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A practical guide for

Axis alignment

The authors, PRUFTECHNIK LTD, have taken care in the preparation of this publication.
It is not intended to be a complete guide for the alignment of process machinery, nor does it replace
the search for professional advice or referral to machinery manufacturers.
PRUFTECHNIK LTD, PRUFTECHNIK AG or their subsidiaries will not accept liability
any actions taken based on the information contained in this publication.
PRUFTECHNIK AG and/or its subsidiaries do not assume any direct or indirect liability for
third-party claims resulting from the use or application of the information contained in this manual.

Edit 4;4-03.007

© Copyright 2002
PRUFTECHNIK LTD

All rights reserved

Distributed in the U.S. by LUDECA Inc.• [Link]

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Introduction
The purpose of producing this manual is to provide basic information and guidelines.
for the implementation of a good machine alignment for systems of machines
standard rotaries.

Laser alignment is an essential component of a maintenance strategy

viable for rotating machines. In isolation, each strategy can help to
reduce unexpected machine failures, but together they form the core of
a proactive maintenance strategy that will not only identify the problems
incipient, but it will significantly extend the lifespan of the machine.

In each section of this manual, we have used one or two examples of the
available methods to measure the required parameters. We do not suggest that the
illustrated methods should be the only ones available.

Prueftechnik are specialists in the alignment and control of rotating machines.

we have accumulated substantial practical knowledge of these topics during the
30 years of our existence, in doing so, we have produced many manuals that
they cover individual topics and systems.
This manual is a distillation of this accumulated knowledge plus a brief
description in each section of the latest Prueftechnik systems that address
the specific applications in question.

We hope that this information is presented clearly and legibly and that
provide the new reader on the subject a platform to successfully apply
profitable maintenance practices in your plant.

We are in debt to our colleagues at Prueftechnik AG (Germany) and our

associates of LUDECA Inc. (USA) for allowing us to reproduce some of the
graphics used in this manual; in addition, we have based ourselves on information
previously published in the Prueftechnik equipment manuals to obtain
information about alignment standards and graphic and mathematical methods of
balance calculation. We are grateful for this information.

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Introduction

Axle alignment

Page
Number

What is axle alignment? 6

A definition 6

Machine chain 7

Operation above the critical speed 8

Expressing the alignment .. 10

Alignment parameters .. 10

Angularity, space and 11

displacement .. couplings 14

short flexible rods .. spacer axes 15

How precise should the alignment be? 18

.. Alignment tolerances 18

Resolution of 21

problems .. Coupling deformation and axis deviation 21

Causes of machine breakdown .. 23

Couplings and misalignment .. 23

Bearings .. Wear of the joints .. 24

Machine vibration .. Symptoms of 24
disalignment 25
25

Methods and practice of alignment .. Guidelines 27

machine installation .. Measurement and 28

correction of the lame foot 29

Alignment by view 33

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Content

Page
Number

Alignment by cover indicator 36

Method of trial and error 37
.. Edge and face method - by calculation .. Method 38
of reverse indicator - by calculation .. Measurement of buckling 41

from the indicator support 43

Laser Alignment.. 45

Basic operating requirements 48

Laser Alignment Case Study

.. The laser alignment reduces costs of 52

energy .. The laser alignment improves the reliability of the 56

Laser alignment improves the lifespan of bearings 58

and the seals .. The laser alignment reduces vibration alarms 59

Thermal expansion of machines .. 60

Thermal growth calculations 61

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What is axle alignment?

A definition

The alignment of axes is the process by which two or more machines (typically a
motor and a pump) are positioned in such a way that at the power transfer point of
from one axis to another, the rotation axes of both axes must be collinear when the machine is
functioning under normal conditions. conditions.

As with all standard definitions, there are exceptions. Some types of

coupling, for example, gear couplings or universal joints, require a
defined misalignment to ensure proper lubrication during operation.

The important points to consider in the previous definition are.

At the energy transfer point...

All axles have some type of catenary due to their own weight, so the axles do not
they are straight, therefore, the location where the alignment of the two axes can be compared is
only at the point of power transfer from one axis to the next.

...the axes of rotation...

Do not confuse 'shaft alignment' with 'coupling alignment'.

The coupling surfaces should not be used to define the alignment condition anymore.
that do not represent the axis of rotation of the axes.

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What is axle alignment?

The accuracy of the coupling adjustment on the axis is unknown.

The rotation of a single axis and the use of dial indicators to measure the surface
Opposite decoupling does not determine the axis of rotation of both axes.

... under normal operating conditions

The alignment condition can change when the machine is operating. This
It may be due to various reasons, such as thermal growth, the tension of the
pipes, the torque of the machine, the movement of the foundations and the play
of the bearings. Since the alignment of shafts is generally measured with the
cold machines, the measured alignment condition is not necessarily the condition
of zero alignment of the machines. (see page 60-62)
The alignment condition must be measured while the shafts are rotated in the direction.
normal rotation. Most pumps, fans, and motors, etc. have
arrows on the end housing that show the direction of rotation.

machine chain

The amount of shaft deviation in a machine depends on several factors, such as

the rigidity of the axes, the amount of weight between the protruding supports, the design
of the bearing and the distance between the supports.

The natural deflection of the shafts under their own weight.

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What is axle alignment?

For the vast majority of compact coupling rotary machines, this arc of
catenary is insignificant and, therefore, for practical purposes can be ignored.
In long drive machine trains, for example, turbine generators in plants.
of energy generation or machines with long spacer shafts, for example, fans
For cooling towers or gas turbines, the catenary curve must be taken into account.

machine chain

In a steam turbine, for example, the shafts are usually aligned with each other better than 4 mils.
but the midpoint of the central axis could be up to 1.2 inches lower than the two axes of
the extremes.

Operation above critical speed?

When a very long and flexible shaft starts to rotate, the arc of the shaft tries to straighten out, but

it never becomes a perfectly straight line. It is important to understand that the axis of
rotation of an axis could very possibly run on a curved rotation axis. In situations
in which two or more pieces of machinery are coupled with one or more shafts that rotate around
from a rotation axis in the shape of a catenary, it is important to align the axes so that they maintain

the central curved line of rotation.

Operation of the drive shaft below the critical speed:

Align the machine couplings with the spacer couplings.

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What is axis alignment?

Operation of the drive shaft above the

critical speed: Align the machine couplings with each other ignoring the spacer.

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Expressing alignment

Alignment parameters

Since the alignment of the axis must be measured and corrected afterwards, it
presents a method to quantify and describe the condition of alignment.
necessary.

Traditionally, alignment has been described in terms of readings of the

indicator of the faceplate on the coupling or position values on the
machine feet. The measured values from both methods depend on the
dimensions of the machines. Since there are many different methods
to set up face indicators (inverse indicator, edge and face, double
edge, for example), the comparison of measurements and the application of tolerances
they can be problematic. Furthermore, it should be taken into account the fact that
the tire gauge readings show double the actual compensation and
the investments are sign-dependent depending on whether the indicator measures a face or a tire
internal or external coupling, left or right.

