Project management

Inmanagement engineeringedbusiness economicswith

the expression project management (in Italian management)
of the project) refers to the set of activities ofback offi-
thise front officecorporate, typically carried out by a fi-
dedicated and specialized nicheproject manager, vol-
to the analysis,design, planningand realization-
one of the objectives of aproject, extending it in all the
its characteristics and evolutionary phases, in accordance with precise
constraints (time, cost, resources, objectives, quality). According to the
PMBOK[1](published byPMIproject management
it is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and tec-
identify all the activities of a project in order to achieve them
objectives.
Detail of the Trajan's Column, Rome
The placement in a finite time frame distinguishes the
project fromoperational processes of a company(the so-called-
the activities ofroutine) which are instead permanent or semi- of the abilitiesengineering(present especially in the
permanent and are aimed at producing in a repetitive manner military geniusof thelegions), and both for theovercoming of-
the same product or service. It is precisely the different nature of
slavery, which made it more difficult to achieve.
these activities require the development of philosophies, attitudes the large projects due to the increase in costs caused
and different approaches for their management. from the gradual decrease in free labor
The main challenge of project management is to by collapsing the classictriangle of constraintsdel
achieve the project objectives while staying within project management - looking ahead).
of the perimeter constituted by the classic constraints determines A testament to how, even in ancient times, the idea of managing
you give the context of the client, usually thecost, he complex resources in a diffuse project perspective and in
timeand the purpose (in the sense also of thequality) The sfi- some structured way, it is useful to cite theOn the Gallic War
from secondary - but no less ambitious - is that of within paragraphs XVII, XVIII, and XIX of book IVGiulio
optimize resource allocationand integrate the in- Caesardescribe the technical and organizational details (times,
necessary to achieve the defined objectives. These objectives, materials used, resource management of the
The endless challenges must be addressed by solving the pro- construction of abridge on the Rhineduring the quin-
problems and mitigating the risks that each project incurs tacampaign in Gaul2. Few lines, how surprising-
diverse, will still be found along its way. minds contain common fundamental elements to a
modern project plantext and inline translation
Book IV On the Gallic War).
1 Historical notes on project management
In the modern era, project management has developed.
ment starting from various fields of application including the
construction sector, theindustrial engineering, thedefense
(logisticse military organic) and, in more recent times, the
Fundamentals of a project management culture are realization ofsoftwareOne of the earliest contributions
developed since ancient times in various civilizations The most important was given by the American engineer.
geographically distant and with weak ties between them. Henry Gantt, which was introduced in the early years of theXX dry-
TheEgyptian pyramids(to thePyramid of Cheopsthey worked thea planning technique still remembered today with
100,000 men for 20 years), theColosseum(erected in 10 his nameGantt chartstill part essen-
years and the greatRoman aqueducts, they remain testimonies- the development of every planning activity, previously deviated
concrete steps of projects that could not have been Gantt chart to support the introduction of the teo-
they will be developed in the absence of a good culture in the field
Taylor's laugh[3]of which he was an important collaborator. On the
delete project management.
based on his work, other sounds were subsequently born
The ability to manage large projects diminished in the fundamental concepts widely used in the practices of
the course of Western civilization is both for the disintegration of project management and for the allocation of resources
Roman imperial system, which led to the dispersion and that ofwork breakdown structure(WBS), used

