Ministry of Popular Power for University Education

Maturín, Monagas State

I.U.P. - Santiago Mariño

Measuring instruments.

Student: Navarro Galindo Julián Ricardo

Teacher:

School: Systems

Section: S
 Introduction.
Since very ancient times, like prehistory, human beings have had the
need to take measurements. Our ancestors, for example, at the time
to make their first spears for hunting determined what the measurements were
correctly of it. Since whether it is longer or shorter directly influences
about its use and performance. Something as basic as this example serves to have
an idea of the great importance that having represented for the human race
knowledge about how to make measurements.
 Graduated ruler.
Concept: A graduated ruler can be defined as an instrument for
measurement with a rectangular, thin, and elongated shape, which includes a scale
graduated divided into units of length. The most common units
they are millimeters (indicated by a short line), centimeters (that...
mark with a long line) and decimeters, corresponding to the System
Decimal Metric (currently International System of Units) and the
inches and feet, corresponding to the Anglo-Saxon Imperial System. The
graduated rulers usually have a length of less than half a meter, but in
some cases can measure several meters, or be articulated, such as
example carpenter rules.
Method of use:
The ruler is positioned so that the line corresponding to 0 aligns.
with the first point of the segment whose length is desired
to know
The measure will be the last mark indicated by the period.
segment.
3. The measurement is expressed in the corresponding units with the
system used and already mentioned earlier.
Curious fact: In the past, rulers were made of wood, ivory or
animal bone was used and brass was used to protect the ends and,
In the case they were foldable, make the joints. These first ones
the rules were very expensive and could only be used by a professional elite, who
I took care of them and preserved them with devotion for years. Later, the
animal origin materials were replaced by Bakelite or celluloid,
of artificial origin, which allowed the product to be made cheaper and accessible
of the majority of the population. Currently, in addition to wood, there is
uses steel, aluminum, and largely plastic, and the production is
massive, so that anyone can have a graduated ruler of
quality.
Vernier.
Concept: Also called sliding caliper or vernier caliper, it is one of the
most commonly used linear measuring instruments. Through the Vernier, one can
they can control measures of internal, external, and
depth. They can come in measurements of 1/20, 1/50, and 1/100 mm and
1/128 inch, that is, the graduations just like the graduated rule come
in both unit systems at the front.
How to use: more or less it works like this, first you make an approximation
from the measurement with zero (either in inches or centimeters), if it remains
exactly zero on a line, that is the exact measure, otherwise, you have
what to see which of the following lines coincides exactly and that measure
if you have to add it to the approximate to zero (next lower, not
next upper), in inches each little line to the right of zero
equivalent to 1/128, in the case of the CMS. each line equals 1/10000 of
metro or a tenth of a mm.). The Vernier was mainly used as
navigation instrument, scientific instrument, and as a tool for
take precision measurements.
 Currently, there is a certain variety of this instrument, among which
highlight the vernier with dial indicator or quadrant and the digital vernier.
History: Its invention is attributed to the Portuguese cosmographer and mathematician.
Pedro Núñez (1492–1577) (who invented the nonius). However,
Some attribute its origin to the French geometer and mathematician Pierre.
Vernier (1580–1637), although what he truly invented was the rule.
of Vernier calculation, which has been confused with the nono, invented by
Pedro Núñez. That is to say, Pedro Núñez invented the instrument, but Vernier
he invented the slide rule, which is a calculating instrument that has
of various numerical scales, to facilitate the quick and comfortable execution of
complex arithmetic operations, such as multiplications,
divisions, etc. And by integrating these two instruments, it originated the
Vernier instrument known today.
Applications: The main applications of a standard caliper are
commonly: measurement of exteriors, of interiors, of depths and in
some gauges depending on the design measurement of scaling.
The accuracy of a vernier caliper is mainly due to the accuracy
from the graduation of its scales, the design of the cursor guides, the
parallelism and perpendicularity of its probes, the labor force and the
technology in its manufacturing process.
Anemometer.
Concept: It is a meteorological device used for prediction.
of time and, specifically, to measure the speed of the wind. Thus
The same is one of the basic instruments in the flight of aircraft.
heavier than air.
There is a wide variety of anemometers, among which are found
to mention the:
Propeller anemometer: They are the most widely used due to their simplicity and
sufficient accuracy for most of the needs of
measurement as well as by the relative ease of allowing the measurement to
distance.
Helical anemometer: Also used are helix type
helical. The rotation speed of the axis of the propeller is
proportional to the wind speed, so if this is measured
rotation speed, a calibration table can be created
directly in wind speed units in meters per
seconds (m/s) or kilometers per hour (km/h).
Cup anemometer: The cup anemometer is
designed to measure the horizontal direction of the direction of
wind in the fields of meteorology and measurement
environmental.
Portable anemometer: It has a tiny generator attached to the axis.
of electrical impulses, which are counted per unit of time by
the battery-powered electronic counter, displayed on screen already
calibrated to wind speed. The accuracy of these anemometers
 it largely depends on the operator, as it is them who must
give the proper orientation against the wind.
Thrust anemometer: A surface placed at the tip of a
the pendulum is placed facing the wind, the thrust produced by it,
will raise the pendulum more or less according to the speed. A
appropriate scale, recorded on a surface parallel to the movement
The pendulum will serve as an indicator using the pendulum itself as
indicator needle.
Hydrodynamic pressure anemometer: When the wind impacts
on a surface, an additional pressure is generated that
it depends on that speed, if this pressure is captured adequately,
and it leads to a measuring instrument, we will have an anemometer
of pressure. To capture this pressure, the so-called tube of
Pitot, which is a sufficiently wide U-shaped tube with one
bent at its ends and placed facing the wind, and the other
open to the outside but protected from its action. In the part in
A U shape records a scale and a liquid is placed inside.
colored. The pressure difference between the ends of the tube of
Pitot will cause the liquid column to shift to one side, the
The difference in height will be proportional to the wind speed
incident at the mouth of the tube and will serve as an indicator of this.
Application: If the anemometer is fixed on the ground, then it will measure
the prevailing wind speed, but if it is placed on an object in
movement, can be used to appreciate the speed of relative movement
of the object with respect to the calm wind.