A more modern and easily understandable approach is to describe the condition

of machine alignment in terms of angularity and displacement in
horizontal (floor view) and vertical (side view). Using this method, it
they can use four values to express the alignment condition as they
shown in the following diagram.

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Expressing alignment

Angularity, space, and compensation

The angularity describes the angle between two rotating axes.

The angularity can be expressed directly as an angle in degrees or in terms

of a slope in mils/inch. This last method is useful because the angularity
multiplied by the diameter of the coupling gives an equivalent separation difference
on the edge of the coupling.
Therefore, the angle is more commonly expressed in terms of GAP per diameter.
Space itself has no meaning; it must be divided by the diameter to make sense.
The diameter is correctly referred to as 'working diameter', but it is often
it is called coupling diameter. The working diameter can be any value
convenient. The important thing is the relationship between the separation and the diameter.

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Expressing alignment

Relationship of angle, gap, and working diameter.

A 6-inch coupling open at the top by 5.0 thousandths of an inch makes an angle.

between axes of 0.83 thousandths of an inch per inch.

For a working diameter of 10 inches, this corresponds to a space of 8.3 mils per 10 inches.

same angle - different space

same space - different angle

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Expressing alignment

Offset describes the distance between the axes of rotation at a given point.
Displacement is sometimes incorrectly referred to as parallel displacement or
wheel misalignment; however, the rotation axes of the axle are rarely
parallels and the coupling or the axle wheel have an unknown relationship with the
rotation axes of the axis.

6.0 thousandths of an inch

3.0 thousandths of an inch

-4.0 thousandths of an inch

As shown above, for the same alignment condition, the value of

compensation varies according to the location where the distance between two axes is measured
axis rotation. In the absence of any other instruction, the displacement is measured
in mm or thousandths of an inch at the coupling center. (This definition is
refers to short flexible couplings, as the displacement of the couplings
spacers should be measured on the power transmission planes of the coupling).

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Expressing alignment

short flexible couplings

To facilitate understanding, we define short flexible couplings when the length

the axial length of the flexible element or the axial length between the flexible element is equal to or

smaller than the diameter of the coupling.

Machines with short flexible couplings that operate at medium or high speed
they require a very precise alignment to avoid undue loading of the shafts, bearings and
stamps.
Since the alignment condition is almost always a combination of
angularity and displacement, and the machine must be corrected both in the vertical plane as well
In the horizontal, 4 values are required to fully describe the condition of
alignment.

Vertical angularity (or space by diameter)

Vertical displacement

Horizontal angularity (or space by diameter)

Horizontal displacement.

Unless otherwise specified, displacement refers to the distance between the

rotation axes of the axis at the center of the coupling.

The following diagram shows the notation and the sign convention.

to compensate
gap

angle

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Expressing alignment

Spacer axes

The spacer axes are generally installed when significant changes are anticipated in
the alignment during the operation of the machine, for example, due to growth
thermal. Along the axis of the spacer, the angular change at the end of the spacer axis
It remains small even when larger changes in the machine's position occur.
The alignment accuracy for machines equipped with spacer shafts that have
Flexible elements at each end are not as critical as for machines that have them installed.
short flexible couplings.

Four values are required to fully describe the alignment condition.

Vertical angle to a
Vertical angle b
Horizontal angle to
Horizontal angle b
The angles are measured between the axis of rotation of the spacer shaft and the respective axes of
machine rotation.

The following diagram shows the notation and the convention of signs.

angle one

angle b

+ one

-b
a b

+ second +a
+ second

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Expressing alignment

Compensation B - compensation A

As an alternative to the 2 angles ayb, the alignment can be specified in terms of displacements.

Vertical displacement b

Vertical displacement to

Horizontal displacement b

Horizontal displacement to

The compensations are measured between the rotation axes of the machine shaft at the location of the ends of the shafts.

spacers. This is similar to the reverse alignment of the indicator.

The diagram shows the notation and the convention of signs.

compensation b to compensate a

+ compensation b + compensation a compensation b + compensation a

+ compensation b - compensation a - compensation b - compensation a

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Expressing alignment

Relationships

By studying the diagram below, one will gain an understanding

clearer understanding of the relationship between the various compensations and angles.

ÿ = one + second

Compensation B = bx L Compensation A = -(ax L)

a b

length of the spacer L

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How precise should the alignment be?

Alignment tolerances for flexible couplings

The suggested tolerances shown on the following pages are general values.
based on more than 20 years of experience in shaft alignment at Pruftechnik and not
must be exceeded. They should be used only if the existing internal rules or the
the machine manufacturer does not prescribe other tolerances.

Consider all values as the maximum allowed deviation from the target.

alignment, whether zero or some desired value to compensate for thermal growth. In
In most cases, a quick glance at the table will tell you if the misalignment of
coupling is admissible or not.

For example, a machine with a short flexible coupling that operates at 1800 RPM.
it has coupling offsets of -1.6 mils vertically and 1.0 mil horizontally,
Both values are within the 'excellent' limit of 2.0 mils.

The angularity is generally measured in terms of spatial difference. For a

determined amount of angularity, the larger the diameter, the greater the space
on the edge of the coupling (see page 12). The following table lists values
for coupling diameters of 10 inches. For other coupling diameters,
Multiply the value in the table by the appropriate factor. For example, a machine that
it operates at 1800 RPM with a coupling diameter of 3 inches. At this diameter,
the maximum permitted space would be: 0.9 mils.

For spacer axes, the table provides the maximum allowed displacement for 1
inch long spacer axis. For example, a machine that operates at 1800
RPM with a 12-inch long spacer axle would allow for maximum displacement.
0.6 mils/inch x 12 inches = 7.2 mils in any of the couplings in the
ends of the spacer axis.

Rigid couplings have no tolerance for misalignment, they must be aligned with the
the highest possible precision.

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How accurate does the alignment need to be?

Suggested alignment tolerance table

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How precise should the alignment be?

Note

For industrial equipment, the amount of misalignment that can be tolerated is a

function of many variables, including RPM, nominal power, the type of
coupling, the length of the spacer, the design of the coupled equipment, and the expectations
from the user regarding the lifespan. Since it is not practical to consider all of these
variables in a reasonably useful alignment specification, some are necessary
simplification of tolerances.

The tolerances based on the RPM and the length of the coupling spacer are
first published in the 1970s. Many of the tolerances were based on
mainly in the experience with lubricated gear couplings. Without
embargo, experience has shown that these tolerances are equally applicable
to the vast majority of non-lubricated coupling systems that employ elements
flexible in their design.

