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LEA 2
Comparative Models in Policing
Module 3: Topics
 Policing system in Japan, US, Canada, Australia, UAE, China, UK, and other
countries

By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Identify and compare the policing systems of various countries based on

structure, organization, and legal frameworks.
 Analyze the similarities and differences in policing philosophies (e.g.,
community-based, centralized, militarized).
 Understand how cultural, political, and legal factors influence the way
policing is practiced in different nations.
 Evaluate the strengths and challenges of each country's policing system in
relation to crime prevention, public service, and human rights.

Policing systems around the world vary widely, shaped by political structure,
culture, historical evolution, and societal expectations. While centralized models
promote consistency, decentralized systems offer local accountability. Philosophically,
policing spans from community partnership to military enforcement. Legal frameworks,
oversight bodies, and technological innovation further define how police operate and
maintain legitimacy. Finally, global collaborations continue to bridge gaps across
borders—enhancing effectiveness without directly policing internationally.

Global Policing Systems: A General Overview

1. Centralized vs. Decentralized Structures

Centralized Systems: National, unified police organizations with standardized

laws and administration. Examples include countries where a single national agency
oversees policing across all jurisdictions.

Decentralized Systems: Multiple levels of police operate independently—local,

regional, and federal. This model offers local accountability and adaptability, commonly
found in federal or highly pluralistic countries.

2. Key Policing Philosophies

Community-Oriented Policing

Emphasizes building trust through visible presence, preventive engagement,

and collaboration with local communities.
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Reactive Policing

Focuses primarily on responding to crimes after they occur. This approach is

often seen in systems with strong incident-driven mandates.

Problem-Oriented Policing

A proactive model where policing efforts are directed toward understanding and
solving specific types of recurring problems or crime trends.

Militarized Policing

Utilizes military-style forces, often in high-crime or authoritarian contexts.

Notable for rapid response capabilities but subject to human rights concerns.

3. Legal and Institutional Frameworks

Rule of Law & Accountability

Police are governed by laws, conventions, and oversight bodies, including

civilian review boards, internal affairs units, and public transparency mandates.

Supranational & Transnational Cooperation

Institutions like Interpol, Europol, or regional cooperation mechanisms enable

cross-border policing coordination. These bodies focus on data sharing and intelligence,
without direct operational powers.

4. Cultural and Historical Influences

Policing strategies are deeply shaped by social values, historical legacies, and
governance styles. For instance, community-based approaches may thrive where
societal trust is high, whereas surveillance-heavy models may align with authoritarian
states.

5. Accountability & Technology

Oversight Mechanisms: Structures such as civilian review boards,

transparency policies, and internal affairs divisions help maintain ethical conduct and
public accountability.

Technology Integration: Use of body-worn cameras, digital tracking systems,

and data analytics boosts transparency and policing efficiency.
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Policing System in Japan, US, Canada, Australia, UAE, China, UK in terms of

Structure & Organization, Policing Philosophy, Cultural & Political Context, Strengths &
Challenges:

1. Japan

 Structure & Organization

Centralized coordination under the National Police Agency (NPA), which

oversees policies, training, and national responses; prefecture police handle local
implementation.

Prefecture forces have significant autonomy but operate within the NPA’s
framework, with approximately 260,000 sworn officers and 28,400 civilian staff
nationwide.

The kōban system—small neighborhood police stations (about 6,000

nationwide)—anchors community policing and complements larger stations.

 Policing Philosophy

Emphasis on community-based policing, visibility, and proactive engagement,

such as foot patrols and neighborhood outreach.

Kōban officers help with directions, lost-and-found, crime reporting, and

emergency assistance (dial “110”).

 Cultural & Political Context

Japanese “groupism,” collectivism, and societal harmony inform a policing

model built on mutual trust and lifelong officer-community relationships

 Strengths & Challenges

Strengths: High public trust, low crime, strong community integration through kōban.
Challenges: Resource disparities across regions (particularly rural vs. urban), and the
need to integrate modernization while preserving community engagement

2. Canada

 Structure & Organization

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) serves as Canada’s federal

police and, by contract, as provincial/municipal police in all provinces and territories
except Quebec and Ontario.
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Provinces manage policing through municipal forces or provincial

constabularies, and some Indigenous communities run their own police services under
federal and provincial funding

 Policing Philosophy

Focus on community engagement, especially with Indigenous youth and

reconciliation efforts, paired with modernization (e.g., body-worn cameras, digital tools).

 Cultural & Political Context

Federalism with multicultural and bilingual dynamics; increasing emphasis on

Indigenous relations and oversight by police commissions and boards.

