Project management

UFR SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES

DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES

MASTER IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING AND SEWAGE

MODULE: PROJECT MANAGEMENT FOR DEVELOPMENT

YEAR 2018-2019

Malick Diop
Agricultural Economist

I. Some definitions of project

A project is a set of elements integrated with the aim of achieving a goal.

according to a previously defined plan

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EDDY BATISTE

A project is a set of means implemented in a coordinated manner. It must

to pursue a development outcome and contribute to the achievement of objectives
planning
Hubert WALLOT

A project can be defined as a set of limited investments and activities.

in the past and whose result will help improve the quality of life of a group
of beneficiaries given. A project is time-limited.

"It is an activity determined with a specific starting point and a precise endpoint, aimed at
achieve a specific goal.
([Link])

A project is a complete set of activities and operations that consume

limited resources from which we expect income or other monetary benefits.
S. MICHAILOF

As can be seen, there is no universally accepted definition; but we

can be retained based on essential characteristics (objective, duration, resources), this
definition to know:

A project is a set of interdependent activities to be completed within a timeframe.

determine using limited means and resources and implemented in a way
coordinates in order to achieve objectives.

II - The project life cycle

A project has a life: it is born, it develops, and it dies (or ceases to be a project that has become...
permanent, that is to say a permanent activity).

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The life of a project includes stages which are:

1. identification
2. the preparation
3. the analysis (ex ante evaluation)
4. selection/ negotiation/ approval
5. the execution (the realization);
6. the transport and ex-post evaluation

Identification

It involves choosing from the projects or programs recorded in a plan.

development that presents a priority character. These ideas must, in principle,
achievable. The choice is based on macroeconomic analyses (to get an idea about the
national and global elements of economic situation) and sectoral (analysis of
needs and effective demand, analysis of the structure, behavior, and of the
performance of the sector in which the project will be integrated. During this phase, it will also be about
to identify target groups to whom the benefits and costs will go, to get an idea about the
potential supporters and partners and the order of magnitude of costs and revenues.
2. The preparation

It is the step involving a set of analyses to justify the feasibility.

technique, economic and social aspects of the project on one hand and to show, given the
circumstances, that the project is the best solution to the problem we are trying to
resolve after analyzing all the alternatives on the other hand.
It allows for anticipating potential problems and designing the solutions to address them.
In a development project, the preparation stage must encompass all aspects.
commercial, technical, organizational, institutional and social, economic and
necessary funding for the achievement of objectives.
It is also important to study and compare the different possible solutions that are available.
on a technical level, mainly, to achieve the objectives.
It is important, during this phase, to obtain the buy-in of stakeholders and ensure that there is
agreement among the various participants on the objectives.
3. Ex-ante evaluation (appreciation)

This is the third step and it is the most critical in terms of planning. Indeed
it depends on the quality of work done during the first two stages and it is here that

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the analyst (external: the decision-maker, the banker) will necessarily have to make a judgment
qualitative on the objectives aimed at and on the very viability of the project; we will take the same ones again.

elements only in the preparation phase and it will then depend on various criteria
establish to make a global judgment on the project

The few elements of judgment are:

- Does the project contribute effectively to the country's development? Is it?
relevant? Are the needs well expressed
- Is the project profitable enough for the investor to inject money into it?
funds and is it profitable for the company?
- Are the data used in the preparation phase valid?
- Is the business analysis valid?
- What is the administrative capacity of the organization responsible for the implementation of
Work? Is it sufficient?
- Are the objectives realistic, relevant, and is there coherence?
internet?

4. The selection / negotiation / approval

The decision-maker, based on the ex-ante evaluation, can choose the project or a variant of the project.
he can refuse or request additional studies.
If the project is selected, a negotiation phase begins that, if favorable,
about to sign a funding agreement. It is important that the staff
who prepared the project to be associated and to properly prepare this stage to ensure approval.

5. The implementation (the execution)

This phase corresponds to the implementation of the means provided for in the agreement.
financing aimed at achieving the expected results and the specific objective of the project. It
thus includes the preparation of execution plans and the writing of follow-up reports.
the implementation is the responsibility of the project's executing body, with the donor only intervening to

supervise the conduct of operations.

The implementation of a project is done in the following forms:

The implementation
The implementation of the investment phase

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The completion of the production phase

Control and rebalancing
5.1 The implementation
Before starting the project, we need to redo the design to ensure it is compliant with
result of the negotiation.
The implementation phase involves mobilizing the resources that will be used, to them
bring to an adequate level of quality and create the preconditions that have already been identified
so that these same resources are used efficiently. This is the period of formalization.
the commitments of the stakeholders and mobilizations of resources is the phase where the plan
operation transforms into activities.

5.2 The implementation of investments

Before the production of goods or services begins, the project includes a phase
investment that takes time and needs to be integrated into the planning.

5.3 The implementation of the Production phase

In this phase, particular attention must be given to the administrative system,
Internally to correct it as soon as possible if it proves inadequate to aid in effective management.
resources.
5.4 Control and Rebalancing
At regular intervals, the project must be monitored using the system that has been established.
The person will have the final responsibility for making the rebalancing decision in case the
the project would deviate from its intended objective.

6. Final evaluation and retrospectives

The final evaluation takes place six to twelve months after the execution phase. As for
The retrospective evaluation takes place a few years later (3 to 5 years). The objective aimed at
through this phase is to determine to what extent the overall objectives of the project have been
were achieved, in terms of impact, effects, and products.
The analysis of the results obtained also leads to the formulation of recommendations for
the orientation of similar future projects.