In the previous table, the 'acceptable' limits are calculated based on speed.
sliding of lubricated steel over steel, using a value of 0.5 inches/second
for the allowed slip speed. Since these values also match
with the derivatives of the cutting speeds of the elastomer, they can be applied to
short flexible couplings with flexible elements.

The values 'Excellent' are based on observations made in a wide variety.

of machines to determine the critical misalignment of vibration. However, the
Compliance with these tolerances does not guarantee vibration-free operation.

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Problem solving

Coupling deformation and shaft deflection

Do the new readings not match the recent movements?

When performing an alignment, whether with face indicators or laser optical systems, sometimes the
readings following an alignment adjustment do not match the corrections made. One
the possibility is that the coupling tension is misaligning the shaft, the machine supports or the
base. This has often been noted particularly in pump sets that have a
fixed front assembly as shown in the following diagram.

In this application, the flexible coupling element is quite radially rigid and can
to influence the measurement of alignment. In this situation, we recommend splitting the element of
coupling to release the alignment measured by such external forces.

If it does not adjust, the net effect of influences such as those mentioned above is

that the new alignment is not only incorrect, but has often been made in the wrong direction
opposite to the required alignment correction.

In extreme cases, the coupling tension imposed by the newly aligned machines can
bend the axes during operation. In most cases, this bending will be minimal but
sufficient to affect the measured rotation axes of the axis.

The following diagrams illustrate the potential problem.

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Problem solving

This is the alignment condition with decoupled axes

This is the alignment measured with the coupled axes.

The projected central lines of rotation are shown.

The movements are customized. There is now less tension in the coupling.

and the axes can be aligned correctly in the next attempt.

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Causes of machine breakdown.

Can the couplings withstand misalignment?

... why bother aligning the machine

when equipped with a flexible coupling designed to withstand misalignment?

The experience and recommendations for maximum misalignment from manufacturers of

couplings would suggest otherwise. Anecdotal evidence suggests that up to 50% of the
Machine failures can be directly attributed to incorrect shaft alignment.

It is true that flexible couplings are designed to withstand misalignment,

normally up to 400 mils or more of radial deviation of the axes. But the imposed load
about the axes and, therefore, the bearings and seals increase drastically due to the
reaction forces created within the coupling when it is misaligned.

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Causes of machine breakdown.

Anti-friction bearings
Bearings are precision-manufactured components designed to operate with
clean lubrication and constant but restricted operating temperatures.
The components manufactured with a precision of 0.2 mils are:
It is not capable of operating for extended periods at high temperatures.
temperatures caused by misalignment.
It cannot withstand the contamination caused by failures in the mechanical seal that has
The entry of dirt, sand, metallic elements, or other objects is permitted.

It is not designed to operate for extended periods with misalignment that

impose axial impact loads on the components carefully
machining and polishing.
In addition to the damage inflicted on the bearings by the misalignment itself, when they fail
mechanical seals, the bearings must be removed from the shaft assembly, sometimes return to
be positioned or, in most cases, replaced. The extraction and assembly by itself
they can only cause damage to the bearings.
Most manufacturers and pump repairers recommend that, when repairing
damaged pumps, the bearings should always be replaced regardless of their
apparent state, since it is easy to overlook minor damage to the bearing that
they will progressively worsen after being put back.

Mechanical seals
Seal wear increases due to the load on the shaft when the shafts are misaligned.
The bomb seals are a high-cost item that often costs up to a third.
of the total cost of the pump. Poor installation and excessive misalignment of the
they will substantially reduce the lifespan of the seal. Manufacturers have addressed the
problem of bad installation practices through the introduction of seals type
cartridges that can be installed with little or no onsite assembly. However, the
seals have precision ground and sharpened components with an accuracy of
finished of 2 microns (0.08 thousandths of an inch) and do not tolerate operation in
poor alignment conditions, face rubbing, high temperatures, and the
entry of pollutants that quickly damage costly components. The failure of
seal is often catastrophic, as it provides little or no prior warning, the
downtime of the resulting plant, the seal replacement costs, the costs
of pump repair and bearing replacement cause seal failure
due to the misalignment being a costly and unnecessary problem.
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Causes of machine malfunction.

Machine vibration
The machine's vibration increases with misalignment. High vibration leads to
the fatigue of the machine components and, consequently, to the premature failure of
the machine.

The accumulated benefits of axle alignment

The benefits that are obtained by adopting a good axis alignment practice
start with an improved machine lifespan, ensuring availability
from the plant when production requires it. The machinery aligned with precision
will achieve the following results.

Improve the lifespan and reliability of the plant

Reduce the costs of the spare parts used, such as seals and bearings.
Reduce maintenance labor costs

Improve the availability of the production plant

Reduce production loss caused by plant failures
Reduce the need for backup power plant
Improve the operational safety of the plant
Reduce energy consumption costs at the plant.
"Push" the operational limits of the plant in times of production need

Obtain better plant insurance rates through better operational practices

price and results

Symptoms of misalignment

It is not always easy to detect misalignments in machinery while it is running.

The radial forces transmitted from axis to axis are difficult to measure externally.
Through vibration analysis or infrared thermography, it is possible to identify the
main symptoms of misalignment, such as high vibration readings in directions
radial and axial or abnormal temperature gradients in the shells of the
machines, but without such instrumentation it is also possible to identify problems
secondary components of the machine that can indicate precision errors. shaft alignment.

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Causes of machine breakdown.

ÿ Loose or broken foundation bolts.

ÿ Packages of wedges or loose pins.

ÿ Excessive oil leakage in the bearing seals.

ÿ Loose or broken coupling bolts.

ÿ Some flexible coupling designs heat up when misaligned.

If the coupling has elastomeric elements, look for rubber dust inside.
the coupling cover.

ÿ Similar equipment vibrates less or has a longer lifespan.

ÿ Unusual high rate of coupling failures or wear.

ÿ Excessive amount of grease or oil inside the coupling protections.

ÿ The axles are breaking or cracking at or near the inner bearings or

coupling cubes.

A good axis alignment practice should be a key strategy in maintenance

rotating machines. A properly aligned machine will be a reliable asset for the
the plant will be there when needed and will require less scheduled maintenance (and not
programmed). In a later section, we will review some specific case studies that
they will show how the alignment of axes will provide substantial cost benefits to the plants
operational.
However, the following section of this manual will review the various alignment methods.

axes that can be used to achieve a good alignment of the installed machinery.

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Alignment methods and practices

There are several different methods by which alignment can be achieved.

acceptable of the rotating machine. These range from an economical straight edge to the
more sophisticated laser systems and inevitably more expensive. We can condense
these methods into three basic categories,

ÿView: gauge and thickness gauges

Dial indicators - mechanical displacement gauges

Laser optical alignment systems

Within each category, there is a series of variations and options, it is

The intention here is not to evaluate all these options, but rather to focus on
the most commonly used methods in each category.

