INTRODUCTION

Thin sections or thin slices are preparations made from rocks.

for their study with a petrological microscope and consist of slices of the rock of a
a thickness of about 30 µm that adhere to glass sheets (slides) using resin
epoxy, to subsequently be covered by another sheet of glass. The objective of
preparing a thin sheet is to achieve a thickness of the sampled rock as
small one that allows light to pass through since the petrographic microscope has a
polarizer that converts the light it emits into polarized light, and to achieve this
Thickness is required to follow a multi-step process with highly specialized equipment.

specialized. The combination of the team, the consumables, the workflow process and the
The method depends on the type of sample that is to be studied.

The introduction of the use of thin sections in mineralogical studies is parallel to the
development of the petrographic microscope in the mid-19th century. Currently, the
thin film remains essential in the field of geology and mineralogy and is
a preparation that has also been introduced in other fields, such as soils,
ceramics, bones, metals or other materials that, like minerals, are
crystalline (that is, they have internal ordering of their constituents). This work
it consists of the complete description of the procedures necessary for the execution of
thin sheets and their subsequent use in the different disciplines of geology, this is due to
its important use in petrographic and mineralogical description.
 BACKGROUND

Valeriano Quispe (2018). Mining study and microscopic determination of

degree of liberation of Sulfide Copper Minerals. Summary: Constantly,
in mineral treatment plants, the efficiency of the process is evaluated solely in
based on results of chemical analyses of the most important elements, however,
The information about mineralogy is also essential. The degree of
liberation is a quantitative expression of the extent to which the grinding is capable of
obtain 'free' mineral grains; their determination is only possible through the
use of microscopic studies, and given that it is an important parameter
Such a decisive determination must be based on a well-founded technical methodology.
This paper details the developed methodology for the
identification of present minerals and characterize the geometric particularities of
its intergrowths in copper sulfidic minerals.

Pampa Chura (2019). Geology and characterization of minerals from the veins, La Escondida
and Isabel. In the Isabel Mining concession, Province of Condesuyos, Department of
Arequipa. Summary: The Exploration area is located in the department of
Arequipa province of Condesuyos district of Andaray, Cerro Jachamalja. In the
This exploration study within the 'ISABEL MINING CONCESSION' is
they found two veins named Isabel and Escondida, a strong has been observed
supergene alteration characterized by the presence of oxidation associated with limonites,
jarosite, goethite and hematite, and presence of quartz dikes, the purpose of the present
The study is to understand the geology and characterize the mineralogy of the Isabel vein and the La vein.

Hidden, determine the mineralogical composition and know the type of rock(s)
encasing that prevails among the quartz veins associated with the pyrites and
chalcopyrites and iron oxides. By preparing sections or thin sheets
from rock and the petrographic study (Optical Microscopy) we can identify and describe
the mineralogical characteristics of the rocks obtained from the Isabel and Escondida veins, as well
as well as the recognition of opaque minerals, their textures, grain size,
mineralogical associations, type of rock, alterations, etc. that will provide us with a lot
information regarding its crystallization and alteration processes. Due to the little
geological information available at the beginning of the exploration, this has been useful
to formulate an appropriate methodology, develop the exploration program
geological of the veins, in order to determine the existence of a vein-type deposit.
Sampling was conducted at outcrops such as trenches, channel sampling.
within the underground work, to obtain representative samples, and
subsequently perform the digitization and geological interpretation with Arc GIS software
10.3, AutoCAD 2017.

Espinoza Bruno (2018). The microscopic characterization of minerals in the paragenesis

from the Shalipayco deposit. Summary: The company Votorantim S.A. is making the delivery of
51 diamond drill core samples to the PUCP laboratory, so that
the processes of chemical analysis and a mineralogical study are carried out under the
optical microscope, in order to identify the main phases bearing metals
of interest (Zn, Pb, Ag) and pollutant metals (As in particular), with the results
It has been determined the paragenesis of the deposit. For each sample, it has been
prepared a thin slide covered for the study of transparent minerals (gangue)
and a polished section for the study of ore minerals or other opaque minerals. It
make the mineralogical descriptions of thin section and polished sections,
to then determine the relationships with the alterations and the economic mineralization.
In the work carried out in the mineralized areas of the Shalipayco project, there have been
recognized in the host rock variations in texture, permeability, and composition,
diagenetic and epigenetic alterations that contributed to the mineralization of Zn,
Pb and Ag in the mantles. This thesis describes the microscopic characteristics of
rocks and minerals relating them to the paragenesis and alterations of the deposit of
Shalipayco.
 OBJECTIVES

