HIGHER TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE P'URHEPECHA

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING:
SECOND SEMESTER

SUBJECT:
ELECTRICITY AND INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

THEME 3:
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

TEACHER:
ENG. MIGUEL ÁNGEL ANDRADE GARIBAY

STUDENT:
FABIÁN GONZÁLEZ SOSA

JACONA, MICHOACÁN, APRIL 26, 2023

Introduction

Most microwave and RF devices are designed based on:

Schottky barrier diodes, bipolar transistors, and field effect transistors
FET field.

Solid-state devices have three or four terminals. It is the field.

electric the one that controls the flow of charges. The flow of carriers is of a single
type (either electrons or holes) can operate in different regions of
polarization depending on which region of polarization they are in, function as:
voltage-controlled resistors current or voltage amplifiers power supplies
Current Logic and Power Switches 1.

Every electronic circuit is made up of a series of basic components.

such as: Resistors, Potentiometers, Diodes and LED diodes, Capacitors
Transistors, Printed circuits and integrated circuits, among others.

These components are found in any electronic device (such as a

computer, a Smart Phone, DVD or an MP3 player, etc.) integrated in
a printed circuit or motherboard.

Thus, through electronics, the miniaturization of the

devices, the possibility of automation and programming of processes and a great
development of information and communication technologies.
BIPOLAR AND MONOPOLAR SOLID STATE TECHNOLOGIES

Solid state technology

Solid-state electronics are devices that do not contain moving parts.

conventionally. This type of devices often use circuits and
other components that transmit signals through electric charges that do not
They require movement to control them. There are several electronic devices.
different ones that use solid-state technology, including crystal displays
liquid (LCD) and the non-memory storage devices that are not
hard disk drives. Solid state electronic devices often
are preferable to devices that contain moving parts because such
parts are prone to wear out or break due to accidents and use.

In reference to solid-state electronics, the term "solid state" refers to

refers to the fact that the components inside a device are not in
movement.

Some of the most common types of solid-state electronics are the

memory storage devices. Dynamic access memory
random access memory (DRAM) and flash memory cards are an excellent example of this
type of memory storage. In both types, transistors are used and
microprocessors for data storage and retrieval. The DRAM
it generally consists of a volatile memory that requires power to retain
data, which is why it is used for random access memory instead of
like hard drives. Flash memory cards are electronic devices that
solid state that is non-volatile and can retain data even without a power source
of food.

Bipolar technologies

The bipolar junction transistor (from English bipolar junction transistor, or its initials
BJT is a solid-state electronic device consisting of two PN junctions.
very close to each other, which allows to increase the current and decrease the voltage,
in addition to controlling the flow of current through its terminals. The
Bipolar transistors are the most well-known transistors and are generally used.
in analog electronics, although also in some applications of electronics
digital, such as TTL or BICMOS technology.

symbols of NPN and PNP bipolar transistors

To all this, we will say that there are two types of standard bipolar transistors: those of
NPN type and PNP type, with their different circuit symbols. The letters (N-
P) refer to the layers of semiconductor material that are used to create the
transistor. Most of the bipolar transistors used today are NPN,
because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. By the way, the first
transistors used Germanium instead of Silicon, which is more abundant in
nature and makes it more economical.
Field effect transistors (unipolar)

Field Effect Transistors are devices in which the current is

controls by voltage. When they operate as an amplifier, they supply a
output current that is proportional to the voltage applied at the input.
General characteristics:

No current is absorbed through the control terminal.

A very weak signal can control the component.

The control voltage is used to create an electric field.

They began to be built in the 1960s. There are two types of transistors.
of field effect the JFET (junction field effect transistor) and the
MOSFET. MOS transistors take up less space compared to bipolar transistors.
so its most frequent application is found in integrated circuits.
It is a three-terminal component called: Gate (G, Gate), Source
(S, Source), y Drainage (D, Drain). According to their construction, they can be of channel P or

from channel N. Its symbols are as follows:

What is a diode?

The diode is a semiconductor whose main function is to allow current to pass.

only in one direction, that is, in one way and block the current in the other
sense. In this way, the diode is chemically formed by a
union called PN and, generally, these are made with composite metal
Silicon.

