5.
Specialized cells
• Previously we have talked about ‘generic’ cells
• This week we are going to look at cells that have become
‘specialized’
• Neurons and muscle cell are examples of specialized cells
Nerves
• NEURONS are specialized cells
• Neurons transmit signals through the body of multi-cellular
eukaryotes
• Action potentials travel down the neuron
• At the end of a neuron NEUROTRANSMITTERS are released
That allow the signal to carry on to other neurons
Anatomy of a neuron
• DENDRITES: Dendrites extend from the cell body and receive
chemical signals from the axon termini of other neurons
• CELL BODY: The cell body is where the nucleus is located
and is the site of protein synthesis
• AXON HILLOCK: The axon hillock is the junction of the
cell body and the axon
•AXONS: The axon is an extended part od the cell that the action
potential travels down
• AXON TERMINALS: The axon terminals are small branches
of the axon that form the synapses
The resting potential
• Cells have difference in charge between the inside and outside
of the plasma membrane
• This is known as the RESTING POTENTIAL
• The resting potential requires two types of membrane pore
1. Active transport by the Na+/K+ ATPase ion pumps
2. Non-gated passive K+ channels
The resting potential (2)
• Biomembranes can be selectively permeable to ions
• Molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient
• A build-up of charge will resist the migration down the
concentration gradient until a equilibrium is reached
• A voltage difference will then exist between the two sides of
the membrane
• This is known as the RESTING POTENTIAL
More about the resting potential
• The equilibrium potential in volts can be calculated by the
NERNST EQUATION
ENa= RT/ZF ln [Na1]/[Nar]
• Most cells have a resting potential of 60-70mV
• The bulk of the voltage difference comes from K+ ions
• The concentration gradient that is the ultimate cause of the
resting potential is maintained by active transport of ions
Na+ /K+ ATPase ion pumps
• Na+/K+ ATPase ion pumps require ATP as they work against
a concentration gradient
• Na+/K+ ATPase ion pumps transport three Na+ ions out of the
cell, and two K+ ions into the cell per ATP hydrolyzed
• As a consequence intracellular K+ concentration is high and
Na+ concentration is low compared to the extra cellular
environment
Passive K+ channels
• Passive K+ channels allow K+ ions to travel down their
gradient from the inside to the outside of the cell
• They are non-gated and selectively permeable only to K+
• Like all pores passive K+ channels are trans-membrane
• They are composed of four subunits of largely α-helices
The action potential
• Nerve cells can use the potential difference across the plasma
membrane as a method for transferring signals
• An action potential is sudden transient depolarization of the
resting potential followed by a repolarization
• Depolarization is dependent on VOLTAGE GATED Na+
CHANNELS
• Repolarization is dependent on VOLTAGE GATED K+
CHANNELS
VOLTAGE GATED Na+ CHANNELS
• In a non-nerve cell or resting nerve cell these channels are
closed
• A small depolarization will start to open the voltage gated Na+
channels
• As the depolarization increases more voltage gated Na+
channels open
• Once the depolarization reaches a peak the gate is closed for
a REFRACTORY PERIOD
VOLTAGE GATED K+ CHANNELS
• Voltage gated K+ channels are important in the repolarization of
the neuron
• Voltage gated K+ channels open while the membrane is
depolarized
• There are many types of voltage gated K+ channels varying in
voltages they are activated
• Inactivation of voltage gated K+ channels is timed to occur
a few milliseconds after the channel is opened by repolarization
The action potential is unidirectional
• The refractory period insures the action potential is
Unidirectional
• Passive spread of membrane depolarization goes in all directions
• The ‘lag’ time of the refractory period of the voltage gated ion
Channels stops the action potential going back
• This affect is enhanced by HYPERPOLARIZATION
The action potential is to slow
• The velocity of the action potential is roughly proportional
to the diameter of the axon
• Many action potential travel at 1m/s
• However in humans the axons in the spinal cord are 1 m
in length!!
