INTRO.

INTEGRATION METHODS (II)

This topic continues with the integration methods started in the previous chapter, in which...
Starting from the concept of primitives and the derivatives of elementary functions, the obtained ...
immediate integrals, either directly or by change of variables.

The most basic techniques will be studied to immediately reduce those integrals that are not.
integration by parts, integrals of quotients of polynomials by decomposition into partial fractions
and reduction formulas.

All integration methods aim to transform a given non-immediate integral into another, or
sum of several, whose calculation is simpler.

Integration by parts involves breaking down an integral into a sum of a product of functions plus
an integral that is supposedly simpler than the starting one.

The decomposition into partial fractions of a quotient of polynomials transforms it into a sum of
fractions whose integrals can be easily solved.

Finally, the reduction formulas allow, in some cases, to solve integrals that depend on a
natural number if the value of the integral that depends on the previous or ante-previous number is known. Thus,
example, as of

It will be possible to calculate the integrals of sin(2x), sin(3x), sin(4x), etc.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

This method allows solving a large number of non-immediate integrals.

[Link] functions of the variable x; that is, u = f(x),

v = g(x).

2. The formula for the derivative of a product of two functions, applied to af(x) · g(x), allows us to write,

d(f(x) · g(x)) = g(x) · f'(x)dx + f(x) · g'(x)dx

3. Integrating the two members,

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This is not the usual formula for integration by parts. Since u = f(x), du = f'(x)dx, and letting v = g(x), dv
= g'(x)dx. Bringing these results to the previous equality,

How to solve an integral by parts

This method consists of identifying a part of the integral and dv with the rest, with the intention that when
Applying the obtained formula, the integral of the second member is easier to obtain than the first. No
Hey, and this is the biggest problem with this procedure, a fixed rule for making the identifications more
Convenient. The resolution of a good number of problems is the best way to acquire the technique.
necessary.

However, they are often identified with some functions of the positive simes; negative simes, it is
preferably identify condvaxmdx. They are also usually identified with the functions ln x, arc sin x, arc tan xy
condv, exdx, sin x dx, cos x dx, etc.

Before starting to practice this method, it should be kept in mind that when making the dedv identification, this
it must always contain adx.

Exercise: integration by parts

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

Resolution:

This is one of the simplest cases; the integral consists of a single function,

ln x.

Resolution:

It can be resolved by making different changes:

a) The identification, in this case, can be u = sin xy dv = sin x dx

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Deu = sen x deduce, differentiating, quedu = cos x dx.

Since cos2x = 1 - sin2x,

Upon obtaining in the second member the starting integral again, one can conclude that there has not been
advanced in the purpose of calculating the integral. It is not

b) This integral also allows the identification u = sin2x, dv = dx

Differentiating, du = 2sin x cos x dx = sin2x dx

Applying the formula of integration by parts,

Siu = x, du = dx.

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Returning to equality (1)

One should not be fooled by the appearance that the results obtained are different; in
reality are the same. If in the second expression you substitute cos2x for its value, cos2x − sin2x, and sin2x for
yours, 2sin x cos x, is obtained:

Resolution:

By applying the formula,

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Resolution:

ð Llamandou = x, du = dx;

Resolution:

Let the substitution be u = x²; differentiating, du = 2x dx

By applying the formula,

Thus,

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Bringing this result to (1),

INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

polynomials.

Immediate rational integrals

They are those that become a sum of immediate integrals simply by dividing p(x) by q(x). For that reason
It is necessary that the degree of p(x) is greater than or equal to the degree of q(x).

It is known that in a division D = d · c + r. Dividing both sides by the divisor, d,

In general, for polynomials, sip(x) is the dividend, q(x) the divisor, c(x) the quotient, and r(x) the remainder.

Exercise: calculation of integrals of rational functions

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

Resolution:

The quotient is 1 and the remainder is -1.

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Resolution:

The polynomials are divided.

x2 - 5x + 4 = (x + 1)(x - 6) + 10

The quotient is x - 6 and the remainder is 10.

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

There are, however, rational integrals that do not easily convert into immediate ones. To solve them it is
I need to use partial fraction decomposition.

QUOTIENT INTEGRALS ( I )

A simple fraction is any proper fraction of polynomials (the degree of the numerator is strictly
less than the degree of the denominator), whose denominator is in the form (ax + b)n or (ax2 + bx + c)n if the
The polynomial ax² + bx + c has no real roots, and n is a natural number.

of the numerator, p(x), is strictly less than the degree of the denominator, since if the degree of the numerator
if it were greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator, p(x) would be divided by q(x), obtaining a quotient c(x) and a
restore(x), in which case the integral

It is the assumed case, since the degree of the remainder, r(x), in a polynomial division is strictly less.
what is the degree of the divisor q(x).

Integration method by decomposition into simple fractions

To solve this type of integrals

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the following method is used:

1. The polynomial q(x) is factored, that is, the roots of the equation q(x) = 0 are found.

in the examples.