III - Strategic planning / Problem tree / Tree

of objectives / The logical framework

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1. Planning
What is the difference or nuance that exists between the different concepts we use?
often to know: planning, programming and program?
What is the difference or nuance between: planning, forecasting, and projection?
It is difficult to propose a definition of planning that is completely
satisfactory; each author having their own definition and it is this diversity of definitions
which allows us to identify certain elements that will enable us to characterize the approach
of planning
What are these characteristics:
Planning is primarily about the future: indeed, everyone agrees on that.
prospective character of planning whether it be an element of the function
administrative part of the management process or as an element
preliminary to the management process. As Bégin specifies, "Planning means
apply a process that leads to deciding what to do, how to do it, and how
evaluate what will be done before the action, that is to say before doing it
This forward-looking vision of planning can be operationalized in different ways.
models, using either a simple projection or extrapolation of the current situation
in the future; assuming that in the future all forces will continue to
play on the phenomena studied in the same way as currently; either to a
forecast, if we want to take into account possible or probable changes at the level of
these factors and in this last case we will develop an explanatory model that takes into account
the effect of these various factors on the phenomena under study
It is then assumed that all other things being equal, the planned objectives will be achieved if
the proposed measures are taken, and a second element refers to the feasibility of the
proposed actions involving an implementation and execution strategy adapted to
each of the situations
Planning involves a causal relationship between the action taken and the
expected results: it is the principle of determinism that calls upon elements
techniques, that is to say the plausible or demonstrated relationship between the proposed actions
and the objectives pursued
Planning induces action; indeed, the ultimate objective of planning is
the action, the change
Planning is a continuous and dynamic process and is multidisciplinary in nature.

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Planning is a process in which all stages are influenced by the environment.

socio-political context in which this process is inserted. The awareness of these elements is
determining for the success of the plans.
That is why the planner must identify the different stakeholders and recognize their
respective interests in the planning process
Planning is not identified with an exercise in forecasting; this function is an aspect of
planning, but it does not take into account all the organizational elements and
inherent strategic aspects of the planning process.

Problem tree / Objectives tree

2.1 Problem tree
2. 1. 1 Definition
The problem tree is an analysis tool that allows for the identification of a central problem and its
determine the causes and the consequences. The problem tree consists of three main
parties
2. 1. 2 Objectives
Visualize the complexity of problems
Identify and analyze the most relevant causes for the search for solutions.
2. 1. 3 Representation and construction
2. 1. 3. 1 - the trunk
It represents the problem being studied. An example of a problem could be water, the degradation of
sols, schistosomiasis, lack of pastures, child malnutrition, etc...

2. 1. 3. 2 - the roots
They represent the causes of the problem. Each cause should be represented by a
root. Thus, the more diversified the roots are, the more numerous the causes are. One identifies
the primary causes and then the secondary causes.

2. 1. 3. 3 - the branches
They represent the effects and consequences of the problem. Like the roots, each
branch must represent a consequence.
2. 1. 4 implementation process
1- Take a rather broad problem to encompass all the implications.
which are related to it.

2- List all identified problems

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3- Identify and note the main problem

Draw a tree trunk representing this problem
4- Inventory the causes of the main identified problem
5- Identify the causes of other problems by asking the question: 'Does the problem exist,'
because ..." or "what should we expect if nothing is done?" the direct causes
(primaries) are the roots and we study the causes for each root
secondary.
6- Identify the effects that stem directly from the problem by asking the question:
What does this problem lead to?
to the question: "the problem .... has as a result...." The effects and consequences
constitute the branches of the tree.
7- Verification of the tree: by looking at the relationship: 'phenomenon A leads to the
phenomenon B, etc...
8- Choice of the most important causes: From the tree, a choice is made among the
the most important causes that one thinks can and wants to act upon and that
one can master the solutions.
Note: The fruits of the tree can outline the different possible solutions.

2. 2. Objectives tree
The formulation of a project begins with the determination and definition of the problem.
that we seek to solve.
Several paths are possible to arrive at the solution to this problem and the choice of one of
these ways involve a logical, coherent, and specific approach.
A project consists of a set of interconnected and interdependent objectives.
under a type of hierarchical relationships
Thus, according to Robert Youker, the relationship between objectives is a cause-and-effect relationship or a
Means - Ends.
Thus, when developing the project, one begins with:
Define a global objective
Develop a set of means to achieve this objective
Consider each of these means as a sub-objective.
Define a set of more specific means to achieve these sub-
objectives, etc.
2.2.1 What is a goal tree

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It is a synoptic table of all the interdependent objectives that need to be achieved.

gradually to achieve the project's higher objective.
In other words, it consists of a graphic description of the project objectives related
hierarchically in a diagram.
This diagram takes the form of a tree whose branches represent Cause-
Effects or Means-Ends between the project's objectives
The objectives at the lowest levels of the hierarchy allow the achievement of the objectives.
superiors
By allowing the project to be broken down into objectives and their prioritization, it shows how
The achievements of objectives at different levels are linked and interdependent.
2. 2. 2 Importance
At the formulation stage, it helps to ensure that the project incorporates as much as possible of this.
who is necessary for achieving the overall objective of the project

At the execution phase, it allows the project management team to visualize the project in
terms of links between its components

It provides a graphical overview of the project goals.

It is an initial input to other management tools such as the Logical Framework, the Breakdown.
activities, the Performance Network, etc...

2. 2. 3 constructions of a goal tree

Each objective is expressed in terms of: Infinitive + Object + Qualifier

Example: to have prenatal vaccinations adopted by the women of the village.
The stages of construction
There are two approaches:
The first consists of:
a. Develop a list of objectives
Define the scope of the problem that the project addresses.
Identify all possible objectives without structuring or prioritizing them.
b. Identify a Global Object
It is the primary objective to which all other objectives are related.
Place this objective at the top of the hierarchy at the head of the tree.

c. Go down a level in the tree

Select the lower-level objectives
Trace the links between sub-goals and the main goal

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d. Continue the tree Level by Level

e. Revision the tree
Check that there are no missing objectives or that there is no level.
intermediate sauté
f. Check that we can measure the objectives at the lowest level
The second approach is to focus on the positive aspects of the identified problems.
level of the problem tree.