Method of use: To measure the relative wind speed, it is necessary

use some physical process whose magnitude varies according to a fixed rule with
regarding the variation of that speed. In practice, among others, the following are used:
The variation in the rotational speed of a propeller subjected to the
wind.
The force that is obtained by facing a surface to the wind.
the temperature difference between two filaments heated by
one subjected to the wind and the other in calm.
Taking advantage of the aerodynamic pressure produced on a surface
facing the wind.
Other ultrasonic or laser methods.

Spherometer.
Concept: The spherometer is an instrument used for measurement.
thicknesses of plates and curvature radii of spherical surfaces,
lenses and similar items. It consists of a three-legged frame with tips of
steel that forms an equilateral triangle, through the center of the frame passes
a micrometer screw, with a steel tip.
Usage method: To calibrate it, place the device on a surface.
level horizontal, lower or raise the screw until its tip just touches
the surface. This is noticeable when the instrument also starts to spin.
 or to move slowly. This point is the zero of the device. The process of
Measurement is relatively simple and is based on trigonometric relationships.
The measurement process has two forms:
For lenses with a diameter greater than the distance on the tripod (r>d).
For lenses with a diameter less than the distance between the legs of the
tripod (r<d).
Test the multimeter.
Concept: A tester or multimeter (also called a voltmeter) is a
portable electric instrument for directly measuring electrical quantities
active as currents and potentials (voltages) o passive
such as resistances, capacities, and others. The measurements can be made
for direct current or alternating current and in various measurement ranges each
There are analog ones, and later the have been introduced the
digitals whose function is the same (with some added variation).
History: The multimeter has a predecessor, called AVO, that helped
to develop current multimeters both digital and analog. Their
the invention came from the hand of Donald Macadie, an engineer of the British
Post Office, who came up with the idea of unifying three devices into one, the
ammeter, the voltmeter and the ohmmeter (hence its name, Multimeter)
AVO), which made it easier for all people studying any
field of electronics. After its creation, the only thing left was to sell the
project to a company, whose name was Automatic Coil Winder and
Electrical Equipment Company (ACWEECO) was probably founded in
1923), going on sale the same year.

Micrometric screw.
Concept: The micrometer screw is another instrument that allows
determine external sizes of objects up to 5 cm, with precision
of hundredths of mm.
Structure: It consists of a screw that moves with respect to a
armor with two scales, one longitudinal that indicates the displacement
with an accuracy of 0.5mm which corresponds to a complete turn of the screw;
and another angular that measures fractions of 1/50 of a turn, that is, one hundredth
of mm.
For this, it has 2 tips that come close to each other through a
fine-thread screw, which has a scale engraved on its surface. The
scale may include a vernier. The maximum measurement length of the
The external micrometer is 25 mm, so it is necessary to have
a micrometer for each measurement field that is to be taken (0-25
mm), (25-50 mm), (50-75 mm), etc.
All the micrometric screws used in the decimal metric system
they have a length of 25 mm, with a thread pitch of 0.5 mm, in such a way
by rotating the drum a full turn, the probe moves forward or backward
0.5 mm.
Method of use: To take a reading, we look at the scale.
longitudinal, thus knowing the measurement with an accuracy of 0.5 mm, the
 excess over this measure is seen on the drum scale with precision
0.01 mm.
History: During the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution there was a great
interest in being able to measure things with great precision, none of the
instruments used in that era are similar to meters, calipers or
micrometers used today, the term micrometer was
coined, surely, by that interest.
The first experiments to create a tool that would allow the
measurement of distances with precision in an astronomical telescope is of
principles of the 17th century, such as the one developed by Galileo Galilei for measuring
the distance of Jupiter's satellites
The invention in 1640 byWilliam Gascoigne of the micrometer screw
it assumed an improvement of the vernier or nonius used in the caliper, and it
I would use in astronomy to measure angular distances with a telescope.
among stars.