• There would be to much of a time gap to permit complex
movement
Myelination increases the velocity of the impulse
• MYELINATION is a stack of specialized plasma membrane sheets
wrapped around the axon
• The myelin membrane is laid down by GLIAL cells
• The myelin sheath is a phospholipid bilayer but containing
far fewer membrane proteins
Myelination allows the action potential to jump
• Voltage gated pumps are found at nodes were the the myelin
sheath is absent
• These nodes are the only place were the axon contacts the
extra-cellular fluid
• Positive ions spread quickly down the myelinated axon as they
cannot get to the membrane
• Once they reach a node a new depolarization can begin
• The signal can travel at 10-100 times the signal speed of un-
Myelinated neurons.
Summary
• Nerve cells are long thin cells designed for transmitting signal
• The signal is a rapid depolarization of the membrane potential
that travels down the axon
• The depolarization is a consequence of the sequential opening of
Voltage gated Na+ ion channels
• Repolarization occurs as a consequence of opening of voltage
gated K+ ion channels
• Myelination of axons increases the speed of signal transmission
Release of neurotransmitters
• NEUROTRANSMITTERS are released when the action potential
reaches the axon terminals
• The action potential triggers VOLTAGE GATED Ca2+
CHANNELS
• Ca2+ diffuses into the cytosol
• Synaptic vesicles bound to membrane proteins are induced to
to fuse with the membrane
• Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft
Excess neurotransmitters is removed from the synaptic cleft
• If the neurotransmitter is not removed from the cleft the signal
will continue for to long.
• Diffusion is to slow a process to rely on to remove the
neurotransmitter
• Most types of excess neurotransmitter is removed by reuptake
• The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is unusual in that its
signaling is terminated by its hydrolysis
Types of neurotransmitter
• Neurotransmitters are generally amino acids, nucleotides
or derivatives thereof
• Neurotransmitter are generally synthesized in the cytosol
and imported into SYNAPTIC VESICLES
• Synaptic vesicles take up neurotransmitters by an active
transport process
Post-synaptic affects
• The effects on the post-synaptic neuron can be excitatory or
inhibitory
• The effects depend on the receptor and the type of gate that is
activated
• EXCITATORY RECEPTORS depolarise the membrane
• INHIBITORY RECEPTORS hyperpolarise the membrane
Changes in charge at the post synaptic neuron
• The dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron can either cause excitatory
or inhibitory signals
• Excitatory signals are a consequence of depolarization
• Inhibitory signals are a consequence of hyperpolarization
• The change in polarization is a consequence of gated-ion channels
opening
Ligand gated-channels
• The change in polarization of the dendrite is a consequence of
LIGAND GATED CHANNELS
• Ligand gated channels open when they are activated by their
ligand (neurotransmitter)
• Inhibitory receptors open Cl- channels
• Excitatory receptors open Na+ channels
Acetylcholine receptor
• The ACETYLCHOLINE RECEPTOR is a ligand
gated channel
• When open the acetylcholine receptor allows passage of
Na+ ions
• Two acetylcholine molecules are required to be bound
to the receptor to open the gate
Summing the signal
• A neuron will fire (or not fire) an action potential
down its axon dependent upon the sum of signals from
its dendrites
• The depolarizations and hyperpolrizations are summed
at the AXON HILLOCK
• The action potential will be activated if the sum of the
polarizations is greater than a THRESHOLD VALUE
• Firing of the action potential is an all or nothing event
Motor neurons trigger muscles
• Neurotransmitters can also cause acvtivate muscles
• Acetylcholine and the acetylcholine receptor are important for
muscle signaling
• A depolarisation in the muscle cell membrane leads to release of
Ca2+ which results muscle contraction
A signaling circuit
• There are three types of nerve:
1. Sensory neuron
2. Interneuron
3. Motor neuron
• These nerves can be put into networks
• The very large number of possible nerve connections leads to
complex responses
Summary
• All cells have a resting potential produced by the action of active
and passive ion channel transport
• Neurons can depolarise the resting potential by the action of
voltage gated ion channels
• This depolarisation travels down the axon
• Neurons exchange signals via neurotransmitters
• Neurons are arranged in complex ‘circuits’