One of the objectives regarding the topic of mineralogy and thin sections is
to allow the classification of rocks encompassing the types of them that today
we know very well.

Another fundamental objective will be the studies of fluid inclusions, the

microfossil studies

Studies of discontinuities in rock such as its porosity or permeability

Texture studies with the aim of preparing a thin sheet is the

to achieve a thickness of the sampled rock so small that light can pass through it
cross

Knowing the samples of different types, they are going to demand requirements
special, whether from the point of view of graphic material. This will make the
The differences between these three types will be defined by the surface finish and the
thickness of the sample.

Another objective regarding the topic of thin films or thin sections is

allow to know that when making a thin sheet leaving it at 30 µm is for
allow the light to pass through this will make the petrographic microscope have
a polarizer that converts the light it emits into polarized light,
perpendicular to the polarizer, which will make the observations possible.
to carry out with the analyzer activated or without it.
METHODOLOGY

Thin sheet

Thin slices or thin sections are preparations made in rocks.

for their study with a petrographic microscope, and consist of slices of the rock of
a thickness of about 30 µm that adhere to glass slides by means of resin
epoxy, to later be covered by another sheet of glass. It can also be
carry out this preparation in loose sediments if a resin is added beforehand
that, when consolidated, behaves as if it were the cement of the rock.

Preparation

First, we observe thin slices under the microscope.

The production of thin sheets consists of a series of steps:
Make sure that all the material to be used is clean.
Selection of the rocks from which the sheets will be extracted.
Clean and polish the doors.
A disc cutter is used to cut the rocks into prisms.
One of the surfaces of the prism is polished.
The polished face of the prism is adhered to the door with epoxy resin, exerting
pressure to prevent the formation of bubbles and let it dry.
Once dried, the prism is cut to a thickness of about 300 µm.
A roughing is done until the desired thickness is obtained, usually 30.
µm.
Another door is attached to the rock surface that remains uncovered, except
that any chemical analysis is to be performed on the sample.
How to prepare polished blocks/molds

The preparation of polished blocks/molds is similar to the preparation of others.

materials. The processes related to cutting into special sample sizes, the
stuck to the glass plate, etc. are not included in the workflow. These types of
samples follow a conventional 4-step process where the parameters and
consumables for each step are carefully selected according to the type of

material.
PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION

As we know, petrography is a field of petrology that deals with

description and classification of rocks through microscopic observation of
sections or thin slices derived from the rocks under study, under a microscope
petrographic, classifying them according to their texture and mineralogical composition. This type of
analysis reveals a series of characteristics or properties that can be evaluated in the crystals and the

relationship that exist between them, which will help to determine the composition of the
rock focusing mainly on its nature and origin.

A rock is not a random grouping of minerals; such groupings respond to

certain training conditions and, through the minerals, these can be studied
conditions, such as the optical properties when polarized light passes or is reflected
about them in the case of Optical Mineralogy.

Of the large set of minerals known in nature, only a small group of

about fifty, referred to as petrogenic or petrographic, play a role
fundamental in the formation of rocks; the main ones are silicates, the main components
important, carbonates, sulfates, sulfides, chlorides, phosphates, oxides and hydroxides.

Among all the minerals that make up a rock, the primary components are differentiated.
and the secondary ones; the primary ones include the essentials that give name to the rock and are
they are presented in a constant manner and the accidental or accessory ones whose presence does not

it is so essential for rock classification; the secondary minerals are

those that originate from the transformation or alteration of primary minerals.