Preparation is important

The first preparatory step for a successful alignment is to ensure that the
the machine to be aligned can be moved as needed: this includes the
vertical mobility upwards (using the appropriate lifting equipment, of course)
and downwards, in case the machine needs to be lowered, as is usually the case.
This can be achieved by inserting 2 to 4 mm (0.08" - 0.16") shims underneath the
feet of both machines in the initial installation (we recommend leveling both)
machines initially so that changes in the condition of the base can
to be compensated later, if necessary). )
The horizontal positioning of the machines is best achieved using pins of
jack or a simple 'machine extraction' tool or hydraulic equipment, everything
which allows for fine control of movement in a slow, smooth, and continuous manner. The
methods like hammers not only make precise positioning difficult, but
they can also damage the machines (by causing vibration marks on the bearings),
but the vibration could displace the alignment system during the MOVE function
and therefore lead to less precise control of the correction positioning.

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Methods and practices of alignment

Machine installation guidelines

The installation of machinery such as a pump, gearbox, or compressor, etc. requires that it be
follow some general rules.

Usually, the driven unit is installed first and then the primary motor.
the motor is aligned with the shaft of the driven unit.

If the driven unit is driven through a gearbox, then the gearbox

gears must be aligned with the driven unit and the controller aligned with the box
of gears.

Basic checks must be carried out to determine accuracy

of the machine couplings, that is, check the 'eccentricity' (concentricity and
squaring with respect to the central lines of the axis) of the halves of the coupling
using a quadrant indicator, if possible (the halves of the coupling outside of
"true" can cause imbalance problems!)

The preparation of the machine's base plate and the mounting surfaces of
the machine, feet, pedestals, etc. is of utmost importance!
Successful alignment cannot be easily achieved in any other way!

Clean, repair, and deburr the mounting faces and the holes of the
anchor bolts, etc.

We have high-quality pre-cut leggings available for precise alignment.

effectiveness.

Before assembling the shaft alignment system/instrumentation in the

machines, take a few minutes to observe the coupling/alignment of shafts.
Remember, your eyes are your primary measuring system!

Check that the pump/motor, etc. is seated at a right angle to the base plate.
(Check for limp) and correct as necessary; refer to the following pages.

Keep the leggings to a minimum, that is, no more than 3 leggings at most, if it is
possible, underneath the legs/supports of the machinery.

Correct the alignment as necessary to ensure that when the machinery

it is working, the shafts of the machinery are centered in their bearings and
aligned with the manufacturers' tolerances.
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Alignment methods and practices

Always check the manufacturer's alignment figures before
starting the work! - the temperature increase may require adjustments
specific 'cold' alignments.

Make sure that all the pipes connected to the machines are properly
supported but able to move freely with thermal expansion.

Measurement and correction of clubfoot

An essential component of any successful alignment procedure is the determination and

correction of the lame foot. Just as a wobbly chair or table is a nuisance, a support of
wobbling machine causes frustration in the alignment.
The machine stops differently every time an alignment is attempted, and each set
The readings indicate that the machine is still misaligned.
Furthermore, when the machine is bolted, pressure is applied to the machine casing.
and the bearing housings. Essentially, there are three types of limp foot, two of which
are illustrated in the following scheme.

The soft parallel foot indicates that the base plate and the machine foot are parallel to each other, which

which allows correction simply by adding wedges of the correct thickness. The angular clubfoot
This is due to the machine's feet forming an angle with each other. This situation is more complex.
to diagnose and correct. One solution is to use wedge-shaped pieces to fill the angular space.
between the motherboard and the foot; a more drastic but long-term solution is to remove the machine and
correct the machine's feet so that they are flat (or adjust the angle of the base plate)

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Methods and practices of alignment

Measurement of a crippled foot

Using a variety of techniques, the clubfoot can be determined before

start of the alignment.

Using a laser alignment system, loosen one foot of the machine at a time, the system
from alignment calculate the amount of foot elevation in each foot.
Press the machine's foot again before continuing with the next foot.

Having determined the number of lame feet present as indicated below,

It is possible to make adjustments to the machine according to the condition of a lame foot.

diagnosed.

2 18

22 0

This example shows the classic problems of one-legged standing with a rock on the feet B and
It is tempting to place wedges on both feet to remove the rock, but it would be a mistake.
The best solution would be to only support the leg with the highest value and check again.
the four legs.

Many additional problems of flat feet can be found, including feet

bending, tension imposed by the pipes or 'soft feet caused by too much
slippers under the feet of the machine." Some examples are shown in the
following schemes.

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Alignment methods and practices

0 0

20 22
0 0

4 17
Example of a limp foot: bent foot: place a wedge on foot c and recheck all feet

6 11

14 17

Example of a lame foot: tension in the pipe: relieve external forces

1 1

0 0
0 0

2 14

Example of flat feet: flat feet: re-calibrate all feet with a maximum of 3 wedges and
check again

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Methods and alignment practices

When removing the limp foot, follow these steps:

1) Check the four legs of the machine, any foot that shows more than 3.0 mils correct.
as appropriate.

2) Examine the largest soft leg (or the two largest if they are the same) with gauges of
thicknesses to determine the type of soft foot. It never hurts to examine the other feet.
Also, but focus on finding and solving the biggest problem first.

3) Correct the diagnosed condition by fitting only one foot, if applicable.

If all the feet are within tolerance, start the alignment.

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Alignment methods - View

the rule

This method of shaft alignment was a common practice in many plants, always
that a flexible coupling will be used, it was considered to be good enough as
to observe the alignment and screw the machine. The equipment is certainly cheap and
easily available.
The corrective values of the machine's feet used to be estimated based on the
experience of the person who was doing the alignment.
Most of the time, the corrections on the machine's feet must be repeated to
test base and error before the alignment condition of the 'eyeball' is completed.
Even then, there is no certainty that the full alignment was correct.
Since the resolution of the human eye is limited to 4.0 thousandths of an inch, the
the precision of the alignment is consequently limited. Furthermore, without having made
thorough checks on the fitting accuracy of the coupling on the axis, no
A direct correlation can be made between the complete alignment and the actual alignment.
of the machine's axes.

In the best case, this alignment method can be described as coupling alignment,

not as axis alignment, as defined earlier.

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Alignment methods - View

the thickness gauge

Although it is classified here as a 'sight' axis alignment method, the

thickness gauge method under certain circumstances and for some machines
it can be perfectly acceptable. In the installation and alignment of sets of
turbines where half of the coupling is an integral part of the rotor shaft and not
it has flexible elements, it is possible for an expert turbine engineer to align the
two halves of the coupling with great precision. (As indicated in the section
regarding alignment tolerances, tolerances for displacements or are not allowed
spaces in this type of 'solid' couplings.

Using the thickness gauge or a caliper, the engineer measures precisely.

any space between the halves of the coupling. Then oil is used
elevation to rotate the axes together 180 degrees and then it is verified again the
space (with the lifting oil off). This procedure is carried out
then for the horizontal alignment measures.