Dynamometer.
Concept: A dynamometer is a tool that measures variations.
that are produced in an object when there is an external force. Its
functioning is based on the law of "Hoke" focuses on elasticity
of the material that the objects are made of.
Applications and method of use: The most common use of a dynamometer is
the scale, on this the weight of a certain material is measured; for this it
put the material to be weighed at one end of the dynamometer, and in
the other end is placed in a fixed location, allowing gravity to act,
exerted on the object being weighed, and the measurement is seen on a scale
numeric that is previously calibrated and that is determined by
Newtons, kilos, pounds or another unit of measurement that it is calibrated in.

Stopwatch.
Concept: It is a clock or a clock function that is used for measuring.
time fractions, usually short and precise.
History: The word chronometer comes from theMythologyGreek, the name
It was given for the Greek god Cronus who was the god of time.
Usage method: Start counting from 0 when a button is pressed and
It is usually stopped with the same button. Measures are common in
hundredths of a second, like on wristwatches or even thousandths
of second. It is widely known
onemploymentincompetenciessports as well as inscienceytechnology.
In physics, it is commonly used to determine the duration of phenomena.

Tachometer.
Concept: It is an instrument that measures the rotational speed of an axis.
In the case of the car, for example, the tachometer on the dashboard
instruments provide a permanent indication to the driver of the
 crankshaft rotation speed of the engine in revolutions per minute
(RPM).
History: It is a term that originates from two Greek words: taxoc or
tachos means speed and metron means to measure; literally it goes
to mean - "to measure speed". It is not known for sure who invented the
tachometer, but it has always been considered that the closest predecessors
and the odometers invented by Archimedes of Syracuse were ancient,
that not only allowed measuring the distances that ships and people traveled
they could also give a rough idea of their speed.
Applications: As mentioned, it is used to control the RPM in the
automobiles, although it is also used for the same in airplanes and even
it can be found in applications for medicine. For example, upon
put a small turbine in an artery or a vein, a doctor can
use a tachometer to infer the blood flow rate and velocity at the
that turns the turbine. This can be used to diagnose problems
circulatory, such as obstruction of the arteries.

Oscilloscope.
Concept: The oscilloscope is basically a visualization device.
Graph that shows variable electrical signals over time. The axis
vertical, hereinafter referred to as Y, represents the voltage; while
The horizontal axis, called X, represents time.
An oscilloscope can be electronic, which is divided into two types:
Analog and Digital. The former work with continuous variables.
while the latter deals with discrete variables. For example, a
A turntable is an analog device and a Compact Disc is a digital device.
Applications: Generally, it can be used for:
To directly determine the period and voltage of a signal.
To indirectly determine the frequency of a signal.
To determine which part of the signal is DC and which is AC.
To locate faults in a circuit.
To measure the phase between two signals.
to determine which part of the signal is noise and how it varies in
time.
Usage method: to correctly use an analog oscilloscope
we need to make three basic adjustments:
the attenuation or amplification that the signal needs: Use the
AMPL command to adjust the amplitude of the signal before it is
applied to the vertical deflection plates. It is advisable that the signal
occupy an important part of the screen without exceeding the
limits.
The timebase: Use the TIMEBASE control to adjust what
represents in time a horizontal division of the screen. For
repetitive signals, it is convenient for them to be on the screen
observe approximately a couple of cycles.
 Signal Triggering: Use the TRIGGER LEVEL controls
shot) and TRIGGER SELECTOR (type of shot) to stabilize it
best possible repetitive signals.
Of course, the controls that affect the must also be adjusted.
FOCUS (focus), INTENS (intensity) never excessive, Y-
POS (vertical beam position) and X-POS (horizontal beam position).

Scale.
Concept: It is a lever with equal arms that uses the
establishment of a situation of balance between the weights of two
bodies and that, like a scale or balance, it is an instrument of
measurement that allows you to measure the mass of a given object.
History: The balance is one of the oldest measuring instruments.
and it is very likely that it was invented by the Egyptians five thousand years ago.
before our era. Its design has changed over time;
Currently, there are electric and electronic scales that can measure.
up to a millionth of a gram.