Although the megascopic examination (with the naked eye or with a magnifying glass) of outcrops or rocks

provides information, the majority of the most accurate data, necessary for a
Petrographic study, obtained using a microscope. For more studies
specifics in a rock can be assisted with other higher capacity techniques
resolution (chemical and experimental) such as X-rays and the electron microscope.

A petrographic study requires, first of all, the physical examination of the rock that we
provide information on the aspect, texture, color, hardness, grain size or
granularity of the rock. When the constituents are so small that they are not
Appreciated at first glance, it is said that the rock presents aphanitic texture.
when the crystals can be appreciated with the naked eye or with a magnifying glass, they are called

phaneritic.

After the megascopic observations, a microscopic description is made.

A microscopic description consists of determining the mineralogical composition and the
textural features, which allows for the extraction of a lot of information about where it originated

the rock; it also determines the shape and color of the crystals, type and origin of each
mineral whether primary or secondary, the texture, the mutual relationship between the minerals
or mineral associations, as well as the matrix or cementing agent if present.
Each type of rock has very important specific microscopic characteristics in
a classification. It should be noted that both analyses together provide the parameters
necessary to accurately describe and classify a rock.

The petrografy of igneous rocks

It relies on its texture. The textures of igneous rocks depend on the conditions of
its origin. Some are completely composed of crystals (holocrystalline), others by
glass (holohyaline), others contain glass and crystals (hypocrystalline or
merocrystalline), and others with extremely small incipient crystals (microlites),
when the majority of the minerals in a rock are approximately
Equidimensional or equal, the texture will be granular. All this great variety of features
textural determines the origin, for example: many of the holocrystalline rocks of
medium to coarse grains are intrusive and many glassy and aphanitic ones are volcanic. The
Pyroclastic rocks, ash, and tuffs can be distinguished because they present a texture,
also called pyroclastic, where glasses, crystals, and rock fragments are distinguished

mainly.

The petrology of sedimentary rocks

the type of component observed in the texture can be of two classes

according to their origin: allochthonous or detrital originating outside the deposition area and the

autogenic or chemical substances originating from chemical precipitation, whether within the basin
of deposition, or later with the sedimentary deposit itself. Many rocks
sedimentary rocks are mixtures of these two components, there are really few rocks
purely detrital or purely chemical. The description and classification of rocks
common sedimentary rocks depend on their constituents: two typically
allergens and two typically autogenic.

Allogenic:

Sand, silt, and pebbles. Detrital grains that are primarily composed of quartz,
other silicates and rock fragments.

Clay and silt. Small detrital grains that are primarily formed of
clay and include other fine-grained minerals such as sericite, chlorite, and small
fragments of quartz.

Autogenic

Calcium carbonates. Mainly calcite and dolomite.

Pedernal. Silica precipitated in the form of opal, chalcedony, or microgranular quartz.

Therefore, the textures of sedimentary rocks are divided into two main groups:
the clastic and non-clastic. Clastic rocks belong to the detrital rocks; their
particles can have any size, shape, or composition and can be
packed in any style, whether loose, tight or surrounded by a matrix
the cement. In contrast, non-clastic textures belong to chemical rocks and are
formed by numerous intertwined crystals that are so molded together that they do not have
intergranular pores, crystalline, and range from very small to larger sizes,
also presenting a great variety of shapes and boundaries, which can be smooth,
irregular or rounded.
The petrography of metamorphic rocks

A texture is observed that results from the growth of crystals, generally

caused by different mineral species that compete with each other for space, not in a
melted medium, like igneous rocks, but in a solid medium. The above causes that
the differences in the properties of each mineral are reflected in the textural details
from the rock. The most characteristic features of a metamorphic texture are cited in the
the following terms: Cristaloblastic or granoblastic.

Any texture that results from the growth of crystals during metamorphism.
Porphyroblastic. When large crystals (porphyroblasts) are associated with grains.
much smaller than other minerals. In both cases, the prefix blasto implies the
development during metamorphic recrystallization, with which it is partially destroyed
a preexisting texture. Schistosity (foliation). This term applies to any
parallel structure, of metamorphic origin, that causes a more or less fissibility
planar on a rock. Slate. When the planar visibility of the crystals is less
accentuated. Gneissic. When the foliation is still less noticeable than the previous one, the
they present the irregularly banded coarse-grained rocks. Relicts. They are textures
inherited from the original rocks and provide information about the origin and the
history of premetamorphic rock.
MUTUAL SPATIAL RELATIONS

The following concepts are distinguished:

Texture

It is the set of intergranular spatial relationships and morphological characteristics.