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Alignment Methods - View

The readings are generally plotted graphically to establish the condition of

alignment and any necessary corrections required. In some cases,
the engineers will rotate an axis 180 degrees and take additional readings, these
readings are then averaged to eliminate any possible machining errors
of the axis. The averaged readings form the basis of the alignment graph.

In machines that use flexible elements in the coupling design,

the use of thickness gauges presents the same limitations as the method
of the rule and can only be described as alignment of the coupling.

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Alignment methods - Dial indicators

The use of cover indicators for the vast majority of alignment tasks
axes in which a flexible coupling element is used represents an advance
substantial in the precise methods of shaft alignment. There is a series of
quadrant configurations that can be used to carry out the alignment of the
machines, this section will review some of them, however, there is also a series
factors that the engineer must take into account before embarking on alignment
from a quadrant indicator. task.

Drop of the indicator support: this should always be measured before

take the actual alignment readings, no matter how solid it seems
the support. See the section on measuring settlement.

Internal friction / hysteresis: Sometimes it is necessary to hit lightly

the manometer for the needle of the indicator to settle at its final value.

Resolution of 1 thousand: A rounding error of up to 0.5 may occur.

a thousand with each reading. This can be combined several times in a set.
complete with readings.

Reading errors: Simple errors occur when the dials are

read under difficult conditions and severe time constraints.

Play in the mechanical linkage: small amounts of play can

they will go unnoticed but will cause great reading errors.

Inclined cover indicators: the indicator cannot be mounted

perpendicular to the measuring surface so that part of it is lost
the reading of displacement.

Axial axis game: This will affect the face readings taken.
to measure the angularity unless two axial gauges are used.

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Alignment methods - Dashboard indicators

Rim and Face Method - By trial and error

The interpretation of shaft alignment readings using dial indicators,

taking into account factors such as the sinking of the support, it requires an understanding
elementary of mathematics and geometry. In some cases, these skills are
limited and it uses an approximate trial and error procedure where it ignores
the bending of the support and the floating of the shaft. Moreover, only one shaft rotates during the measurement,

which adds errors to the alignment caused by the misalignment of the coupling
and the bending of the axis.

R
F

The previous diagram illustrates the scenario. The edge and face indicators touch the
fixed coupling of the machine. The indicators are set to zero at exactly 12 o'clock and the
the axis of the machine that is going to move is rotated half a turn to the position of 6
point. The foot closest to the coupling rises (or lowers) by an amount equal to the
halfway through the tire indicator reading. Wedges are repeatedly placed underneath
from the farthest foot of the coupling until the readings of the face indicator do not
they change as the axis is rotated.
Similarly, the indicators are set to zero at the 3 o'clock position and
they turn to the 9 o'clock position for horizontal correction.
In general, it is easy to detect when this procedure is used, as it often
There are a series of thin wedges under the rear legs of the machine. Because
Generally, this trial and error procedure results in errors of
significant misalignments in the coupling transmission plans and, when
if possible, this method should be discouraged in favor of other alignment methods with dial or laser

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Alignment methods - Cover indicators

Edge and face method - By calculation

The measuring device for this type of alignment is a dial indicator.

the hand of the dial indicates or points to the increments marked on the face of the
quadrant. As the foot is pushed towards the inside of the body, the hand of the
the quadrant rotates clockwise. The number of indicator marks that
move the hand is equal to the distance that the foot was pushed in the body. When the foot
away from the body, the hand of the dial similarly indicates the distance traveled. The
The dial count is positive when the foot moves inward and negative when it moves outward.

R
F

SL
RS
R = Tire
F = Face
sL = Distance from the coupling center to the left foot of the right m'ce
sR = Distance from the coupling center to the right foot of the right m'ce.

The edge and face alignment takes its name from the positions of the indicator feet.
During the measurements. Above is shown a traditional indicator setup.

Once mounted, the two axes rotate together and the dials are read at 12:00, 3:00, 6:00.
at 9:00.

Formulas to calculate alignment corrections

For such configurations, the alignment of MTBM in the plane of the indicator foot is the
next:

(R6 - R0 - RS)/2

HO = (R9 - R3)/2 HA = (F9 - F3) / diameter

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Alignment methods - Cover indicators

Calce = (F6-F0+FS)(s)/diameter -(R0-R6+RS)/2

Mover =(HA)(s)-HO

Mover =(F9-F3)(s)/diameter - (R3-R9)/2

If the cover indicators are set to zero at 12:00 and then read at 6:00, the calculation
from the compensation becomes:

Calce = (F6+FS)(s)/diameter + R6-RS/2

Positive result means adding braces. Negative result means removing braces.

If the dials are set to zero at 3:00 and then read at 9:00
The calculation of MOVE becomes:

Mover = (F9)(s)/diameter R9/2

Positive means moving towards 3:00

Negative means moving towards 9:00

The calculations for Shim and Move must be performed twice, once for the front legs.
and another for the hind legs.

Validity rule for reading the indicator.

The sum of the readings at 3 and 9 o'clock must be equal to the sum of the readings of
12 o'clock and 6 o'clock sharp. This applies to both radial and frontal readings.

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Alignment methods - Cover indicators

Where:

R0 = Edge reading at the 12:00 position

R3 = Edge reading at the 3:00 position
R6 = Reading the edge at the 6:00 position
R9 = Reading of the tire at the 9:00 position
F0 = Reading of the face at the 12:00 position
F3 = Reading the face at the 3:00 position
F6 = Reading of the face at the 6:00 position
F9 = Reading the face at the 9:00 position
dia = Diameter of the circle traced by the indicator foot face
RS = Tire sinking indicator
FS = Indicator of face sinking*
s = Distance from the measurement plane (tire indicator foot) to the foot of the machine
(front or rear) This value can be positive or negative

The direction of the clock hands is determined by looking along the axis from MTBM towards STAT.

(VA) (s)-VO

Sinking

An important source of error in the previous procedure is the sinking of the bar.
from the key. This error can affect the amounts of shims to the point that the machine becomes
It is severely unbalanced. To compensate for this drop, measure it and then add the reading of the drop.
(it can be positive or negative) to the readings at 6:00. Please refer to the previous formulas.

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Alignment methods - Cover indicators

Inverse indicator method - By calculation

The inverse indicator alignment method is the indicator alignment method of

more advanced cover, as such, it is recommended by the American Petroleum Institute (API)
686) as the preferred dial indicator alignment method.

METRO

d
C SL
RS

The reverse alignment of the indicators takes its name from the positions of the two.
opposite radial indicators on opposite halves of the coupling. Up
A traditional indicator configuration is shown.
Once mounted, the two axes are turned together and the dials are read at 12:00, 3:00,
6:00 and 9:00.