 Strengths & Challenges

Strengths: Broad geographic coverage, adaptability, and innovation.

Challenges: Underfunded Indigenous policing, systemic biases, and critiques

surrounding RCMP’s crisis response and oversight

3. Australia

 Structure & Organization

Each state and territory has its own police force (e.g., New South Wales Police,
Victoria Police). The Australian Federal Police (AFP) handles national, international,
and Commonwealth law enforcement.

 Policing Philosophy

Influenced by Peelian principles (policing by consent), Australia combines

community-oriented approaches with intelligence-led methods and a strong emphasis
on counter-terrorism

 Cultural & Political Context

British legal heritage supports democratic policing; increased attention to

Indigenous issues and oversight structures.

 Strengths & Challenges

Strengths: Robust inter-agency coordination and accountability.

Challenges: Addressing over representation of Indigenous people in custody and

coordination across overlapping jurisdictions.
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4. United Arab Emirates (UAE)

 Structure & Organization

Policing is centralized under the Ministry of Interior, but each emirate (like Dubai
and Abu Dhabi) operates separate police forces (e.g., Dubai Police Force).

 Policing Philosophy

Authoritarian model featuring high-tech surveillance, strong law-and-order

orientation, and rapid-response policing.

 Cultural & Political Context

Combines Islamic legal principles with centralized governance and substantial

technological investment.

 Strengths & Challenges

Strengths: Innovative use of robotics (aiming for 25% robotic workforce by 2030), smart
police stations, and swift operational responses.

Challenges: Transparency issues and concerns around civil liberties and migrant rights.

5. China

 Structure & Organization

Entirely centralized police system under the Ministry of Public Security, with
local Public Security Bureaus handling daily operations in cities and provinces.

 Policing Philosophy

Focuses on authoritarian control, social stability, and use of advanced

technology (AI, surveillance) to monitor and suppress dissent.

 Cultural & Political Context

Policing aligns tightly with one-party governance and social order priorities.

 Strengths & Challenges

Strengths: Rapid mobilization, coordination, and technological integration.

Challenges: Significant human rights concerns, lack of transparency, and limited legal
accountability.
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MODEL COUNTRIES FOR COMPARATIVE POLICING SYSTEM

AUSTRALIAN LAW ENFORCEMENT

 Law enforcement in Australia is facilitated by police. sheriffs and bailiffs under the
control of state, territory and the Federal governments. A number of specialist
agencies also administer a wide variety of legislation related to white-collar crime.
 The POLICE are responsible for the criminal law.
 The SHERIFF, SHERIFF'S DEPUTIES AND BAILIFFS each state and territory are
responsible for the enforcement of the judgments of the courts exercising civil law
(common law) jurisdictions.

There are two distinct, but similar levels of police force, the various state police forces
and the Australian Federal Police (AFP).
1. STATE POLICE FORCES they are responsible for enforcing state law within their
own states (including cities within the states)
2. AUSTRALIAN FEDERAL POLICE (AFP) is responsible for the investigation of
crimes against Commonwealth law which occurs throughout the nation. It also has
responsibility for a community policing role (similar to the state police) in
Commonwealth territories such as the Australian Capital Territory.

The boundaries between the two levels of law enforcement are somewhat
flexible and both state and federal police co-operate on or transfer cases between each
other depending on the specific circumstances.
A. FEDERAL
1. Commonwealth policing and law enforcement agencies
2. Australian Federal Police (AFP)
3. Australian Crime Commission (ACC)
4. Commonwealth agencies with responsibility a law enforcement
5. Australian Customs Service (ACS)
6. Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC)
7. Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS)
8. Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC)
9. Australian Taxation Office (ATO)
10. National Common Policing Services

The Australasian Police Professional Standards Committee (APPSC) was an

organization that served all Police Jurisdictions around Australia and New Zealand.
APPSC was the peak body for police education and training in Australia and New
Zealand, the Council comprising each of the Police Commissioners from Australia and
New Zealand along with the President of the Police Federation of Australia and the
President of the New Zealand Police Association.
Crime Stoppers programs run in each state and nationally. Crime Stoppers
collects information about crime and passes it on to the police ensuring that the
community can participate in crime fighting.
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CRIMTRACK is an intergovernmental policing agency that supports Australian

policing through the provision of forensic and other information and investigative tools
between State and Federal Police Departments. The National Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (NAFIS) is national fingerprint database, administered by
CrimTrack.