2. 3 - The logical framework

The so-called logical framework method (LFM) represents neither an approach nor a model.
evaluation particular. It should rather be conceived as a grid serving as a framework
organization of the dimensions of a project (hierarchy of objectives) and allowing them to
formulated according to precise rules.
In this sense, the logical framework method represents a framework for conceptualization and
description of an extremely valuable project.
The Logical Framework: Developed by USAID following an analysis of the system
project evaluation where it was noted that the current planning was inaccurate,
management was not well defined in relation to responsibilities, and the evaluation was carried out of
antagonistic way.
The logical framework approach was developed by a consulting firm funded by USAID.
to address these issues. And it was in 1974 that the logical framework became part
integral to the project management system at USAID. And from 1975, Canada and others
donors and countries have adopted the Logical Framework as a management tool.
2. 3. 1 What is a Logical Framework:
The logical framework is a set of intertwined concepts that can be used to formulate
a project explicitly described objectivity and evaluable. It aims to identify and clarify the links
logics between a project objective, the actions taken based on that objective, the
preliminary actions and the results.
The logical framework deals with these links in the form of hierarchical propositions that chain together.

causal elements to ultimate effects and provides a way to explain and describe
specifically the uncertainties within a project that may influence its execution and the
probability of success.
This is a formatting of the content of an intervention, presenting it in a way
systematic and logical, the objectives, the results and activities and their causal links. This

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is only possible after a thorough analysis of the available data, that is to say of the
(problems, objectives and possibilities) Problem Tree and Objective Tree
Besides this logic, the external factors (hypotheses) that can influence success
the intervention is also indicated.
These three steps of the situational analysis (problem analysis, objectives analysis,
analysis of strategies that take place in the 'Identification' phase allows for selection
a set of objectives.
The analysis of problems is the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between factors.
negatives of an existing situation. This analysis aims to identify the bottlenecks
real, important, and priority for the groups concerned. The analysis is presented in the form of
of a diagram where the effects are placed above and the causes below a problem
given.
The analysis of the objectives, for its part, allows for the conversion of the 'negative states' of the diagram.
problems in "positive states achieved". These positive states achieved are presented in a
diagram of objectives where the 'Means-Ends' hierarchy is visualized. It allows
to have a global and clear view of a desired positive situation.
The logical framework presents itself as a 4x4 matrix that provides a summary.
summary of the most important elements of the project, as well as their interrelations.

Logical Framework Diagram

H .O (N.O) IOV MV C.C (HYPOt)
Global/Sectoral Objective
Project Objective (specific objective) BUT (End situation of)
project)
Outputs/Products/Results
Inputs/ Activities Budget (Resources)

the overall objectives: These are the objectives whose level surpasses that of the project
(example: sub-sector) to which the intervention should contribute. Other projects
also contributes to achieving this overall objective.

The specific objective: These are the goals that the project aims to achieve. It is the why.
of the project, what the project aims for. It must be achieved during the intervention and with the

real probability that it will survive after the 'project' phase. Indeed, it is always about
sustainable benefits for target groups.

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the outputs / results: Products of the activities undertaken, which will be achieved together
the specific objective, that is to say the start of the 'cruise regime' of the
achieving sustainable benefits for target groups.

the inputs / activities: these are the tasks that the intervention must perform to achieve
the results. These are the activities (inputs) that consume resources in the case of
logical framework

objectively verifiable indicators (OVI): They demonstrate the results. As

what measures the results, they allow us to see if the objectives have been met well.
These are the necessary conditions to achieve these results. There is no relationship of
cause and effect; but they define in measurable details the levels that must be achieved
for the different specified objectives. The indicators are given in terms of quantity,
quality and deadline The indicators at the activity level are the physical means and not
physical resources (inputs) that are necessary to carry out the planned activities (outputs).

the means of verification: They indicate where and in what form they come from
information on the achievement of objectives and results (IOV)
the hypotheses or critical conditions! These are the external factors that are beyond
the direct influence of the intervention, but which are very important for achieving the
results

Uses of the logical framework

The logical framework is a fairly complex tool that can only be mastered after a
rather long practice and in a multidisciplinary team
Its usefulness primarily comes from its value as a communication tool for the whole of
concepts and objectives of a project.
It allows the manager to view a project as a whole on paper without reading everything.
a documentation to find the objectives, the indicators to measure them, and the
External conditions likely to influence the results of the project.
The main uses of the logical framework are:
1- As a communication tool to explain the project.
As a means of carrying out more complex planning
3- As a basis for developing an evaluation plan