Formulas to calculate the alignment of the reverse indicator

For such configurations, the misalignment at the coupling center is as follows:

VO = (S6-S0+SS)/2 - (S6-S0+SS +M6-M0-MS)C/2D

VA = (S6 - S0 + SS + M6 - M0 - MS) / 2D

HO = (S9-S3)/2 - (S9-S3+M9-M3)C/2D

HA = (S9 - S3 + M9 - M3) / 2D

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Alignment methods - Cover indicators

Where:
S0 Left edge reading at 12 o'clock
S3 Reading of the left edge at 3 o'clock
S6 Reading of the left edge at 6 o'clock
S9 Left edge reading at 9 o'clock
M0 = Reading of the right edge at 12 o'clock
M3 = Reading of the right edge at 3 o'clock
M6 = Reading of the right edge at 6 o'clock
M9 = Reading of the right edge at 9 o'clock
d Distance between the left and right indicators
C Distance between the left indicator and the coupling center
SS indicator of left edge sinking (1)

MS = right tire sinking indicator (1)

These values can be positive or negative.

The corrections on the machine's vertical supports can be calculated as follows

way

Left foot calipers = (VA - sL) - VO

Straight leg length = (VA - sR) - VO

A positive result means adding pads, a negative result means removing pads.

Left shoe size = (VA -sL) - VO

Foot rights = (VA - sR) - VO

A positive result means moving towards 3 o'clock, a negative means moving towards 9.
on the dot.

Distance from the coupling center to the left foot of the right m'ce
sR = Distance from the coupling center to the upright feet of the right m'ce.

If the quadrant indicators are set to zero at exactly 12 o'clock and then read at 6
On point, the calculation of the wedge is as follows:

HO = (S9-S3)/2 - (S9-S3+M9-M3)C/2D
HA = (S9-S3+M9-M3)/2D 42
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Alignment methods - Dial indicators

left foot wedge = (S6-S3+M6-M3)(c+sL)/2D -(S6-SS)/2

cuña pies derechos = (S6-S3+M6-M3)(c+sR)/2D -(S6-SS)/2

The positive result means 'add fit', the negative result means 'remove fit'.

If the quadrant indicators are set to zero at three o'clock and then read at
9 o'clock, the movement calculations are as follows:

move left foot = (S9+M9)(c+sL)/2D -S9/2

move right foot = (S9 + M9)(c + sR) / 2D - S9 / 2

A positive result means moving towards 3 o'clock, negative means moving

at exactly 9 o'clock.

Measurement of the support sinking of the indicator

To measure the sinking, assemble the entire measuring device (supports, bars and
indicators) on a straight piece of pipe. Adjust the fitting until the supports are
at the same distance they will be when mounted on the actual machinery. Likewise,
place the indicators as close as possible to the way they will be placed in the
machinery. With the indicators held at the 12 o'clock position, put in
Zero the dials. Turn the pipe until the indicators are at 6:00 o'clock. Read and
register the quadrant indicators (the edge indicator will be a negative value, the
The face indicator can be positive or negative, but it should be close to zero.

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Alignment methods - Cover indicators

The corrections for vertical and horizontal fits are shown in each
graph. The corrections assume that the alignment must be 0,0/0,0 in the
vertical and horizontal plans. The manufacturer's figures or the calculated figures
for thermal expansion, these corrections must be accommodated in
calibrate it or in the original readings of the dial indicator.

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Laser axis alignment

Laser shaft alignment became popular in the mid-1980s

when Prueftechnik presented OPTALIGN®, the first shaft alignment system
by computer-assisted laser available commercially in the world. Despite
due to its relatively high price, the system quickly gained popularity in
the market between mechanics and companies in a wide range of industries
of processes around the world.

OPTALIGN offered many significant advantages for achieving quick alignment and
needs coupled rotary machines. Since the introduction of the first system,
advances in laser technology and microprocessors have enabled the development of
new generations of laser systems that offer the user simple systems of
understand, guided by menus, that can be used for virtually any
axis alignment task, regardless of its complexity or size.

As we have seen in the previous sections, there are a series of considerations

important factors to consider when using mechanical alignment methods
of axes, furthermore, the calculations for alignment corrections can be complicated
and prone to errors. None of the considerations apply to the laser method of
alignment of axles. Access to precision axle alignment and the benefits that
this entails (see the following section) is easily available when you
use laser axis alignment on site.

Below is a summary of some of the advantages that are offered by the

laser systems:

ÿ Precision alignment without graphic or numerical calculations

to carry out.
ÿ Graphical visualization of the alignment results in the
power transmission plans for coupling and shims and corrections
of adjustment on the feet of the machine.

Without mechanical fixations - without sinking of the support.

ÿ It is not necessary to disassemble the coupling to perform an alignment.
It is not necessary to take readings at predetermined places like 12:00, 3:00,
6:00 and 9:00 on the dot. The results can be obtained in less than 90.
degrees of rotation of the axis.

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Laser axis alignment

ÿ Data storage and result printing for report generation

of alignment condition.
ÿ Certified calibrated precision of the laser system to meet the requirements of
ISO 9000.

Universal bracket systems that cover all types of applications of

alignment. No special 'Christmas tree' supports are needed.
for measuring the long spacer axis.
ÿ The menu-driven user interface allows for the use of a wide range of
engineering skills and disciplines.

Live dynamic visualization of vertical and horizontal corrections

during the alignment corrections.

Built-in alignment tolerance analysis of alignment precision.

Once some of the benefits and advantages that can be obtained from using a
laser alignment system for axis alignment, it is important to establish the
functionality of the alignment system that will adapt to the users' requirements. There are
various systems available and several manufacturers offering laser alignment systems.

At a minimum, the system you choose must have the following capabilities:

• Certified calibration to a traceable standard. It makes no sense to buy a

system for precise alignment of axes whose measurement accuracy does not
can certify.
• High precision and repeatability. Low precision simply results in
incorrect correction values. High repeatability means that it is required
fewer measurements to acquire enough data to calculate accurate results.

• Robust, waterproof, shockproof, and dustproof. A sturdy casing means that

Using outdoors in humid conditions is not a problem. The instruments
robust with a guaranteed seal of approval such as IP standards (see
pages 60 and 62) allow him to continue working even under conditions
adverse.

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Laser axis alignment

• Resume capability allows you to restart the measurement.

easily a lineup in progress after an interruption or at
start of a new day, the user will not have to enter dimensions or
objectives again, even the measurement results will be saved.
• Capacity to expand the measurement The ability to extend the range
the dynamic of the laser detector system will ensure that, regardless of
from the misalignment being measured, the laser system will take care of
the alignment task. Static detection systems will not allow the
measurement of serious misalignments in long spacer shafts or
intermediates, regardless of the indicated size of the detector plan.
(See later notes).
• Interchangeable static feet The ability to vary the static feet
it allows the engineer maximum flexibility and the ability to handle feet
tied with bolts in the MTBM without the need to remeasure or carry out
complex calculations; all possible machine alternatives
Movements can be displayed.