B. STATE
Each State as well as the Northern Territory is responsible for maintaining its
own police force which is responsible for policing at the state and local level.

This involves:
(a) General Law and order
(b) Traffic policing
(c) Major crime
(d) Anti-terrorism branches
(e) Water police
(f) Search and rescue, and
(g) In some states transit police.
Local policing in the Australian Capital Territory, Jervis Bay Territory and
Australia's external territories is contracted to the Australian Federal Police (AFP).
In some states, local governments employ by-laws officers or rangers to
enforce local by-laws or ordinances relating to such matters as parking, dog ownership,
retailing, littering or water usage.

Policing Agencies
State police also perform certain functions on behalf of the Australian
Government such as the enforcement of various Commonwealth Acts and Regulations
in conjunction with the Australian Federal Police and other Commonwealth officers.
While the Australian Capital Territory Police is under the jurisdiction of the
Australian Federal Police, the following policing agencies are regulated by their
respective State or Territory Government and are highly visible:
1. New South Wales Police Force
2. Northern Territory Police
3. Queensland Police Service
4. South Australia Police
5. Tasmania Police
6. Victoria Police
7. Western Australia Police
8. Sheriffs

In recent years, the states and territories have returned the responsibility of
recovering court ordered fines to their sheriffs. In practice, the police often carry out the
functions of sheriffs and bailiffs in the country and more sparsely populated areas of
Australia.
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CHINA LAW ENFORCEMENT

Chinese police consists of 5 main components these are:

1. State Security Police. Established in 1983, it is responsible for preventing
espionage, sabotage, and conspiracies.
2. Prison Police. It is responsible for supervision of convicted offenders in prison.
3. Judicial Procuratorates Police. They escort suspects in cases investigated by the
procuratorates (prosecutors in the Philippines.)
4. Judicial People's Court Police. They maintain security and order in the various
courts and also may carryout death sentence.
Most Chinese police have graduated from universities and colleges coordinated
by the Ministry of Public Security. Training lasts for an average of six months, but it will
vary depending on officers' future positions and specialization.
Provincial Police Directors are trained directly by the Ministry of Public
Security while officers are trained by their respective governmental offices: province,
county, prefect, or municipality.
Law enforcement in the People's Republic of China consists of an extensive
public security system and a variety of enforcement procedures are used to maintain
order in the country. Along with the courts and procuratorates, the country's judicial and
public security agencies included the Ministry of Public Security and the Ministry of
State Security, with their descending hierarchy of departments, bureaus, subbureaus,
and stations.

The national security system is made up of the:

1. MINISTRY OF STATE SECURITY
The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure "the security
of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and
counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China's
socialist system." The ministry is guided by a series of laws enacted in 1993, 1994,
and 1997 that replaced the "counterrevolutionary" crime statutes.
The ministry's operations include intelligence collection, both domestic and
foreign. Authorities have used arrests on charges The ministry's operations include
intelligence collection of revealing state secrets, subversion, and common crimes to
suppress political dissent and social advocacy.

2. MINISTRY OF PUBLIC SECURITY

The Ministry of Public Security oversees all domestic police activity in China,
including the People's Armed Police Force. The ministry is responsible for police
operations and prisons and has dedicated departments for internal political, economic,
and communications security.
Its lowest organizational units are public security stations. which maintain close
day-to-day contact with the public. The People's Armed Police Force, with its 1.5 million
personnel, is organized into 45 divisions. These include internal security police. border
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defense personnel, guards for government buildings and embassies, and police
communications specialists.
Further, the Ministry of Public Security is the principal police authority. It is
responsible for maintaining social and public order, and also for conducting
investigations and arrest of suspects in criminal cases. It maintains public order in
accordance with the administrative power granted by law and through the police force. It
can also settle civil disputes between citizens.

3. PEOPLE'S ARMED POLICE

The People's Armed Police is a paramilitary force which is used in cases of
serious disturbances.

4. PEOPLE'S LIBERATION ARMY (PLA)

5. STATE JUDICIAL, PROCURATORIAL, AND PENAL SYSTEMS

The Ministry of Public Security is the principal police authority The ministry has
functional departments for areas such as intermal security, intelligence, counter-
terrorism, police operations, prisons, and political, economic, and communications
security. Subordinate to the ministry are provincial-level public security departments.
public security bureaus and sub-bureaus at the county level (the bureaus located in the
prefectures and large cities, the sub-bureaus In counties and municipal districts); and
public security stations at the township level.
While public security considerations have a strong influence at all levels of
administration, the police appear to wield progressively water influence at the lower
levels of government.
The organization of local public security stations can be inferred from the tasks
with which the police are charged. Generally, each station has sections for population
control, pre-trial investigations, welfare, traffic control, a detention center, and other
activities.