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The value of the logical framework lies in its use and the method of its development. Indeed, if
The development was carried out collectively with the active participation of the individuals.
who will be responsible for planning and its execution, it can serve a dual
function by establishing both a consensus on the objectives and the means of monitoring the
progress and any potential changes.
As a means of communication, the logical framework indeed provides a written version of
project for those who have to make decisions. For the project manager, it constitutes a
guide excellent capable of briefly explaining the project's objectives, the outputs,
inputs, the necessary means for execution and factors beyond the control of
project manager but who could still influence the results.
It also serves as the basis for developing the evaluation plan of a project. The indicators
Objectively verifiable measures provide the metrics that can serve as a starting point.
to evaluate the project. With the means of verification, the manager could make a plan
which allows other interested parties to add the questions that will provide the basis for
the evaluation. The development of an evaluation plan can begin with the indicators
provided within the logical framework, but these must be completed with well-defined questions
elaborated that group the dimensions of the project that have evolved during its execution.
Integrated development projects or complex projects with multiple components, do not
cannot be detailed enough in a single logical framework, but requires several
logical frameworks to provide an overview of all activities.
The logical framework is a summary description that summarizes the analysis of the elements of

planning and project evaluation. It is not a technique for the identification of

projects.
It is also used to clarify the responsibilities of managers. Indeed, in
identifying the exogenous factors that may influence the possibility of achieving the goal of
project, the logical framework clarifies the elements that are beyond the control of the manager and also
those who fall under his responsibility.
The latter, represented in the boxes, Outputs and Inputs with their Indicators, encompass
what is called the "area of expertise" of the project manager. The manager does not
cannot be solely responsible for the success of the project; assumptions play a role in it.
important role. The manager must nevertheless ensure that the outputs are realized and that the
inputs are provided according to the standards established by the indicators of quantity, quality, and timing

The steps in developing the logical framework

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The preparation of a logical framework follows steps that correspond to the levels of the cells.
in the 4X4 matrix and on the two vertical and horizontal axes.
The vertical axis includes the causal links of the project. The horizontal axis includes the narration.
of the project, the indicators and the means of verification. In principle, the logic of the framework

logic presupposes that one can start anywhere in the 4x4 matrix to
complete the necessary logic. In reality, the task is easier to accomplish if one
start with the goal of the project.

Step 1: define the goal of the project

A project must have a single goal. If it has multiple goals, the project's objectives are no longer clear.
If a project is too complex, that is to say with more than one main component, it is
It is desirable to generate more than one logical framework to allow for a good development that does not

Don't mix too many elements in a group of activities.

The purpose of the project represents its reason for being, that is to say, the justification for the production of the

outputs.
In analytical terms, the goal includes the proposed solution for solving a problem.
specific good.

Step 2: identify the outputs that lead to the goal

The project's outputs are necessary but not sufficient to achieve the project's goal.
outputs are described as results. The goal in a well-designed project is not
a reformulation of the outputs. It must exist at an independent level and include the
main objectives of the intervention. Assumptions play an important role at the level
outputs because they join them to ensure that the project's goal can be achieved. It is
It is important to note that planning must take place under the most realistic conditions.
possible. It is not just about hoping that the project's objectives can be
reached, the people in charge of planning must always rely on
the most complete information at the time of formulating the logical framework.

Step 3: identify the inputs that correspond to the outputs

The inputs seek to identify the project activities and are always expressed in the infinitive.
(e.g.: training staff, building the school, etc...) There is a trend in the employment of management.
logic to formulate several levels as inputs instead of seeing the difference between the
activities of a project and its results. Each output can have several inputs, and the

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inputs are numbered to correspond to their outputs (e.g., Output 1 and inputs: 1.1; 1.2,
1.3 ; etc …)
In the case of the logical framework, one should not confuse inputs, which are activities of a
Project with resources. These resources serve as the raw material for the project.
According to the logical framework approach, the project's inputs consume these resources.

Step 4: set the overall objective of the project

After describing the levels Outputs - Outcomes - Inputs, one can move to the next level:
The overall objective. It must be realistic and well-targeted to avoid objectives that are proposed.
the improvement of all negative conditions in the country. It is better to have a goal
intermediary that truly allows the project to take a step towards its resolution. By
for example, it is better to increase the revenues of a defined sector of the economy than
to improve the living conditions of an entire country with a single goal.

Step 5: check the vertical logic

Verification is done by asking the questions: 'How?' and 'Why?'
The vertical logic of the project includes the structural development of the problem analysis.
what the project aims to solve, the proposed solution, actions to be taken to carry out
the solution.
The links between the four levels of the logical framework are expressed in hypotheses, that is to say
phrases like 'if therefore' that allow the analyst or manager to easily see the
internal structure of the project in terms of its validity and logic.
To cross the different levels of the framework, we ask ourselves two questions: the Why? in
amount; the response checks the content of the level where the question is asked in terms of level
immediately superior.
The question How? is asked in a descending manner. Here the answer confirms that the content of
Each level represents a logical sequence in terms of immediately lower.

Step 6: define the assumptions that influence each level

Assumptions play a very important role not only in the development of the framework
logic, but also in the definition of the manager's role and responsibilities. In
identifying the conditions that may influence the project's results, the
assumptions show that there are circumstances beyond the control of project management and
we must take into account. Sometimes, it is even desirable not to undertake a project

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when the conditions defined by the assumptions seem to be determining. The

assumptions of a project must address:
Economic, political and/or institutional conditions
Market conditions
3. Climate conditions
4. on the availability of resources

The assumptions should not include factors that depend solely on the intervention.
of the manager (demand that staff come to work regularly), nor the conditions
prerequisites between the interested governments, nor acts of God.
It is at the level of the goal that the presuppositions are the most important, as this would mean
that the inputs are not achievable.
The assumptions serve to identify the problems that may influence the results of the
project and to determine the responsibility for ensuring certain aspects. They should not serve as
"feeding basin" to accumulate all the tasks that the manager does not want
to accomplish. It specifies the nature of the uncertainty that the project will have to face during
of its execution. As such, the assumptions can guide the manager towards
a strategic decision-making process, neither reactive nor passive.