• Variety of Supports A wide range of supports means that the team

Measurement can be installed even in the most complicated machines.
quickly and easily.
• Tolerances (TolCheck) The integrated verification of the tolerances of
Alignment saves time and effort. No time is wasted on movements.
unnecessary from the machine. The automatic tolerance verification shows
when an excellent or acceptable alignment has been achieved.
• Generation of reports directly from the box. Direct reports.
They mean faster reports to any printer with the number of
series, the date and time, and the name of the operator printed in the report, it
which allows full compliance with the traceability requirements of ISO
9000, for example.

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Laser shaft alignment

Basic operating principles of laser systems

Essentially, there are two types of laser systems, one that uses a single projected beam.
in a detector or in a reflector that returns the ray to the laser detector, the other type of
system uses two lasers, each with built-in detectors. The old system of
unique laser is a patented system used exclusively by Prueftechnik, the two
Laser systems are used by other system suppliers.

The single laser system shown above has a number of advantages that have been
incorporated to improve the versatility and ease of use of the system.
Measurement extension capability: a single laser data means it is possible.
dynamically extend the range of the system detector to incorporate a
serious misalignment; please see the explanation below.
Split alignment capability: a laser allows the alignment of machines that
they do not have a spacer or coupling in place, each machine can be rotated from
independent form. This is particularly useful when using couplings
spacers large or hydraulic couplings, when aligning large machines
like turbines or when one or both machines cannot be easily rotated.

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Laser axis alignment

Single cable technology: only one (or no) cable is required. This is
particularly useful in long spacer axes, such as tower drivers
cooling, where long cables can influence alignment measurements when
get tangled during the measurement.
Only a laser to adjust: in long spacer axes or large machines, the
configuration is much easier with just one fixed reference position to adjust.

Explanation of the measurement extension capacity

Even a moderate misalignment causes the beam to quickly deviate off the
range even of the largest detectors. Therefore, it is essential that your system
laser has the ability to dynamically extend the sensor plane as needed
necessary. The large size only in one detector is useless. All laser systems of
Prüftechnik has an infinitely expandable measurement range in sensor housings.
compact and stable.

Taking as an example a cooling tower unit with a coupling of

120-inch spacer shaft. The displacement between the driving and driven shafts.
It can be substantial even with just a small angular displacement between the axes.

80 inches
40"
20”

4 inches

Displacement of 1.0"

120 inches

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Laser axis alignment

The previous diagram illustrates the limitations imposed by the long lengths of the couplings.

spacers.

Taking as a simple example a coupling installed with angular misalignment between the

couplings of 0.5 degrees, this means that in a simple short coupling of 4 inches there would be produced

a displacement of 34.8 mils between the center lines of the coupling. A displacement that could

measure comfortably with any laser system.

If the distance between the coupling faces increases to 20 inches, the line displacement

central becomes 174 mils, outside the range of most static laser detection systems.

Now increase the distance to 40 inches of displacement = 348 mils

As the coupling spacer gets longer, so does the displacement to

that at 120 inches a massive displacement of 1.0 inches occurs. This with just an angle of
0.5 degrees between the ends of the axis!

This large compensation can only be measured with an extensible detector range, as it would require an area

static detection of approximately 2.4 inches to accommodate this offset.

The reason for such a large detector can be explained as follows:

The working area of the detector is smaller than the surface of the physical detector. For example, if the area of the

the detector is 790 mils x 790 mils, and the laser beam has a diameter of 157 mils, then the range of
the maximum useful measurement is 630 mils, as shown below.

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Laser shaft alignment

In order to measure a compensation, the range of the system's detector must be double that of the
compensation. Just like with a quadrant indicator, the laser receiver measures twice the
physical displacement of the two axes, as shown below.

To measure a physical displacement of 80 mils, we need a range of

measurement of the 160 mils detector.

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Laser Axis Alignment: Case Study

Laser shaft alignment reduces energy costs

A project to determine the extent to which axle misalignment influenced consumption.

energy of the plant was established as a graduate student project in a
important chemical processing plant in the United Kingdom. The study was conducted
during a six-week period in a controlled environment that accurately reflected
the normal operating conditions throughout the plant.

For the research, a redundant 7.5 kW pumping system was used in a plant.
Before the project began, the pump and the motor were taken to the workshop where they
new bearings were installed and both units were rebalanced to eliminate any
external factors that could distort the project's results. Plates were fixed and
lifting bolts to the engine base plate to allow fine adjustments in the condition
of alignment. The pump set was installed to circulate water through a
closed pipe circuit with the motor running at 3000 RPM (+/- 1% due to the
variations in the load condition.
The pump and the engine were initially installed with the alignment recorded as a
separation of 0.00 and displaced in the vertical and horizontal directions. The system
It worked under this condition for several days and the extracted current was measured on the board.
of distribution every few hours. During the course of the trial period, it was adjusted
the alignment of the machines and, in each misalignment interval, was executed during a
determined period with the extracted current measured at regular intervals.

Throughout the site, the two main types of couplings installed were couplings.
of "fastener" and "tire". To obtain a reasonable picture of the potential savings
that could be obtained in the plant, both types of coupling were installed with the
same amount of misalignment/current measured in each type of coupling.

The results of the study are shown in the following graphs. The misalignment of
Displacement affected energy consumption more than angularity; misalignment.
angular affected the power consumed by the 'plug' type couplings more than the
pneumatic-type couplings. The components of misalignment are additive.
regardless of whether the misalignment was vertical or horizontal.

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Laser axis alignment: case study

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Laser shaft alignment: case study

It was concluded from the project to implement a recommendation site-wide for

align the machines within a displacement tolerance of 0.005 inches and
An angularity tolerance of 0.0005 inches per inch of coupling diameter.

To estimate the possible cost savings that could arise from this new standard
A random sample of machines was measured to estimate the degree of
misalignment that existed in the plant. The following pie chart illustrates the results.
from this survey.

Displacements of the axis by 1/100 mm at the center of the coupling for a sample
from 100 machines operating at 3000 RPM.

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Laser axis alignment: case study

Less than 10% of the measured machines were within the standard of
recommended site alignment.
Using the pie chart, a representative median deviation of 0.35 was estimated.
as a reasonable figure to calculate potential energy savings in the plant.
Since the energy consumption for the rotating equipment in the plant was at the
range of 30 Megawatts, the following estimate of energy savings that could be
achieving was:

Assuming electricity rates of $0.06 per kWh and a conservative percentage of

energy reduction of 0.75%.

30,000 kW x 0.75% x 0.06 $/kWh = 13.50 $ per hour

$101,360 - per year!

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Laser shaft alignment: case study

Laser shaft alignment improves the reliability of the pump

Substantial improvements in the plant's operation were achieved following the introduction of
a comprehensive monitoring and alignment program for pumps at a major plant
Acetate Chemical in Derbyshire.