ENGLAND AND THE UK LAW ENFORCEMENT

ORGANIZATION FEATURES
 There are 41 large provincial police forces plus 2 in greater London called the
Metropolitan Police Force (the largest) and the London City Police.
-Other kinds of Police, like British Transport Police, the Ministry of Defense
Police and the Port London Authority Police have responsibility in specific locales or
over specific activities
-Each region (country) contains a Police Authority Board which is similar to
that of People's Law Enforcement Board (PLEB) in the Philippines.
 Chief Constable is the main administrator of each provincial police force.
 UK government Ministry is the overseeing body for the Metropolitan Police. As all
police forces are autonomous organizations there is much variation in organization
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and nomenclature, however outlined below are the main strands of policing that
makes up police forces.
All police forces have teams of officers who are responsible for general patrol
duties and response to emergency and non-emergency calls from the public.
These officers are generally the most visible and will invariably be the first interface a
member of the public has with police. In general terms these officers will normally patrol
by vehicle (though also on foot or bicycle in urban areas). They will generally patrol a
sub-division or whole division of a police force area or in the case of the Metropolitan
Police Service, a borough.
Nearly all police officers begin their careers in this area of policing, with some
moving on to more specialist roles. The Metropolitan Police Service calls this area of
policing 'Response Teams', whilst other forces use terms such as 'patrol', 'section' and
other variations.

Training Features
The training of English police entails a 14 week course during which recruits
learn theoretical and practical information on police related topics, followed by a 10-
week field experience under supervision of an experience constable. After that 24- week
period, the new constable remains on probation for the first two years of service while
gaining additional classroom training and supervision. Those who aspire to become
police administrators attend the police staff college education and leadership training.

Law Enforcement in the United Kingdom

Mounted officer of the Metropolitan Police at Buckingham Palace, London Law
enforcement in the United Kingdom is organized separately in each of the legal systems
of the United Kingdom: England & Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland (administration
of police matters is not generally affected by the Government of Wales Act 2006).

Jurisdictions and territories

In the United Kingdom, every person has limited powers of arrest if they see a
crime being committed these are called 'every person powers', commonly referred to as
a 'citizen's arrest'. In England and Wales, the vast majority of attested constables
enjoyed full powers of arrest and search as granted by the Police and Criminal
Evidence Act 1984. All police officers are "constables" in law, irrespective of rank.
Although police officers have wide ranging powers, they are still civilians and subject to
the same laws as members of the public. However, there are certain legal restrictions
on police officers such as the illegality of taking industrial action and the ban on taking
part in active politics.

Types of Law Enforcement Agency:

There are four general types of agency, the first mostly concerned with policing
the general public and their activities and the rest concerned with policing of other,
usually localized, matters:
1. Territorial Police Forces, which carry out the majority of policing. These are police
forces that cover a 'police area (a particular region) and have an independent Police
Authority
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2. Special Police Forces, which are national police forces that have a specific, non-
regional jurisdiction, such as the British Transport Police. The Serious Organized Crime
and Police Act 2005 refer to these as 'special police forces
3. Non-police Law Enforcement Agencies, whose officers are not police constables,
but still enforce laws.
4. Miscellaneous Police Forces, mostly having their foundations in older legislation or
Common Law. These have a responsibility to police specific local areas or activities,
such as ports and parks and before the passing of recent legislation such as the
Serious Organized Crime and Police Act 2005 were often referred to as 'special police
forces.

JAPAN LAW ENFORCEMENT

Organization and Training Features:
 Japan had established kobans and chuzaisho.

KOBAN CHUZAISHO
Urban areas Rural Areas
 community safety center Manned by rural police called Chusai-san.
 administrative service, initial response
to incidents and prevention of crimes
and accidents
The chusai-san spends his time patrolling
his district, visiting the residents, or
conducting business out of his office in the
chuzaisho.
QUALIFICATIONS:
To become a police officer in Japan:
a) One must graduate from high school
b) Pass the national qualifying exam (similar to PO1 entrance exam)
c) Pass an aptitude test
d) Undergo an extensive background check
e) Complete a series of personal interviews.