1
2 3 THE ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER

to represent the structure of project activities. a complete and concise guide to the standards and of-
During theSecond World Warand in the period- the essential guidelines for project management practices
Management. TheInternational Project Management Association
In the following, the first true and proper ones [Link]
structured according to a modern conception of the project tion(IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undertaken
a similar direction by establishing the IPMA Competence Ba-
management. HeManhattan Projectlaunched by the government
seline (ICB). Both organizations are participating
no of [Link] the aim of being the first to achieve
Now he is working on the development of a standardISOfor the project
nuclear weapons ahead of ongoing efforts by
management.
part of the Nazi government, it is recognizable as the first
large project organized according to a scientific model
scientifically similar to the large current projects. The physi-
withRobert Oppenheimerhe was appointed director 2 Project Objectives
in 1942, leveraging his organizational skills (as well as
obviously his deep theoretical knowledge of ar- The project's objectives define the results to be achieved.
treated subjects) managed to provide an organizational form and to reach the end of the project, necessary results for the
a deep motivation for the entire project team achievement of the expected benefits by the clients. The
about 700 people worked for several years). In addition to the objectives can be formulated in the best way you
Gantt chartsand other techniques and tools inform- reaffirming adherence to the requirements indicated by theacrostic
In the years following 1950, other developments were [Link] from English as 'intelligent',
important techniques: thePERT(Program Evaluation and sly
Review Techniquedeveloped by the companyBooz Allen
Hamiltonfor the development project ofPolaris missileyes
part of theUnited States marina(in collaboration with the •Specific/Simple (that is, well-defined and clear)
you understandable)
Lockheed Corporation) and theCPM(Critical Path Method)
jointly developed byDuPont Corporationand
Measurable (or at least assessable) in its
Remington Rand Corporationto manage the projects of ma- accessibility
maintenance of industrial plants. In the following years-
These techniques spread widely and quickly. Acceptable (in the sense of 'considered achievable')
in the industrial world. from the people involved in the project
Modern project management is aculturethat comes
especially from the experience gained from the management of pro- Relevant (i.e. important for the client, to the
to give a clear and strong mandate to those
complex issues. Among the first to highlight this approach-
both as Project Manager and as a consultant of the who have responsibilities in the project
major Companies, Businesses, and Clients has beenRussell Timed/Traceable (in the sense that it must be
D. Archibald. achieved by a certain date and being able to be
Themanagement engineeringit evolved and, thanks to the pioneering work tracked in its progress
artistic ofHans Langand others, technologies were developed
for the estimation of project costs and for cost management. The measurement (or evaluation) of the achievement of a
In the1956the "American Association of Co- The objective can/should be verified at the end of the project.
st Engineers” (orAACE InternationalAssociation for However, continuous active monitoring of progress towards
the Advancement of Cost Engineering”) from the pri- each objective should be monitored and evaluated
my practitioners of project management and related practices periodically during the course of the project.
(planning, cost estimateproject co-control
(sti/planning). AACE has continued its activities. Theproject communication, not to be confused with
of the development of technological standards and in the2006it is necessary
the communication to the client of the project results
let out theTotal Cost Management Framework" (version it is a process aimed at understanding the objectives
PDF of the bookdeveloped by John Hollman . [4] and enhance project content to a quantity
of different and differentiated publics. For example, promote the
In the1969was founded in theProject Management Institute project, its purposes and the organization that implements it,
(PMI) with the aim of spreading and strengthening the practices
at the Media (press office), at internal targets (top
if project management through the assertion of one management, financing, corporate communication, etc.) or
standard, based on the belief that different cam- use their values for corporate marketing[5].
the application of project management, from theConstruction
everyoneSoftware engineeringthey had a wide base co-
myself in technologies and management methodologies of
projects. In the1981the PMI Steering Committee authorizes
The role of the Project Manager
the development of theGuide to the Project Management Body
of Knowledge(also known asPMBOK The management of a project is usually entrusted to a
project manager, which sometimes participates directly in the
4.2 Project variables: the project constraint triangle 3

activities that make it up, but mainly focuses on value the amount of work needed (the so-called-
lizza in the coordination and control of the various com- to complete each task, determining
components and the different actors involved with the aim of of the type of resources (human and non) needed
minimize the probability of failure. to their realization;
Upon completion of theprojectusually the product or ser- calculate the completion times for each task in
realized goals are taken over by a figure operating based on the number of resources assigned to them;
different narrative, typically theProduct Manageror theService
Manager. determine personnel costs for implementation
ne of each task by multiplying the amount of work-
In large-scale projects, the activity of project mana-
Management can be delegated to multiple people: it is realized
Estimated effort for the average costs of the types
of identified resources; add the costs of the others
so a project management group. Commonly
materials and/or services needed;
within the group there is a leader who is still called
to the project manager, this is accompanied by other people determine thecritical pathbased on the dependencies
that are involved in the management activities of parts of the of those existing within the WBS;
project according to a view for system components
or for specific areas. These are sometimes referred totask calculate the total time (the so-called elapsed)
manager. I am sending the times of all the tasks that are inside.
of the critical path;