3. The resulting addends are combined.

Now, when solving the equation q(x) = 0, it is possible to find different results and these can be
classify into three cases:

obtaining simple roots (no root is repeated).

obtaining multiple roots (at least one root is repeated).

Obtaining imaginary roots (complex numbers).

One must study each of the cases.

A) Simple real roots are obtained.

Six1, x2, ..., xn are the simple roots of q(x), it is given:

A1, A2, ..., An are constants that need to be determined. As can be seen, the resulting integrals are
immediate.

Exercise: calculation of integrals

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

Resolution:

Since the degree of the numerator, 3, is greater than that of the denominator, 2, the polynomials are divided and the result is:

x3 − 3x2 + 1 = (x2 − 1) (x− 3) + (x− 2)

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It therefore has two distinct simple roots, 1 and -1.

Since the denominators are equal, the numerators must also be equal:

x - 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x - 1).

To determine A and B, the values ax are given:

six= 1, 1 − 2 =A(1 + 1) +B(1 − 1), − 1 = 2A, A= − 1/2

six = -1, -1 - 2 = A(-1 + 1) + B(-1 - 1), -3 = -2B, B = 3/2

It should be noted that, although arbitrary values can be given to axse, in this case those have been chosen
they cancel one of the addends to simplify the calculations. This will be a very widespread procedure.

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

B) Multiple real roots are obtained.

It is a multiple root of multiplicity n (it is repeated n times), the

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A1, A2, A3, ..., An are again constants to be determined. Again, the integrals

Example: calculation of integrals

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

Resolution:

Since the degree of the numerator, 2, is less than that of the denominator, 3, the polynomials are not divided.

The roots of the polynomial x³ - 3x + 2 are obtained by applying Ruffini's rule:

x3 - 3x + 2 = (x - 1)² (x + 2)

The polynomial has a simple root, -2, and a multiple root, 1, of multiplicity two.

The decomposition into partial fractions of the fraction is:

As in the previous case, the numerators are equated and arbitrary values are given to determine A, B.
C.

x^2 + 3x - 5 = A(x - 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x - 1)^2

Therefore,

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ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

C) Imaginary roots are obtained

(the imaginary number i^2 = -1).

Each pair of conjugate imaginary roots determines a simple fraction of the

1. The numerator is added and subtracted Að and is decomposed into the following two integrals:

These two integrals are immediate by applying a change of variable:

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[Link]:

Observe that C1 + C2 = C

For this third case, only the integrals in which the imaginary roots of the denominator are studied.
simple.

INTEGRALS OF quotients ( II )

Exercise: calculation of integrals

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

Resolution:

By solving the quadratic equation x² + 2x + 5 = 0, the roots are obtained.

- 1 + 2iy - 1 - 2i, so that

x^2 + 2x + 5 = (x + 1 - 2i)(x + 1 + 2i) = (x + 1)^2 + 4.

Despite having applied the formula, it should not be memorized as it is easily forgotten.
ease. It is advisable to apply the theoretical process step by step:

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The two integrals are solved separately.

Therefore,

d) Summing the results deb) and c). (C1 + C2 = C),

result equal to that obtained by directly applying the formula.

Resolution:

The roots of the denominator are calculated.

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It has the roots x = 0, simple, and x = -3, double. Thus,

x(x^2 + 6x + 9) = x(x + 3)^2

Equaling the numerators,

2x + 5 = A(x + 3)^2 + Bx(x + 3) + Cx

Values ax are given:

Thus,

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Resolution:

Roots of (x− 2) (x² + 2x + 4):

Decomposition into simple fractions:

The numerators are identified and values are given ax:

3x^2 + 5 = A(x^2 + 2x + 4) + (Mx + N)(x - 2)

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Then:

ðððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððððð

REDUCTION FORMULAS

There are integrals that cannot be solved by any of the methods described; however, it is possible
find some formulas, called reduction formulas, that will allow solving certain integrals that depend on
a natural number n, as long as the integral for n - 1 and n - 2 can be resolved.

As seen, the subindex coincides with the exponent.

To find the reduction formula for In, it will be integrated by parts:

Moving − (n− 1)In to the first member and isolating In,

In (1 + n - 1) = -cos x · sin n - 1x + (n - 1) · In - 2

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n · In = - cos x · sin - 1x + (n - 1) · In - 2

Thus: I0 = x, I1 = -cos x

it's enough to realize that cos x = sin(90º − x), therefore

and making the variable change 90º - x = y, dx = - dy.

Like this:

Returning to the change y = 90º - x, we have:

cos y = cos(90º − x) = sin x;

senn - 1y = senn - 1(90º - x) = cosn - 1x

Concluding that:

Adding and subtracting x2 to the numerator,

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The second integral is solved by parts:

u = x, du = dx

Where from,

Returning to expression (1), we obtain:

Operating,

Thus, it would be obtained, for example:

It should be noted that although there are methods to calculate a large number of integrals, these are not always
they are simple; there are even unsolvable integrals.

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