Silicon is used with the aim of making it an active element, which is necessary to achieve
That is, impurities will be added to the materials.
manufacturing of the diode and this is where the PN junction occurs.

In a p-type material, we find a scarcity of electrons. It will also be

presents a type N material that has an excess of them. Taking into account that
Those elements have missing parts, both come together to generate a behavior.
electronic.

Diodes are classified into the following categories

Detector or low signal

Rectifier

Zener

Varactor

Light emitter

Laser

Stabilizer

Tunnel

Backward

Schottky

Photodiodes.

How to distinguish a diode graphically

Rectifier Diode

Rectifier diode symbol

This type of diode is practically the normal diode, with the characteristics mentioned before.

mentioned, which has a PN type connection and functions as a valve of

current.

It is a conventional diode that is called a rectifier because it is used in

applications of rectifier circuits, which convert alternating current
AC to direct current (DC).

These diodes have three chemical manufacturing techniques which are

alloying, diffusion, and epitaxial growth. The voltage for this type of diodes
Silicon is about 0.7 volts, and for germanium diodes it is 0.3.
volts.

Zener Diode

Zener diode symbol

The Zener diode has a conduction zone equal to that of the diodes.
rectifiers. Their difference lies in the moment they are polarized
inversely. In this case, this type of diode does not conduct current when the
the voltage of this is lower than what it provides us.
However, as soon as the voltage that the Zener diode needs is reached, which
approximately it is between 3.3V, 5.1V and 12V; the current will flow in
inversely polarized direction, that is, from cathode to anode.

The applications that are commonly found with this type of diode are the
voltage regulators, peak voltage clippers or shifters.

Tunnel Diode or Esaki

Tunnel Diode or Esaki Symbol

This diode is also known as the Esaki diode. This type of diode has
as a main characteristic a tunneling effect in the PN junction. This is a region
of negative resistance in the directly polarized direction.

The tunnel diode has doping of Silicon or Germanium 1000 times greater, and therefore
Thus, when the voltage increases, the current will decrease. So keep that in mind.
Do this when you are working on it, as some factors could be modified.

The applications we find for a tunnel diode can be as follows:

amplifier, oscillator or a flip-flop.

This type of low-power diode is commonly seen in applications of

microwave because its operating voltage is between 1.8 and 3.8
volts.
Schottky diode

Symbol of the Schottky diode

The Schottky diode has a large difference in its junction.

The junction of this type of diode is a Metal-N, meaning it goes from a metal to a
semiconductor. That, when polarized in the direct direction, its voltage drop is
finds between 2.0 to 0.5 volts, which is perfect for circuit applications
high speed that requires switching agility and low voltage drop;
just as you can see on computers.

Vericap Diode

Varicap Diode Symbol

The main feature of this diode is that it is used to provide

variable capacitance. This will depend on the reverse application and polarization in
direct current.

The applications that have been given to this type of diode have been to replace
mechanical systems in electronic circuits where there is emission and reception
with a variable capacitor, one example of this can be the television and the
FM radio transmission.
Photodiode

Photodiode Symbol

The photodiode has a very particular feature, which is that this diode
it is very sensitive to light.

That is why the correct way to use it is to connect it in reverse.

this will allow the flow of current in the same direction, since, when the light hits
In the diode, this will increase the current intensity.

The applications we obtain from this type of diode are similar to those of a
LDR or a phototransistor, as it will respond to changes from darkness to light.
very quickly.

LED diode

LED Diode Symbol

The famous light-emitting diode is a very popular diode in the market.

This diode emits photons from very low current intensity and there are
different colors, which will depend on the material they were built with.

Its operation is basically that, when directly polarized, it will flow a

current intensity and as the voltage increases the diode will start to emit
photons.
A LED diode has a voltage drop of between 1.5 to 2.5 volts and a current of
current between 20 and 40 mA. Therefore, if these values are exceeded, the diode does not
It will work. Similarly, if it does not reach the voltage or the minimum current either.
required this will not turn on.

Among its various applications is the lighting of circuits.

on and off, of counters and lighting in general.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

It is a semiconductor device of the Thyristor type, that is, it is made up of three

terminals: anode (A), cathode (K), and gate (G).