Scale.
Concept: The scale (from the French bascule) is a device used for
to determine the weight (spring scales), or the mass of the
bodies (scales with counterweight).
Applications: There is also some variety of scales with different
uses, among which the bathroom scale can be highlighted, for weighing
merchandise, people in pharmacies, trucks and others.
Structure: Normally, a scale has a horizontal platform.
on which the object to be weighed is placed. Since, unlike
from a scale, it is not necessary to hang the object to be measured from hooks nor
plates, it is easier to weigh large and heavy bodies on top of the
platform, which made it possible to build scales with a capacity of
very large scale, like those used to weigh large trucks
tonnage.

History of the wristwatch.

The wristwatch is an adaptation of the pocket watch and was not a transition.
what happened overnight, but rather was the result of a
matter of practicality. Its history dates back to the early 15th century. Back then
then, pocket watches were made by a certain Peter Henlein,
but it was Abraham Louis Breguet who, in the year 1812, built the first watch of
bracelet for Caroline, queen of Naples and younger sister of Napoleon. In
However, pocket watches continued to prevail. It is not until
the beginning of the 20th century when the wristwatch begins to dominate.
Around this time, ladies began to make small watches fashionable.
wrist-worn pocket ones, but this trend was currently limited to the
women, since men continued to carry their pocket watches hanging from
a fine chain in the traditional style, which depending on the occasion, turned out to be really
unpractical. An example of this are the pilots, who, at that time,
Given the limited nature of their on-board instruments, they truly needed the
watch for making quick and highly relevant measurements. The pioneer of the
Brazilian aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont asked his friend and Parisian watchmaker
Louis Cartier who would make him a watch that could be worn on the wrist. Cartier Santos is
therefore one of the first wristwatch models that existed for
gentleman.
Throughout World War I, the wristwatch became established among the
military and finally also in civil society becoming a
standard once the war is over.

The 1950s and 1960s were the golden years of the mechanical wristwatch.
Automation continues to develop, the design becomes more fantastic and detailed.
The automatic watch reaches its peak during those dates.

However, it is not until 1967 that the Electronic Watch Center in

Switzerland presents the first electronic wristwatch with a tiny piece of
quartz as a regulating element. In the following years, it was increasingly reached
more fame and gaining ground on mechanical watchmaking.

The (first) decline of the mechanical wristwatch was glimpsed during the fair of
watchmaking in Basel in the year 1970: different Swiss watchmaking houses present
their quartz creations. This technique, however, was adopted by the brands
Japanese (Citizen, Seiko and Casio) to introduce it into their mass productions.
The traditional mechanical watch would lose any battle against the new watch of
quartz, in terms of precision and cost. The weight of the watchmaking industry was
It moves with it to East Asia. The Swiss watch industry takes a heavy hit.
that devastated it and left it practically out of combat. The watchmaking industry
American, completely disappears.

In 1970, Peter Petroff developed the first prototype of a wristwatch.

digital with LED indicator. This is perfected by the Hamilton Watch company.
Company y Electro-Data. The digital indicator at that time could only
consult for a couple of seconds after pressing a button, given the high
energy consumption that it implied.

The first digital wristwatches with an LCD face hit the market.
between 1973 and 1975. The company Gruen and Timex in the U.S., Nepro and Mondaine in
Switzerland and Seiko and Casio in Japan were the pioneers.
 Conclusion.
Having notions about how to take measurements and how to do it is not
sufficient. Measuring involves having precision, but not only precision, but also
variety, as there is an extensive infinity of everything that can be measured.
To fulfill this purpose, human beings have been developing a great
variety of tools, which have also been improved over the course of
history.

These tools have allowed us to develop, build houses, bridges,

buildings, airplanes, technology and much more. The instruments have represented
for us a tool for the creation of empires and destruction of the
same.

Currently, measurement systems are necessary for everything. From the

calculation of the weight of a newborn child until determining at what distance it is
they find our neighboring galaxies.
 Bibliography.
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physics/1813-Measurement Instruments and [Link]

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PDF Document. UNCuyo, Faculty of Engineering: Electrical Measurements and

Instruments.

PDF Document: The Micrometric Screw

PDF Document: Spherometer

 Annexes.
Straight vernier and its parts:

Graduated ruler:

Anemometer:
Tester or multimeter:

Micrometric screw:

Physics consists of errors, which in turn are the steps towards the
truth.
How to use a vernier[Link]

How to measure with a multimeter digital

[Link]
digital subway