Step 7: find valid indicators for each level

The Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVIs) are the measures that allow us to see this
what the project has accomplished. They are a very important aspect of the logical framework. Those who are

defined at the goal level, for example, allow the manager to see if the situation at the end
The project has been completed. They must not be a reformulation of the indicators for the
outputs, but real measures that show the project in its entirety
For the logical framework, the indicators must be expressed in terms of quantity, quality, and time.
These three dimensions allow two people with different perspectives on the
The project aims to arrive at the same conclusions by looking at the indicators.
The indicators at the input level are of a very specific kind. They include the cost of
project and the level of effort required to undertake in terms of person-months,
goods, etc ...
It is through the indicators of the Logical Framework that we see the things to be measured in.
the evaluation
This column forms the basis of an initial project evaluation plan.
identify the means of verification for each indicator at each level

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This column placed right after the indicators horizontally allows you to see if the
desired information to measure the indicators is available or if forecasts for
their collection must be included in the project budget.
If we are unable to determine how to obtain the necessary information to
check an indicator, it is possible that it should be eliminated in favor of another for
which information is available.
Step 9: consult the logical framework 'check-list' to see if all the rules are
respected and if all the steps are complete
All the checks that need to be made to evaluate a logical framework are grouped in
a checklist
This checklist allows the manager to see what the weaknesses of the logical framework are.
and to bring an improvement; This can be a first step in monitoring and evaluation
of a project just like in its development.

Step 10: periodically review the logical framework in light of experience

Effective management expects modifications to be made during the execution of a project.
It is possible that the formulation of a project undergoes changes during the phase
execution.
To prevent the project's logical framework from becoming a taxidermy exercise, the team of
project management must review it periodically to ensure its ongoing validity and its
make corrections if necessary. Without this step, the logical framework may become a
simple form to fill out and forget.

IV. the steps of project preparation

In the project cycle, the preparation or feasibility study is the phase that occurs between
the identification of the project and its ex-ante evaluation.

As mentioned above, it consists of a set of analyses that justify the

commercial, technical and financial feasibility of the project on one hand, and on the other hand,
the project is the best option to solve the problem.
A certain number of studies are selected as part of good preparation.
It is about:
The market study
The technical study

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The organizational study

The social study
The financial study
The economic study

[Link] Study
A fundamental step in the preparation of a project, the market study aims to
to apprehend, using precise methods and instruments, the environment in which he moves or
will move the production unit in question in order to optimize the achievement of its
objectives.
The market is generally considered to be 'the collection of people and organizations of
all kinds that have, or may have an influence on consumption (or use) and
therefore on the sales of the product or service in question" (cf. Lendreneau).
For the company founder, knowing the market means being able to identify different types
of problems:
What is the nature of the products sold?
What is their annual consumption in the country?
Through which networks do they reach consumers?
At what price?
How does it form? It is about the 'product positioning.'
If the market is entirely held by large companies, will they be competitors?
How will they react, how to manage to take a share of the market?
This concerns the 'competitive environment.'
Is the market promising? What will be the long-term trend of the factors?
demographic, at the national, sub-regional level, economic, political factors,
cultural and urban?
It is the 'determination of the economic context'.
The market study that informs decisions goes through the following stages:
the analysis of past and present demand
the estimation of future demand
Analysis of Past and Present Demand

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The analysis of past demand requires the collection of statistical data related to
products allowing to explain its evolution: this collection requires a certain selection of
data and the choice of a reference period.
The collection will take place at both qualitative and quantitative levels:

For the Quantitative level

It will concern physical quantities and prices. The framework for collection is equilibrium.
following accountant :

Y = Consumption - Importation + Investment + Exportation + change in stock.

For the quantitative level and depending on the product considered, the statistics must be
exploded:
by product range
by geographical area
by type of clients.
The evolution of purchasing power must be taken into account.
Regarding the qualitative level
The various qualitative information helps in the interpretation of the trends revealed by
the exploitation of quantitative data through distribution methods and actions
commercials in favor of the product or services, customer attitude and the actions of
public authorities regarding the product.
Estimation of Future Demand
In addition to field surveys, there are a considerable number of statistical methods.
allowing for an apparently accurate estimate of future demand:
Trend projections: they are based on time series to
project the studied variables into the future.
The use of technical coefficients in the national economy (adapted to the case of
the forecast of future demand for intermediate goods: TES.
International comparisons for countries with the same characteristics
socio-economic.
The econometric methods that involve tests, variable searches
explanatory of past evolution and the construction of models linking the
studied variables.
Methods based on family budget survey results.

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The final market estimate is obtained from the results of these methods.
confronted with psychological factors and decisions of the administrative authorities.
As one can expect, at the end of this study, it is necessary to be able to answer the questions.
next:
What is the size of the market and its evolution?
What are the quantities to be produced per project?
What are the geographical areas and sectors of activity in which the project will operate?
to establish oneself?

What are the marketing conditions (price, distribution channels,

competition, sales policy) ?
Demand Analysis (Summary)
What?
the products
the required quality
the characteristics
packaging
the warranty
Who is buying?
customer identification
identification of segments according to the following criteria:
socio-demographic (gender, height...)
geographical (urban, region, climate...)
behavior (motivation, lifestyle...)
a good segment must be identifiable, measurable, accessible, etc.
Why? How?
prestige
price
guarantee
quality
availability
quantities per purchase
required conditions
How much?

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 Project Management

current and potential quantity

rate of evolution
market share
turnover
When?
purchase frequency
period
Analysis of the offer
If the request relates to the various quantities of products that people are willing to
buy or able to buy at different prices at a given point in time.
By supply, we mean the different quantities of products offered at different prices.
The analysis of the offer is primarily focused on searching for information about the
organizations producing or providing the same or closely related substitutes for products or
services that the project intends to provide.
The same series of questions is being asked.

What?
Identification of the products or services offered: quality, characteristics,
packaging etc.
Who?
identification of competitors (producers and suppliers of the same products and
services, their strategies (4P), in positioning, who do they sell to? (clients,
segments)
Why? How?
information on the reasons for sale, the positioning of their products,
offered conditions etc.
How much?
sold quantities, revenue, price structure
rate of evolution
market share
When?
period and frequency of sales or service provision
Where?
the distribution channels of products or services used by the main
competitors.