SCR Symbol and Physical Aspect of Packaging

The SCR is used for controlling electrical power, for conduction.

unidirectional (in one direction); which, like a rectifier diode, can
drive a current from Anode to Cathode (IAK) in direct polarization and
virtually behaves like an open circuit in reverse bias (VKA)
due to the high resistance it shows in reverse.

Unlike the rectifier diode, the SCR has an additional condition for
driving. This is that, at the third terminal, called control gate (Gate)
or firing, in which a signal capable of producing conduction is needed
SCR. This gate allows controlling the moment within the possible semicircle of
conduction, in which the conduction of current begins; which means that it will be able to
current circular in an average or RMS magnitude that will depend on the moment in
that the SCR is triggered, thus allowing control of the load power.

OPERATION OF THE SCR IN DIRECT CURRENT

If there is no current in the gate, the thyristor does not conduct. What happens
after the SCR is activated, it remains conducting (activated) and it
it thus maintains. If it is desired for the thyristor to stop conducting (deactivated), the voltage

+V must be reduced to 0 Volts.

If the voltage (tension) is slowly decreased, the thyristor will continue to conduct.
until a current lower than the so-called 'current of' passes through
maintenance or retention," which will cause the SCR to stop conducting
although the VG tension (gate voltage with respect to ground) is not zero.

As can be seen, the SCR has two states:

1- Driving state, where the resistance between anode and cathode is very
low

2- Cut state, where the resistance is very high

OPERATION OF SCR IN ALTERNATING CURRENT

It is mainly used to control the power delivered to a load.

electric. (Bulb, Motor, etc.). The voltage source can be 110V AC,
120V AC, 240V AC, etc.

The RC circuit produces a phase shift between the input voltage and the
tension in the capacitor that supplies the current to the gate of the
SCR. It can be seen that the voltage across the capacitor (in blue) is delayed with
regarding the supply voltage (in red) causing the thyristor to conduct a
shortly after the thyristor has the necessary power to conduct.

During the negative cycle, the thyristor opens, stopping conduction. If the
value of the resistance, for example, if we use a potentiometer, it is modified
discrepancy that exists between the two aforementioned tensions causing the
SCR activates at different times before being deactivated by the cycle.
negative of the signal. and stop driving.

ALTERNATING CURRENT THYRISTOR (TRIAC)

The triac is a three-terminal semiconductor device that is used for

control the average current flow to a load, with the particularity that
conducts in both directions and can be blocked by reversing the voltage or by
reduce the current below the maintenance value. The triac can be
fired regardless of gate polarization, that is, through

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

When the triac conducts, there is a very low current flow path.
resistance from one terminal to another, depending on the direction of flow of the
polarity of the externally applied voltage. When the voltage is more positive on MT2,
the current flows from MT2 to MT1 otherwise it flows from MT1 to MT2. In both
in some cases the triac behaves like a closed switch. When the triac stops
Driving cannot allow current to flow between the main terminals regardless of the situation.
the polarity of the applied external voltage, thus acting as a switch opening
a positive or negative door current (firing angle).

It should be taken into account that if a significant voltage variation is applied to

Triac (dv/dt) even without prior conduction, the triac can enter direct conduction.

The structure contains six layers as indicated in

the figure, although it always works as a thyristor
of four layers. In the MT2-MT1 direction, it leads to
through P1N1P2N2 and in the MT1-MT2 direction through
from P2N1P1N4. The N3 layer facilitates the shot with
negative gate intensity. The complication of its
the structure makes it more delicate than a thyristor in terms of di/dt and dv/dt and
capacity to withstand overloads. They are manufactured for intensities of
some amperes up to about 200 A effective and from 400 to 1000 V of voltage
repetitive pulse. Triacs are manufactured to operate at low frequencies, the
manufactured to operate at medium frequencies are called alternistors.
The following figure shows the schematic symbol and identification of the
the terminals of a triac, the nomenclature Anode 2 (A2) and Anode 1 (A1) can be
replaced by Main Terminal 2 (MT2) and Main Terminal 1 (MT1)
respectively.
The Triac acts as two silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) in parallel.

Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier is technically an electronic amplifier, which

It activates its operation with direct current. It contains an output connection.
and two input connections. Also, these devices are identified with the
Acronym OPAMP, taken from the English term "operational amplifier". The differential
the power of both inputs is considerably lower compared to that of
the exit.

The amplifier is composed of the following parameters:

Input impedance: It is the resistance between the inputs of the amplifier.

Output impedance: It is the resistance observed at the output of the amplifier.

Open loop gain: Indicates the voltage gain in the absence of

Feedback. It can be expressed in natural units (V/V, V/mV) or
logarithmic (dB).

Common mode voltage: Understand the average value of voltage applied to

both inputs of the operational amplifier.
Input offset voltage: It is the voltage difference between the
inputs of an operational amplifier that makes its output zero volts.

Input imbalance current: It is the difference in current between

the two inputs of the operational amplifier, which cause its output to take the
zero value.

Differential input voltage: It is the highest voltage difference between the

operational inputs that keep the device within the
specifications.

Input polarization current: Average current flowing through the inputs

of the operational in the absence of signal.

Rate of voltage variation: It is the maximum variation of the output voltage

regarding the time variation, in response to a step tension.
It is measured in V/μs, kV/μs, or similar units. This parameter is limited by the
frequency compensation in most operational amplifiers.

Common Mode Rejection Relation (CMRR, or RRMC in its Spanish acronym):

It is the ability of an amplifier to reject common mode signals.

It is due to the creation of Mr. George Philbrick, who worked at Huntington.

Engineering Labs, and to whom its invention is attributed. Starting from 1948 this
The instrument is part of the equipment available on the market for jobs.
electric

Types of operational amplifiers

Inverting/non-inverting amplifier: An inverting operational amplifier

it will increase the signal gain and also reverse the polarity of the signal of
output, from positive to negative or vice versa.
Voltage follower: A voltage follower is used to amplify the signal.
circuits with variable voltages. Apply the same type of gain increase as
the standard amplifier, but variations in input gain will be tracked
and they will match by the output signal. These types of circuits are often
used ahead of other systems to prevent damage from sudden changes
of voltage.

Sum/difference amplifiers: These two varieties of amplifiers

operational amplifiers perform an arithmetic process on the signal. An amplifier
The operational subtraction outputs a signal that is equal to the subtraction between its two.

inputs. A summing amplifier combines different voltages from a number of

inputs, and take a profit based on the combined voltages. Any
these circuits can be configured to operate as inverter systems or
no investors

Integrators/differentiators: The most complex varieties of amplifiers

Operational are the integrators and differentiators. The sum of a capacitor
the circuit means that the integrator reacts to changes in voltage with the
time. The magnitude of the output voltage changes, based on the amount of
time that a voltage takes to appear at the input. The differentiator is what
opposite to this. The voltage produced in the output channel is proportional to the rate
of voltage input changes. The largest and fastest changes in voltage of
input will produce higher output voltages.

Generic characteristics of the power amplifier

The Operational Amplifier (O.A.) is characterized by having two terminals.
input that senses a voltage difference, and an output terminal that
reference regarding land.
Physically, it requires five terminals. The two input terminals that are
designate as inverting input (-) and non-inverting input (+), two others
terminals used for direct current power supply and the fifth for the
exit.
Infinite profit in open loop
Infinite input resistance
Zero input current.
Zero input imbalance tension.
Infinite range of voltage available at the output.
Durable bandwidth with zero phase shift.
Infinite rate of voltage variation.

Conclusion
As industrial engineers, it is of utmost importance to have basic knowledge.
of electronic components, over time, electronic components
They have been evolving every day; they are getting smaller and more complex.

identification of each of them contributes to an understanding of the

functioning they perform in all the technology that surrounds us.

It is worth mentioning that the contribution of solid-state technologies is the

responsible for the great advancement of all technology.

What are solid-state electronic components? (2021, July 12).

[Link] are electronic components?
solid state
Types of diodes and their characteristics
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Profile, V. T. my. (n.d.). CONTROL AND POWER ELECTRONICS. [Link].
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