determine the total cost by summing the costs

4 Fundamental Concepts and Techniques
(personnel + materials + services) of all tasks.

Considering that both internationally and in Italy there are This procedure is made much simpler by the
a considerable amount of methodologies and techniques available planning control tools, which
that correlate to the theory and practice of project management allow you to represent the structure of the associated tasks
there are fundamental concepts and techniques to allWBS, view theGantt charte cer-
recurring in most existing approaches. which is the best plan setup that optimizes usage
of resources and minimizes the risks present in the planning
action, with the constraint of staying within the time of
4.1 Project estimation realization requested by the client.

The dimensional estimation of a project is one of the first

crucial activities on which the success of the project depends and
the fate ofproject managerThere are multiple techniques-
to quantify the time and costs necessary to carry out
on a project or, if you will, its duration. In projects
complexes, in order to make it as objective as possible and
The estimate is reliable, it is strongly recommended to produce-
at least two independent estimates possibly produced
with different techniques, then proceeding to carry out a
reconciliation that produces a convergence. The hard-
the project naturally depends on the structure of
adopted planning, in particular from the degree of paralysis
halism between the activities that make up the project, paral-
lealism around you dependent on the number of resources im-
Bend. The common steps for most techniques
the planning includes:

Identify the elementary activities (tasks) necessary

to produce thedeliverableassociated with each element Project constraints triangle
to dellwork breakdown structureWBS and their
dependencies;

represent the decomposition of the task in a 4.2 Project variables: the triangle of
Gantt charthighlighting the inter- project constraints
relations between the different elements of the project (macro-
activities or work packages, task outputs) on a scale Just like any other human effort, projects also
storm made and released in a context subject to de-
4 4 BASIC CONCEPTS AND TECHNIQUES

terminate constraints. Traditionally, these constraints are 4.2.2 Cost/Resources

not listed purpose/quality, time and cost/resources.
Often the image of the triangle is used for The costs necessary to develop a project depend mainly on
Project management (where each side represents a constraint - mainly from various variables: quantity and quality of
lo), to represent their correlation: each constraint- allocated resources, labor costs, material costs and/or
color cannot be changed without impacting others of externally purchased services,risk management
that is, each parameter is a function of the other two. how much is spent/saved to mitigate the main
An additional variant of this SEPA constraints system risks), control costs and project administration
ra the 'quality' (or 'performance') from the 'purpose', transform- to, facilities and tools available, reassessment of
sending it in atetrahedronwith four related constraints among costs (in the case of multi-year projects), indirect costs.
they.
The time constraint indicates the amount of time available
4.2.3 Purpose/Quality
the per to complete the project. The constraint cost/resource rap-
presents the available budget for the project and the timing
The purpose of the project, that is, the results that must be
by the same, the set of resources available to the pro-
products, is strongly correlated to quality and/or to the
It is evident that there is a direct correlation between cost and resource.
it assigned). The binding scope/quality represents how many performance of what must be released. Thequalitypro-
it represents the accuracy with which the results are achieved.
this must be done to achieve the expected results from the
they adhere to the agreed requirements, in the sense that
project both in terms of requirements and quality criteria
tà/performance. These three constraints are closely related. fully satisfy the required requirements and even-
relating: increasing the purpose typically means to raise they currently add further value for the client
estimate the time and costs/resources of the project; reduce the to. To ensure satisfactory adherence (zero surprises-
it is necessary to invest greater effort in the phase
time often requires higher costs (larger resources)
of project engagement, arriving at defining with the m-
and a more limited purpose; a tight budget (less re-
for the utmost precision possible the requirements and acceptance criteria
sources) may imply longer times and/or a reduction
of the purpose. actions that will have to be used to evaluate the results
products (features and performance).
It is precisely the theory of project management that provides
the tools and techniques that allow the team to pro-
aim to organize one's work within this 4.3 The Risk
system of constraints optimizing everything.
An alternative representation of the constraints consists of- The discipline of project management has among its own prin-
to choose as variables the cost, the time and the resources The goal is to keep the variables under control.
humane. If it is necessary to finish a project in a shorter timeof the project, consisting of the variables already described in the
the assigned people can be increased, which increases sectionproject constraints triangleto which are added
There will also be costs for the likely increase in inefficiency. Irish.
in the allocation of resources. Theriskcan be defined as a potential cause
on the failure of the project or, in other words, an event
potentially capable of jeopardizing the rag-
achievement of project objectives. The majority par-
4.2.1 Time the risks with negative impacts can be solved (or for
the least mitigated) intervening in the planning of
The dependencies between internal tasks and those from external events - project and having more time and/or more resources
the supply of products or materials that serve resources. According to some definitions (including the third edition-
the input of a determinative task) can impact the dunes ofPMBOKa risk can also be classified
rate of the project, often introducing it into real projects as positive in the sense that it can be associated with it
the need to revise the previous planning. A potential opportunity (e.g.: complete the project
Another classic factor that affects timing relates to the initial forecast, due to the introduction of resources.
availability of resources, rather than hiring (in additional or a simplification of it). The clients of
estimation phasesignificant productivity/performance - a project can sometimes impose a worsening on the go -
the mind is different from that of the actual team. In the mind about the three variables of the triangle: time, cost/resources,
For most medium to large projects, the measurement of purpose/quality. The remaining variables, risks in fact, de-
the advancement, control, and adaptation of the plan must be managed by the project team and primarily
they are part of the periodic routine activities of theproject project managerthrough a solid initial estimate and ac-
managerTime is not considered a cost nor a burden, and the use of efficient planning techniques.
resource, given that theproject managercannot control - and reactive. Both the determination of these variables (time-
the speed at which it passes; this makes the difference in cost/resources, purpose/quality) is the approach to be used
fundamental with the other constraints. towards the Irish project, they are usually set through
 5