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 Project management

These demand and supply analyses allow for the development of a strategy:
be a niche strategy (choosing an unoccupied market)
- either an attack strategy (to target segments occupied by the
competitors) .
The main shortcomings of market studies generally reported are:
the poor demand forecast
the negligence of potential customer behaviors
the poor assessment of the competition, especially the indirect one
the overvaluation of outlets and/or selling prices.
[Link]
As its name indicates, it aims to analyze the technical feasibility of the project.
The first step involves determining the production process, which leads to
the follow-up to the choice of a technical process.

The production of goods and services can be obtained through exclusive technical processes.
each other: the choice of a process involves investments, costs of
operation, specific labor needs (21).
The elements to be taken into consideration are:
the size of the equipment according to the expected level of production, these
equipment includes not only those directly involved in the process of
production, but also all the auxiliary facilities for the storage of inputs and
outputs, as well as the infrastructures such as maintenance workshops, garages.
The level of technicality required for the implementation of the production process.
The degree of dependence on the local availability of equipment one must
rely on the knowledge of the units already established in the country: the conditions
of maintenance and upkeep can be determined for the choice of equipment to
buy.
The possibilities for expanding the unit in case of a new request or new
activities to integrate, which will then justify the choice of a flexible process.

Study of needs for inputs and other means.

The study of input needs must be the subject of a thorough analysis to ensure the
correct functioning of the project.
In addition to the quantitative needs by type of annual production factors, it is necessary to
determine the specifications of the goods to be searched: supply possibilities

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 Project management

local or foreign; supply conditions; prices; minimum quantities,

transport, regularity.
Particular attention must be paid to the availability of utilities (water, electricity,
fuels...) as well as means of communication, the need for labor.

Choice of location
The choice of the project site must mainly take into account:
The availability of labor
The availability of land, water, and electricity
The conditions for the transport of persons and goods
Consumption places.
Calendar of achievements
Based on the conclusions of the various analyses from a technical standpoint, a timing of
different achievements (investment phase and start-up equipment, scaling up
cruise and cruise period) is established.
Variants
This is an iterative process where alternatives and their impacts are taken into account.
The choice of the final scheme of a project results from the analysis of several alternatives (or
variants) and the incidence of each one. This analysis applies to:
to the production process
- to product types
to the location
to the completion schedule
to the institutional framework.
Cost assessment
The synthesis of all the analyses that have just been discussed allows us to outline the
project outline. Based on this sketch, the project costs can be estimated.
The estimation concerns both investments and operations, distinguishing at each
sometimes the origin of goods (local or imported), by distributing costs in local currency and in
currencies and specifying the amount of the corresponding taxes.
Shortcomings may arise and consist of the underestimation of costs.
investment, the over-sizing of equipment, the exaggerated optimism of
schedules for the implementation of investments.

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 Project management

The technical study is an important step in the development of a project. It must be conducted
meticulously.
IV.3. The social study
It is not always possible to measure benefits and costs in monetary terms.
The study of the social consequences of the project must emphasize:
the project's accounting with the values, the traditions of the target population.
The risks of rejection
Demographic and sociocultural characteristics
The organization of production (household, role of women, land tenure...)
The strategy to generate public support for the project
The distribution of income
The improvement of the quality of life and employment
The impact on the surrounding environment

Internal migration
The other indicators of quality of life
The methods used are:
cost-effectiveness
multi-criteria analysis
VI. 4. The institutional and organizational study
The management of a project can determine its success or failure.

V. FINANCIAL EVALUATION
Costs and benefits cannot be analyzed separately. It is considered as cost all.
what subtracts from production or requires the use of resources; and as an advantage everything
what contributes to the achievement of goals and/or increases production.
The ex-ante financial evaluation of a project aims to assess its profitability for the
main types of economic agents involved in its implementation.
This phase allows us to determine whether the project is viable, under what conditions, taking into account

of the standards and constraints imposed on it, and based on technical studies and
completed commercials.
Financial assessment allows for a judgment on the financial viability of the project;
responds to three types of questions:

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 Project Management

What is the amount of financial resources necessary for the implementation and
the project's exploitation?
What can be the short-term financial policy (solvency, liquidity...) at
Adopt for the project?
What types of financial resources to use for the project?
V-1 SUMMARY FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
The preliminary financial analysis of a project always begins with the establishment of a
forecast schedule of the main expenses and revenues resulting from it for the company
concerned. It is then necessary to estimate the expenses and revenues caused by the project.
for the different successive periods of its implementation.
It is necessary to anticipate two main categories of expenses:
Investment and renewal expenditures, which occur in some
specific moments, but are composed of unconsumed capital assets on
short periods (purchase of land, equipment, constructions...).
The establishment of the initial working capital clearly appears as an expense.
investment in that the funds used for this purpose will be immobilized
from the start of the project.
This fund primarily corresponds to the establishment of initial stocks, to financing
credits granted to the client and the cash component necessary for the operation of the
project and can be recovered in the form of recipes at the end of the project.
Operating expenses related to personnel costs and consumption
intermediaries of goods and services caused by the operation of the project.
V.1. 1. Estimation of Working Capital Needs (BFDR)
I. Definition
The Working Capital is one of the forms of investment. It is part of the tool of
production (economic capital) in the same way as constructions and equipment
for the project.
It is an essential factor for financial viability (the ability to meet its obligations)
financial)
The Working Capital Requirement comes from the 'operating cycle'.
To carry out his project, a productive agent buys, transforms, and sells: this is the "Purchase-
Transformation - Sale.

