area will cause tension efforts to develop in the section.

External forces create internal stresses within structural elements.

Long and slender columns are susceptible to failure by buckling rather than by
crushing. Buckling is the sudden lateral or torsional instability of a member
slender structural induced by the action of an axial load before reaching the stress of
material influence. Under a buckling load, a column begins to deform
laterally and cannot generate the internal forces necessary to restore its condition
initial linear. Any additional load would cause the column to deform even further until
let the collapse by buckling occur. The greater the slenderness ratio of a
column, the critical effort that causes its buckling is lower. A primary objective in the
the design of a column is to reduce its slenderness ratio by shortening its effective length or
maximizing the overturning radius of the section?
transversal.
The slenderness ratio of a column is the quotient of the effective length (L) over the
minimum tipping radius (r). Therefore, in the sections of asymmetric columns, the buckling
will tend to present around the weakest axis or in the direction of the dimension
minimum.1.

The effective length is the distance between the inflection points of a column subjected to
bending. When this part of the column bends, the entire column fails. 2.
The effective length factor (k) is a coefficient to modify the true length of
a column according to the conditions of its ends and thus determine its length
effective. For example, fixing both ends of a long column reduces its
effective length is halved and its load capacity is increased by a factor of 4.

The rollover radius (r) is the distance from an axis that can be assumed that the
The mass of a body is concentrated. For the section of a column, the overturning radius is
equal to the square root of the quotient of the moment of inertia divided by the area. 3.