a negotiation process between the parties that reflects 16. Quality assurance (minimization
in the initial contract (whether formal or informal). of non-conformities)
A good project manager, in addition to deep knowledge Identification, management and control of variations
of these variables, usually has a good experience an- of purpose (change request to change control)
in the processes of integration, communication, management
of human resources, quality assurance (Qua- 18. Project closure and resource disallocation
Quality Assurance), planning and management of purchases
Procurement 19. Management of the acceptance of produced results

20. Project communication(which actually starts from

4.4Deliverableof project management activity point 2) or dissemination
nagement 21. Notification of the results obtained to the clients

Deliverables in the context of project management are

identifiable in a set of documents, to which reference is made Alongside these, there are transversal activities that underlie
it hurts likeProject Management Plan. Such documents- not all the application of the so-called "Soft skills", less tech-
they also aim to align the expectations of more focused on the motivation of work groups
and to the interpersonal relationship.
sponsor, of theclientsand the team ofproject.

5 Articulation of activities of 6 Methodological Approaches

project management
The approaches used in the field of project management
consist of different methodological approaches that can be adopted for
Project management consists of various types of activities:the management of a project's activities, which include
agile, interactive, incremental, and based approaches
1. Analysis and definition of objectives and events thatsuccession of predefined phases.
they lead (the so-called compelling events)
Many of them refer to thePMBOKdeveloped by
[Link] work according to the objectives Project Management InstituteAmong the most important
give for examplereview of Max Widemanthey can
3. Identification and control of Risksrisk manage to be consideredRUP, PRINCE2[6], TenStep, SDLC.
ment)
4. Evaluation and planning of the necessary resources
5. Allocation/deallocation of resources
6. Organization of work and processes
7. Acquisition of human resources and materials
necessary phases of project development
8. Task assignment
Regardless of the approach used, a specific-
9. Direction and coordination of activities careful attention must be given to the clear definition of the
goals/objectives of the project and their implications; an-
10. Measurement of the project's advancement the clear definition of roles and responsibilities of
(project metrics) all the actors involved, including the clients, play a
11. Analysis of the results obtained based on the facts decisive and theimportance for the success of the project.
collected information In the case of very complex projects (for example, in the ca-
of a set of related projects) and in any case
12. Definition and control of corrective actions
necessary with the re-submission of the project in compliance with the of significant impacts of projects on the involved organizations
go back and on their processes, the project must be considered
objectives
mouse within a more global approach, acting on
13. (Ri) forecasts of time, costs and other indicators of of the planChange managementwho deals mainly
project to manage the human and organizational impact of a
transformation within a business context and/or
[Link] management social
15. Management and problem solving Among the main existing approaches are:
6 10 NOTE