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 Project management

At the beginning of the operating cycle, the purchase of raw materials, the payment of wages,
storage etc. create financing needs before the sale of the processed product does not
comes to compensate the activity (at the end of the cycle).

These financing needs renew with each cycle. For the same product, these cycles
are continuous, interlock with one another except in the case of highly
seasonal (agriculture, tourism industry, toy industry, etc.)
This time lag between outgoing cash flows and incoming cash flows
(sales), forces the economic agent to have funds to meet these initial obligations.
expenses.
This need evolves according to the production volume.
Financially, the business cycle results in a lock-up of capital in the form of
from stocks (inputs and products); immobilization which is shortened by payment deadlines
to suppliers (trade debts) but extended by the payment deadline granted by the
client (commercial receivables).
BFRE = Finished goods + Raw materials + Amounts owed by customers - Amounts owed
to suppliers + salary payment
The increase in activity during the early years or at certain phases of the project, will
translated by increases in the Working Capital used to finance in a stable manner
the increase in needs.
The FDR is recorded as an investment. At the end of the project’s lifespan, the total amount of
Working capital constitutes a residual value and should therefore be the subject of a
"recovery" of working capital.
II. Determination of the BFDR:
According to the activity diagram, the Working Capital Requirement is determined based on the
needs to finance the cycle minus the facilities granted by the suppliers:
Stocks + Salary + Accounts receivable - Supplier credits
The amounts of stocks, accounts payable, and accounts receivable are determined at
based on the rotation speed.

V-1.2. Establishment of the schedule of financial flows

This table presents investment and renewal expenditures, the fund
operating expenses and expected revenues
The recipe section consists of the following elements:
Annual turnover

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 Project management

Residual value of investments

Recovery of working capital
The residual values as well as the recovery of working capital are recorded at the
last year of project operation.
Operating expenses are recorded without considering the aspects
financial and tax aspects of the project. In other words, they do not include either depreciation or
the provisions, nor the interest and the tax on corporate income

Sections 0 1 3 4

A) Invest and Renew

B) Allocation to FDR

C) Operating expenses
Total Expenses

D) Recipes
CA
Value
residual
Reprise from
FDR
II-Total Receipts
E) Financial flow
III = II - I
The balance of this table allows for the calculation of the intrinsic profitability of the project.

V-1.3. Intrinsic Financial Profitability

It is the profitability of the project from the perspective of the entire investment made.
regarding the methods of financing and taxing profits.
The most common criteria are as follows:
The recovery time: it corresponds to the time necessary to rebuild.
the capital invested from the results generated by the project. This criterion does not take into account

does not take into account the time at which the different results were obtained and does not give

no indication of what will happen after the recovery of the invested funds.
Net Present Value (NPV):
The discounted profit is equal to the total accumulated discounted annual cash flows.

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 Project management

LaVAN calculates the net present value of an investment using a discount rate.
as well as a series of disbursements (negative values) and receipts (positive values)
futures.
It is calculated using the following formula:
B = £ [(Rp – Dp – Ip)/(1 + i)p], p variant from 0 to n
With:
Revenue for year p
Dp = Operating expenses for year p
Ip = Investments in year p
i = Discount rate
Between two projects, the one with the highest NPV will be selected.
The rule for using this criterion is simple. If one has to choose between several
for projects, we choose the one that gives the highest discounted benefit.
The interpretation of the criterion is as follows:
If the NPV is positive, the project is profitable considering inflation.
If the NPV is negative, the project is financially unprofitable.
If the VAN is zero, the project is a break-even operation.
The internal rate of return (IRR) of the project
The internal rate of return (IRR) is defined as the rate at which the discounted profit is
equal to zero. This is the discount rate for which the project is rigorously a
white operation, because the present value of future expenses is equal to the present value of
future recipes: it is in a way the 'point of indifference'

The projected income statement

Sections A1 A2 A3 A4

1- Recipes
2- Exploration Deposit

3- RBE (1-2)

4 - Amort

5- Interests

6- RN of Imp

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 Project Management

(3 – 4 – 5)
7- Imp (BIC)
8- RN (good)
(6 - 7)
9- Cash Flow
(8 + 4)

VI. THE EVALUATION FOLLOW-UP

6.1. Definition of concepts

Monitoring: A continuous process of systematic information collection, according to

chosen indicators, to provide managers and stakeholders of an action of
development in progress, elements on the progress made, the objectives achieved and
the use of allocated funds.

Evaluation: The systematic and objective assessment of a project, program, or an

policy, ongoing or completed, of its design, its implementation and its results. The
but is to determine the relevance and achievement of objectives, efficiency in terms of
of development, efficiency, impact, and sustainability.

A Monitoring-Evaluation System is the set of planning, collection procedures.

systematics of data, processing and analysis of state indicative data
progress of the activities carried out to achieve the objectives of said project/program.
this is complemented by all the sharing and validation processes necessary for the
S&E results effectively contribute to decision-making, critical thinking, and the
capitalization of experiences.

An indicator is a factor or a variable of a quantitative or qualitative nature, which constitutes

a simple and reliable way to measure or assess changes related to an intervention,
or the performance of a project, in clear terms to measure progress towards the set goals.

Results are defined as products (outputs), achievements (outcomes) or impacts.

expected or not, positive and/or negative of a development action. More generally,

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Results can be defined as the effects induced by a development action.

According to the OECD-DAC.

The term 'results' encompasses output, outcome, and impact, while the '
development results" reflect the expected changes at the outcome level and
of the impact.