(size and shape) of the components (essentially grains or mineral aggregates) of
the rock. The textual denominations and the criteria used vary according to the type of
considered rock.

There are many types of spatial and morphological relationships between the components of
rocks, that is, of textures. However, five textural types can be established.
basics for all natural rocks, with different textures being combinations of
two or more of these five types described below.
Sequential texture: made up of crystals that have grown from a solution
liquid like magma or aqueous or gaseous solution like fluids. The crystals of
the different minerals have grown at different times and therefore will have
distinct morphological characteristics. This type of texture applies to all types of
rocks, although it is typical of plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks and some
sedimentary.

The crystallization order can be deduced from morphological criteria and

inclusion relationships. Thus, in general, the crystals that exhibit crystalline shapes,
they will have crystallized before those that do not present them and the crystals included in others
They may have grown before those who include them.

However, these criteria are not always unambiguously applicable. Thus, there are
minerals that are not idiomorphic and have crystallized before others that can be
vice versa; there are also minerals included in others that may have formed.
after those that encompass them. These cases especially apply to the processes of
alteration, since these transform the primary characteristics of the rocks,
including the textures.

For example, idiomorphic gypsum crystals can form in an altered limestone.

however, they have formed after the primary components,
they may also be corroded and therefore have lost their idiomorphism in case of
having possessed it; or mica crystals or clays can be found inside of
feldspar grains of a granite and yet they have formed later
during their alteration.
Sequential or series texture (granodiorite with amphibole)

Glassy texture: composed totally or partially of glass formed by solidification

rapid of a magmatic melt. This texture is typical of volcanic igneous rocks. The
glass is seen as an amorphous substance that encompasses possible grains
existing crystal clear, and where empty spaces can appear called
global vacuoles
Glassy texture (basalt). The black parts correspond to glass. Polarizers
parallels.

Clastic texture: Formed by fragments of rocks and minerals embedded or not in a

finer or precipitated and recrystallized material fragment. This texture applies
specifically to detrital sedimentary rocks, although some volcanic rocks
they also present it. The fragments of rocks and minerals are called clasts;
material that encompasses them is called matrix or cement according to what it is made of
detrital material of very fine grain or by precipitates of variable crystallinity
respectively. The concepts of matrix and cement are presented later as their
application to the different types of rocks is variable.

Clastic texture. (Sandstone)

Conclusions

A conclusion that encompasses the topic is that we can say that optical mineralogy and
In petrography, the use of the so-called thin section is very common, as with a
a very fine section of 30 micrometers in thickness glued to a glass slide.
The thin slide is designed to be observed with an optical microscope, in this
petrographic case. The petrographic microscope is equipped with two
polarizers that, along with the ability to rotate the plate, allow for observing several
distinct optical characteristics of minerals, such as the so-called colors of
interference or the positions of extinction.
obtain a rock sample that will later be converted into a section
thin we must be careful since the samples contain fractures,
concavities, spaces, etc. that would hinder obtaining the thin section by
It is recommended to choose the sample that does not contain these elements.
 Bibliography

Walter T. Huang, 'Petrology', 1968.

Wicander Reed and Monroe James, 'Fundamentals of Geology', 2000.
Turner Francis J and Verhoogen John, 'Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology', 1963.
Valeriano Quispe, M. (2018). Mining study and microscopic determination of
degree of liberation of Sulfide Copper Minerals.
Pampa Chura, J. A. (2019). Geology and characterization of minerals from the veins, the
Hidden and Isabel. In the Isabel Mining Concession, Province of Condesuyos,
Arequipa Department.
Espinoza Bruno, M. A. (2018). The microscopic characterization of minerals in the
paragenesis of the Shalipayco deposit.

Linkography

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