The production process requires that the materials be moved mechanically.

around the plant from one stage of the process to another. This plant uses about 260
pumps, so it is essential that both the service team and the backup team
be reliable and available. The maintenance was largely an exercise of
fire extinction until 1996. The plant engineer at that time persuaded the
management of the need to adopt a more proactive approach to maintenance and
monitoring of the pump's performance. A coordinated plan was introduced to improve the
plant performance through the use of laser alignment systems and equipment
condition monitoring of Prueftechnik.

In previous years, an estimated 120 pumps had been repaired per year at a cost
annual of about $192,000, the mean time between failures (MTBF) of these pumps
It was 10 months.

By applying a combination of laser alignment of newly renovated machines and

alignment of installed machines when the time allowed, in addition to monitoring of
plant condition routine along with a comprehensive review of the components
installed, such as seals, bearings, and gaskets, the plant began to see significant savings
in the maintenance of all important pumping systems.

The program, now well established, has yielded substantial dividends.

The reliability of the plant has improved to over 46 months of MTBF and repairs
Routine pump operations have been drastically reduced.

The calculated savings now exceed $157,000 per year, and since the beginning of the
program in 1996, it amounts to $880,000!

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Laser axis alignment: case study

The engineers used a comprehensive action plan to achieve these savings.

extraordinary in the plant, the key factors include:

Commitment of the engineer and the manager to the program

Patience!

ÿ Laser alignment

ÿ
Condition monitoring

ÿ Training

Root cause analysis

ÿ Careful selection of the mechanical seal

ÿ
Careful selection of bearings

ÿ Partnerships with suppliers

Better design and installation of pipes

ÿ
Pump selection considered

Selection of advanced lubrication systems

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Laser shaft alignment: case study

Laser alignment of the shaft improves the lifespan of bearings and seals.

The Infraspection Institute in the U.S. conducted a study to assess the effect of the
misalignment in key machine elements, such as bearings, seals and
couplings.

In a series of tests, a misalignment was introduced in a motor set

pump. Photos were taken at each new misalignment interval.
thermographic to identify the degree of temperature increase in key components.

The tests were conducted on a wide variety of flexible coupling types.

Without exception, all couplings, bearings, and machine housings (and, by the
Thus, the seals showed a significant increase in temperature. The following
The graph shows the effect of misalignment on the components when the set
the machine was aligned to +/- 2 mils and when the misalignment increased to + 20
mils.

Aligned to +/- 2 mils Aligned to +20 mils

It was not only demonstrated that the flexible coupling element heats up, but that
the machines themselves also develop high temperatures, especially
around the bearing housings. Neither the bearings nor the seals are
designed to operate at elevated temperatures caused by misalignment
for extended periods. An inevitable result of its operation in these
conditions are premature failure and reduced machine lifespan.

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Laser axis alignment: case study

Laser shaft alignment reduces vibration alarms

During the period from 1987 to 2000, an important oil refinery of

The United Kingdom adopted laser axis alignment as standard policy for
all the coupled rotating machines. They used the OPTALIGN system of
Prueftechnik and later the ROTALIGN® system. During the period, also
they monitored the incidents of the vibration alarms and how, in any case,
the use of laser axis alignment would help reduce this. The alarms
they were divided into problems caused by 'misalignment' and 'other' problems,
such as damage to the bearings, imbalance, and mechanical play.

The graph provided by the company clearly shows that a

substantial reduction in alarm violations, and that the problems
related to the alignment were completely eliminated.

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Thermal expansion of machines.

In most cases in this manual, we have only considered the conditions of

cold alignment of rotating machines. However, for sets of machines
larger and for equipment that operates at high temperatures in a component
of the set of machines, it is necessary to consider the effects of the expansion (or
contraction) in the machine alignment condition.
It doesn't make much sense to align a machine set up cold if it
alignment condition will change to the normal operating condition of the machine
configured. There are several ways to establish the final alignment or condition of
operational alignment.

Machine manufacturers should be able to provide information about

thermal compensation
Empirical calculation based on the temperature coefficient
Expansion for specific materials per unit length of height
the central line by degree of thermal change (see the next page).
ÿ Online measurement of the cold to hot alignment condition
using alignment measurement instruments with or without contact
contact.

Estimating or calculating the effective alignment position change is not an operation

simple. In complex machine systems, such as compressors, where there is a
series of machine elements, each with different temperature gradients,
simple calculations of thermal growth become very complex. In these cases
It is usually necessary to measure the components of the machine online.

60 © 2002 PRUFTECHNIK LTD.

Machine Translated by Google

Thermal expansion of machines.

Thermal growth calculations

If the direction and the extent of growth are known, it is possible that the machines
they deliberately misalign so that they grow in their place, resulting in
a good alignment condition during normal operation.
SMART ALIGNSHAFTALIGN®yROTALIGNUltra
they contain a special function designed specifically to incorporate such values
alignment objective. The most readily available target specifications for
The cold alignment can generally be obtained from machine manufacturers.
When this information is not available, the following calculations will help to
establish thermal growth.

DL = L (c) (DT)

Where DL = thermal expansion

L = central line of height to the base of the machine
c = thermal expansion coefficient of the material
(0.0000059” for cast iron)
change in ambient temperature

For example:

A pump with liquid at 300ºF.

Height from the base to the center is 26 inches.

Ambient temperature 50ºF.

DL = L (a) (DT)

DL = 26 inches (0.0000059) x (300-50)

26 inches (0.0000059) x 250 = 0.038 inches

Some advanced laser alignment systemshowROTALIGN Ultrato carry out

these calculations by you)

61 © 2002 PRUFTECHNIK LTD.

Machine Translated by Google

Thermal expansion of machines.

In these cases, a laser system like theTest technologyPERMALIGN®

The system is an ideal tool. SystemshowPERMALIGNthey are designed
to operate long-term in difficult conditions, often the mere fact of
install the equipment on a turbine or compressor that operates at more than 572 degrees F
it will mean that the measuring system must cool down to avoid damage or readings
inaccurate thermal expansion.

However, thermal expansion is not the only cause of the change in position of
the machine. Many elements can affect the accuracy of the final result, such as:

ÿ Thermal expansion of bearing supports

ÿ Changes in radial or axial forces
ÿ Changes in the oil film thickness in the bearings
ÿ Changes in the foundation supports or base plate
ÿ Changes in the forces of the pipes.

62 © 2002 PRUFTECHNIK LTD.

Machine Translated by Google

Distributor for USA, Caribbean and Venezuela: All other regions:

LUDECA Inc. PRÜFTECHNIK

1425 NW 88th Avenue Alignment Systems Ltd.
Doral, FL 33172, USA Freisinger Str. 34 85737
Tel (305) 591-8935 Fax Ismaning Germany Tel +49 89
(305) 591-1537 99616-0 Fax +49 89 99616-100
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© 2002 PRUFTECHNIK LTD.