Three main functions of monitoring and evaluation:

Results-oriented steering;
Learning by experience;
Accountability

6.2. Differences and complementarity between monitoring and evaluation

Follow-up Evaluation
Objectives - Improve efficiency, modify the plan - Examine causal relationships
of activity or resource allocation leading activities to results,
Clarify the objectives and explain to them why certain results
Expected indicators for transformation have not been met.
performance Examine the implementation
- Compare regularly Provide teachings,
achievements in relation to the plan improve efficiency, effects,
Communicate the progress on the impact of future programming
responsible parties and alert them about the

difficulties
Main - Definition of indicators, collection - Appreciation, systematic measurement
activities regular information, comparison of effects, search for causalities by
with the plan, reports rigorous methods

Frequency - Periodic: daily, weekly, - Ex ante, mid-term, at the end of

monthly, quarterly,... according to the program, retrospectively
variables and programs

Source - Essentially information - Follow-up information completed by

information provided by the management system studies, surveys, analyses,
interviews

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 Project Management

Performed by - The project execution team External evaluators of the program

Recipient - Project Manager, implementation team - Authorities who decided on

principal of implementation of the program

report
(for follow-up to

giver

6.3. Types of evaluation according to the project cycle:

The ex-ante evaluation:
It intervenes downstream of the project's implementation, at the time of its design. Its purpose is to
but to assess the situation with a particular focus on analyzing the circumstances that
it recommends the implementation of the project. It also serves to verify the adequacy of the objectives
in relation to the needs, stakes or problems to be resolved.

The interim or mid-term evaluation

She analyzes the first results. It allows for verification, in the middle of the project cycle,
if the needs are still present, if the project management is proceeding as planned or
requires improvement. At this stage, it is a matter of answering the following questions:
Have the objectives set for a certain stage been achieved?
Are the objectives still valid?
Will the objectives set for the end of the project be achieved?
Is a new planning necessary?

The terminal or final evaluation

It occurs at the end of the program and allows for observing the short-term consequences.
Have the objectives set for the end of the project been achieved?

Impact evaluation or ex-post or retrospective

Some of the questions addressed during the impact assessments are as follows:
Does the project achieve the set goals?
Can the changes observed in the final objective be attributed to the project?
Are they the result of other external factors that intervene simultaneously?

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Do the impacts of the program vary depending on the different target groups (men,
women, minority groups), from various regions (savanna, forest) and time (drought,
rainy season)? If so, what are the cultural, economic, and political factors that
prevent vulnerable groups from fully benefiting from the project?
Does the project have unexpected effects, whether positive or negative?
How effective is the project compared to other interventions?
Is the project worth the resources we dedicate to it?

According to the 'moments' of the evaluation, the goals differ.

Start
Before Pendant At the end Later

Check the Improve Make some Determine

conception the setup in accounts The impact
Work

6.4. Evaluation Criteria

The purpose of an evaluation is to analyze the results of a project/program and to make a
judgment. This judgment revolves around six main criteria.

Relevance Was the program well suited or appropriate to achieve the overall goal?
pursued? Is the objective still relevant today? The program
Does it still meet the expectations of the stakeholders?
coherence In the original design of the program, were the objectives (are they)
consistent with each other, the planned activities allowed for achieving the
the targeted operational objectives, did the planned means allow for their achievement
planned activities within the allotted time?
Efficiency How did the project, the policy work out? Were the resources

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 Project management

Have they been well mobilized? Are the unit costs within the standards? The
have the expected immediate results actually been achieved and in
What are the quality, cost, and time conditions? Have the results been satisfactory?
measurement of the amounts spent? Have the contractual requirements been met?
respected?
Effectiveness What is the level of achievement of the project's main objective? The program has-
Did it have the expected effects on the beneficiaries (correction of
déséquilibres, renforcement institutionnel, modifications de comportement,
etc.) ?
Impact Did the program help to address the targeted issue (level of poverty)
for example) or to produce the expected development? Does it have effects
unforeseen negatives? Are the global consequences of the program
beneficial?
Sustainability Will the effects of the project or program be sustainable? The mechanisms
Are the implemented measures viable?
Replicability Can the policy be reproduced? Under what conditions?

VII. Results-Based Management (RBM)

7.1. The context
The 1990s, international development entered an era of reform and
reformulation.
Global leaders, such as the United Nations and other multilateral institutions, have
recognized that drastic measures needed to be taken to ensure that aid funds
are used effectively in development.
Development aid is often provided sporadically, not matching
always according to the priorities set by the countries.

Development efforts were often fragmented and not sustainable.

The emphasis was mainly placed on fundraising activities rather than on aid.
the achievement of observable results in terms of development.

7.2. Declaration of Paris

In 2005 in Paris, all these efforts made jointly by countries and organizations in view
to better target development results and find new ways to improve

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 Project management

the effectiveness of aid has been the subject of discussions on harmonization, alignment and
the results.
Appropriation: Partner countries have real control over their policies.
and development strategies and ensure the coordination of actions in support of
development.
Alignment: Donors base all their support on strategies
national development, the institutions and procedures of partner countries.
Harmonisation: The actions of donors are better harmonized and more
transparent and allow for greater collective efficiency;
Results-oriented management: Manage resources and improve the process of
decision aimed at obtaining development results;
Mutual responsibility: Donors and partner countries are responsible for
results achieved in terms of development.
Results-Based Management for development is one of the five basic principles.
defines to make international aid for development more effective. The GAR is
a philosophy and a management approach that prioritizes achieving results over
plans for planning, implementation, and monitoring-evaluation.
It is based on the principle that the commitment made to achieve results
should serve as a guide for defining the activities and management strategy of
project/program
Participation is one of the fundamental elements of GAR. The participation of everyone
the relevant partners help improve the relevance, efficiency, and sustainability of
development initiatives.
The participation of all partners must take place at all stages of
project/program: during the planning process, as well as the implementation
Monitoring and evaluation of results.

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