Theclassical approachwhich is effectively represented regardless of most of the methodologies used-

from the orthodox side ofPMBOKdeveloped byProjectthe development of a project can be structured in
Management Instituteand to which various other phases are connected:
frameworkMethod 123, TenStep);
•set-up and start-up, directed to
ItRational Unified Process(RUP) constituted by determine the nature and purpose of the project;
aframeworkfor the iterative development of products
software created by Rational Software Corporation; planning and design, aimed at organizing
the times and the releases ofdeliverableand identify the
The approach ofCritical chain(chain/path cry- project requirements;
tico) that focuses on the availability of resources-
if not only on the logical dependencies between activities of execution (or production of results), which with-
last in the implementation of the necessary processes to
project;
satisfy the project requirements;
Project management approaches based on pro-
monitoring and control of the project, aimed at os-
cessi (Process-based management) that derive from to preserve and measure the execution of the project (through
a generalization of the concept of control
the indicators defined in theProject metrics) in
project
way to identify risks and potential in time
to identify problems and take action when necessary
corrective actions aimed at getting the project back on track
7 Project Management Systems with their own objectives;

completion and release of results, directed to for-

malize the acceptance of thedeliverablerelax and
the execution of all "administrative" activities
addressed to close all pending matters.

8 Tools for Project Management

ment
Project management tools can be in-
thesis is like the techniques used to support the rea-
realization of project management activities, both co-
me and the software products that implement such tools
they provide it in conjunction with an integrated set
Monitoring and control cycle of services and/or features. For a list of tools
more widespread, refer to the entryProject tools
Systems used for the management of aproject, but is- management.
being functional to project management approaches
used, have (at least partially) characteristics in
common that can be used by different approaches 9 Rules for Project Management
Yes. Following the traditional approach, the development of a
the project includes five components: the four phases of In 2012, the international standard was published.
development plus control. ISO 21500:2012 'Guidance on project management'
The control phase of a project is carried out through published in Italy as UNI ISO 21500:2013 'Gui-
towards the implementation of acontrol systemdirect from project management
to govern a set of aspects that includes (not neces- intended to be used in any type of organization
essentially all the listed variables) the costs, the risks, the zation, public, private or community, and for whatever
quality, communications, timelines, human resources, the if type of project, regardless of complexity,
scope variations, the management of purchases. A system size or duration.
accurate control requires definition and manages the
measurement of an appropriate set of indicators (e.g.:
Earned Value) aimed at keeping under control and provides- 10 Note
regarding the trend of the main variables mentioned above;
these indicators, partly standard and partly definable in [1] Project Management InstituteGuide to Project Management
based on the specific nature of the project, are part of the Body of Knowledge, 3rd ed., Project Management
Project metrics. Institute, 2003,ISBN1-930699-22-0.
11.2 Books in English 7

Cesare,On the Gallic WarIV, 17 Antonello [Link], Project management: the method-
Logia of the 12 Steps, 1st edition, Hoepli Publisher, 2008
[3] F.W. TaylorThe scientific organization of work,
ISBN978-88-203-3970-8.
Milan, Etas Kompass, 1967.

