The beams, slabs, columns, and load-bearing walls combine to form orthogonal frames.

(rectilinear), the most used load system in buildings. The frames distribute the loads in
horizontal form (by means of beams) to the columns that transmit forces vertically (to
the support foundation). This usually refers to a post and beam construction. The
slabs can be replaced by beams and load-bearing walls by columns, but the behavior
remains the same. In addition to these vertical and horizontal components, the system must
incorporate lateral support to resist horizontal loads such as the forces exerted by the wind
and earthquakes (figure 9.1).

FIGURE 9.1: A common frame system includes a system of horizontal clearances (slabs or beams),
a vertical support system (columns or walls) and a lateral support system.

Orthogonal frame systems can be classified by the number of levels (layers) of the
horizontal elements in the system. Commonly, single-level systems combine a
only feeling of the slab bridging a gap between two parallel load-bearing walls. The two systems
levels generally consist of a slab supported by parallel beams, which are sustained
on two parallel walls or a row of columns (one under each beam). The three systems
levels almost always include a slab supported by beams with narrow spacing.
supported on beams (perpendicular to the joists), and finally supported by columns (figures
9.2 and 9.3).
 FIGURE 9.2: Frame systems classified by the number of layers of horizontal elements.

FIGURE 9.3: Construction of wooden posts and beams in a traditional Japanese house: a) ground plan
common downgrade of a house for three people, b) construction of a sloped roof, c) apply
orioki-gake in ceiling beam and d) notch joint ashi-gatane in floor column and beam

Lateral Stability

Resistance to wind and other horizontal forces is necessary for the stability of frames.
orthogonal. In general, this is done using one or more of the following principles:
triangulation (segmenting the frame into triangles, which are geometric shapes)
inherently stable), articulation of stiffness (creating a rigid connection where
they intersect the members) and shear walls (uses the inherent shear strength of a
flat surface, such as a wall, to change its shape)
ENTRIES

An entrance is the internal division of a repetitive structural frame defined by the spacing.
of columns (or load-bearing walls). Simple structural spans consist of columns in
its four sides Although it seems simple, this arrangement results in that the
central columns have the highest load (that corresponding to a complete axle), the
side columns should have half the load of the center ones (half axis), and the columns of
the corners have only a load of a quarter of what the center ones have (a quarter of
entry). To balance the load across all columns, half entry points can be created in the
perimeter using protruding beams.

RIGID MARKS

The behavior of a simple beam and column frame (joints at the top)
it fundamentally changes when the column-to-beam connections become rigid. Consider the
demonstration model in figure 9.16. If the columns are rigidly fixed to the beam, the
the assembly is a rigid frame. If it rests on the ends of the beam (free columns to rotate) and
its load is distributed evenly along, it will bend and the columns will open; a
A rigid frame with rolling joints at the bases of the column would behave in a way
similar.

FIGURE 9.16: Model demonstrating the behavior of a rigid frame: a) rigid frame without load; b)
uniformly loaded, simply supported at the top of the columns (extension of columns); c)
uniformly loaded rigid frame, articulated base (the columns flex, the beams deflect less), and d) frame
uniformly loaded rigid, fixed base (the columns bend in both directions, the beams still flex
less).
If it is prevented that the legs expand (if the bases of the column are rigidly together), they
they will bend and, therefore, their strength will contribute to the bending resistance of the entire frame, it
which will result in a smaller deflection than in the upper beam. The dotted parabola in the figure
9.17 shows the optimal shape of the arch for a uniform load. If the frame follows this shape, it does not
there would be flexion. The amount of flexion (moment) is directly related to the displacement
of the frame in this ideal form. Where this displacement is greater (in the center of the span and in
the rigid joints of the beam and column). The bending moment is greater and the depth of the frame
needs to be bigger. Where the displacement is less (at the bases of the column and in the
the fourth part of the beam's clear span), the bending moment is zero and the frame can be articulated. But
since the result of this would be an unstable frame with four joints, it is common that to the
Upper joints are given some thickness for rigidity.

FIGURE 9.17: The moment of flexion at any point in a rigid frame is determined by the amount that the shape
the frame differs from an optimal arch shape that would occur without flexion (in this case, a parabola). The additional part of the
the frame is from the parabola, at the maximum moment the necessary superelevation is greater. Where the parabola intersects the frame, the
The moment of flexion is zero, so a joint could be inserted. In a framework of four joints...
needs a consistent spread to have stability.

Rigid frames with multiple entries

When rigid orthogonal frames are repeated, the fixed joints transmit the bending moment,
in such a way that the deflection that appears in any simple structural module (as a result of
An applied load is shared with the surrounding entraints. This interaction between entraints
Adjacent means that the flexural resistances of various structural modules are combined.
to create a firmer structure. It also means that the arrow in a frame is transmitted to
throughout the entire structure. The demonstration model in figure 9.18 explains how the
The conditions of the frame joints (whether rigid or articulated) determine how they are distributed.
the bending forces in multiple frame structures. Because a rigid frame is more
efficient in the use of material, the additional effort requires safety in the rigidity of the
meetings to compensate for some of this efficiency. The decision regarding making rigid frames is
complex and requires a lot of analysis and experience (figure 9.19).

FIGURE 9.19: Model showing the effects of varying stiffness in beams and columns when subjected to a frame.
from the building to lateral loads.

HISTORY OF LIGHT FRAME CONSTRUCTION

The construction with lightweight scaffolding was made possible as a result of two developments of the Revolution.
Industrial: the mass production of wire nails and the dimension of sawn wood [50.8
a thickness of 101.6 mm (2 to 4 inches) and 50.8 mm (2 inches) or more in width]. Before these
Wood construction developments consist of heavy columns and beams assembled with
wooden pegs and handmade nails.

LIGHT FRAME CONSTRUCTION

Since the walls in the construction with lightweight wooden framing consist of supports
individual posts (acting as columns), the narrow space between the connected posts
with continuous wooden slats that form the top and bottom and, along with the cover of the
walls, cause this construction to behave as a continuous load support instead of
separate columns. (Similarly, closely spaced beams covered with
Laminated wood behaves like a slab instead of separate beams.) A lintel (beam) is used.
very loaded cut) to save clearings by transferring the continuous loads of the wall to each side of the
opening or clear, where multiple columns carry the increased load to the foundation.
Generally, lateral stability is provided by shear resistance (action of
diaphragm) of the rigid cover the sides of the wall posts. This system required
very long and straight continuous amounts made construction in the buildings inconvenient
two levels because the high walls had to be built without using an intermediate level that
would serve as a work platform. Finally, the high gaps between the studs generated
a channel that accelerated the spread of flames in case of a fire. The Balloon system has been
virtually replaced by the platform structure (figure 9.22), in which the construction
advances following the levels: the floor construction rests on the foundation that forms
a platform for the construction of walls with studs. Then, these walls are adjusted
in the place and are temporarily reinforced. If a second (or third) floor is necessary, it is repeated the
sequence of the floor wall. Finally, the ceiling and the ceiling beams are placed (or currently
the most common wooden armors) on top of the last wall.

FIGURE 9.22: The platform structure is the modern evolution of light wood frame construction.
characterized by alternating layers of floor and walls. Each floor provides a platform for the construction of the
walls with studs for that level.