[4] John HollmannTotal Cost Management Framework Sergio Gerosa, Roberto Somma, Techniques and Me-
methodologies of Project Management: the management of
Morgantown WV, AACE International, 2006.
complex programs with particular reference
In various cases, communication proceeds through the in the space sector, Aracne Editrice, 2011,ISBN
disseminationthat is the process of disseminating the results 978-88-548-4049-2.
and the benefits of a project (especially if it is about re-
search) in the academic and scientific world and directed
to thetechnology transfer. 11.2 Books in English
[6]The PRINCE2 Guide - A to Z, FAQ and 1000+ Exam
Questions Scott Berkun, Art of Project Management, Cam-
Bridge, MA, O'Reilly Media, 2005ISBN0-596-
The division into 5 phases is common to many methodologies00786-8.
and corresponding to the 5 macroprocesses indicated by thePMBOK
IEEE Std 1490-2003. Fred Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month, 20th An-
Anniversary Edition, Addison Wesley, 1995,ISBN
0-201-83595-9.
11 Bibliography Frigenti E Comninos D &, The Practice of Project
Management - a guide to the business-focused ap-
11.1 Books in Italian proach, Kogan Page, 2002,ISBN0-7494-3694-8,
* Flyvbjerg, Bent, (2006). “From Nobel Prize to
Russel D. Archibald, Project Management - The ge- Project Management: Getting Risks [Link]
Question of Complex Projects and Programs, 3rd ed. Management Journal, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 5-15..
Franco Angeli, 2004,ISBN978-88-464-5179-8.
•Gary Heerkens, Project Management (The Brie-
Project Management Institute, Guide to Project fcase Book Series), McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN
Management Body of Knowledge, 3rd ed., Project 0-07-137952-5.
Management Institute, 2003,ISBN1-930699-22-0.
Yamal Chamoun, Professional Project Manager
Harold Kerzner, Project management. Planning ment, THE GUIDE, 1st Edition, Monterrey, NL
yes, scheduling and project control, 1st ed. (8th MEXICO, McGraw Hill, 2006,ISBN970-10-
English edition), Hoepli, 2005,ISBN88-203-3426-7. 5922-0.

Lucio Bianco, Massimiliano Caramia, Quantitative methods James Lewis, Fundamentals of Project Management
Titatives for project management, 1st ed., Alpha ment, 2nd ed., American Management Association,
Test, 2006,ISBN88-203-3666-9. 2002ISBN0-8144-7132-3.

Brizio Leonardo Tommasi, Massimiliano Caramia Meredith, Jack R. and Mantel, Samuel J., Project
Project management and human resources, 1st ed. Management: A Managerial Approach, 5th ed.
Franco Angeli, 2009,ISBN978-88-568-0675-5. Wiley, 2002,ISBN0-471-07323-7.

Brizio Leonardo Tommasi, Massimiliano Cara •Stellman, Andrew and Greene, Jennifer, Applied
mia, Maturity metrics in Project mana- Software Project Management, Cambridge, MA,
Management, 1st ed., Franco Angeli, 2012,ISBN O'Reilly Media, 2005,ISBN0-596-00948-8.
978-88-204-0795-7.
Thayer, Richard H. and Yourdon, Edward, Software
Marion E. Haynes, Project management: from the idea Engineering Project Management, 2nd Ed., Wiley-
on implementation. A practical guide to success., 7th IEEE Computer Society Press, 2000,ISBN0-8186-
edition, Franco Angeli, 2004,ISBN88-204-7462-X. 7992.

•ISIPM - Edited by E. Mastrofini and E. Rambaldi, S. Jonathan WhittyA Memetic Paradigm of Pro-
Guide to Basic Project Management Certification Project Management(PDFInternational Journal of
Management, 1st ed., Franco Angeli, 2008ISBN Project Management, 23 (8) 575-583, 2005.
88-464-9706-6.
Whitty, S.J. and Schulz, [Link] impact of Puritan
•Sebastian Nokes, Sean Kelly, The project mana- ideology on aspects of project management(PDF),
Management: techniques and processes, 2nd ed., Pearson International Journal of Project Management, 25 (1)
Education Italy, 2008,ISBN978-88-7192-500-4. October 20, 2007
8 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

Stephen R. Pettee,As-builts – Problems & Pro-

posed Solutions(PDFConstruction Management
Association of America, 2005.

Eric Verzuh, The Fast Forward MBA in Project Management

Management, 2nd, Wiley, 2005ISBN0-471-69284-0,
(pbk.)

12 Related Voices

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14 External links
• Project Management Institute – North Italy Chapter,
PMI Rome Italy Chapter, PMI South Italy

• Project Management, inOpen Directory Project,

Netscape Communications.( Reporton DMoz an
relevant connection to the topic "Project Manage-
ment
 9

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