TRAINING
After this process the recruit must attend the National Police Agency training
school. If the recruit is high school graduate; the training lasts one year, if he is
college graduate, it lasts six months. The training combines academic and legal
courses with the martial arts. After completing school training, the recruit receives one
year of field experience and the returns to school for six months for further training. The
Japanese police are among the highly trained police in the world.
Law Enforcement in Japan is provided by the Prefectural Police under the
oversight of the National Police Agency or NPA . The NPA is headed by the National
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Public Safety Commission thus ensuring that Japan's police are an apolitical body
and free of direct central government executive control. They are checked by an
independent judiciary and monitored by a free and active press.

National Organization
National Public Safety Commission
The mission of the National Public Safety Commission is to guarantee the
neutrality of the police by insulating the force from political pressure and to ensure the
maintenance of democratic methods in police administration. The commission's primary
function is to supervise the National Police Agency, and it has the authority to appoint or
dismiss senior police officers. The commission consists of a chairman, who holds the
rank of minister of state, and five members appointed by the prime minister with the
consent of both houses of the Diet. The commission operates independently of the
cabinet, but liaison and coordination with it are facilitated by the chairman's being a
member of that body.

National Police Agency

As the central coordinating body for the entire police system, the National
Police Agency determines general standards As the central coordinating body for the
entire police and policies, detailed direction of operations is left to the lower echelons. In
a national emergency or large-scale disaster, the agency is authorized to take
command of prefectural police forces. In 1989 the agency was composed of about
1.100 national civil servants, empowered to collect information and to formulate and
execute national policies. The agency is headed by a commissioner general who is
appointed by the National Public Safety Commission with the approval of the prime
minister.
The Central Office includes the Secretariat, with divisions for general
operations, planning, information, finance, management, and procurement and
distribution of police equipment, and five bureaus.

Police Administration Bureau: The Administration Bureau is concerned with police

personnel, education, welfare, training, and unit inspections.
Criminal Investigation Bureau: The Criminal Investigation Bureau is in charge of
research statistics and the investigation of nationally important and international cases.
This bureau's Safety Department is responsible for crime prevention, combating juvenile
delinquency, and pollution control. In addition, the Criminal Investigation Bureau
surveys, formulates, and recommends legislation on firearms, explosives, food, drugs,
and narcotics. The Communications Bureau supervises police communications
systems.
Traffic Bureau: The Traffic Bureau licenses drivers, enforces traffic safety laws, and
regulates traffic. Intensive traffic safety and driver education campaigns are run at both
national and prefectural levels. The bureau's Expressway Division addresses special
conditions of the nation's growing system of express highways.
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Security Bureau: The Security Bureau formulates and supervises the execution of
security policies. It conducts research on equipment and tactics for suppressing riots
and oversaw and coordinates activities of the riot police. The Security Bureau is also
responsible for security intelligence on foreigners and radical political groups, including
investigation of violations of the Alien Registration Law and administration of the Entry
and Exit Control Law. The bureau also implements security policies during national
emergencies and natural disasters.
Regional Public Safety Bureaus: The National Police Agency has seven regional
police bureaus, each responsible for a number of prefectures. Each is headed by a
Director and they are organization similar to the Central Office. They are located in
major cities of each geographic region. The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department and
Hokkaido Prefectural Police Headquarters are excluded from the junsdiction of RPBs.
Headed by a Director General, each RPB exercises necessary control and supervision
over and provides support services to prefectural police within its jurisdiction, under the
authority and orders of NPA's Commissioner General Attached to each Regional Police
Bureaus is a Regional Police School which provides police personnel with education
and training required of staff officers as well as other necessary education and training.
Police Communications Divisions: Metropolitan Tokyo and the island of Hokkaidō are
excluded from the regional jurisdictions and are run more autonomously than other local
forces, in the case of Tokyo, because of its special urban situation, and of Hokkaido
because of its distinctive geography, The National Police Agency maintains police
communications divisions in these two areas to handle any coordination needed
between national and local forces

Imperial Guard
In 1947 the Imperial Police Headquarters (. Kögű-Keisatsu Honbu?) was
created under the control of the Home Ministry from the Imperial Household Ministry. It
came under the aegis of the National Police Agency of Japan in 1957. It provides
personal security for the Emperor, Crown Prince and other members of the Imperial
Family of Japan, as well as protection of imperial properties, including the Tokyo
Imperial Palace, Kyoto Imperial Palace, Katsura Imperial Villa, Shugakuin Imperial Villa
(both in Kyoto), Shosoin Imperial Repository in Nara and the imperial villas as Hayama,
Kanagawa and Nasu, Tochigi.

Special Police
In addition to regular police officers, there are several thousand officials
attached to various agencies who perform special duties relating to public safety. They
are responsible for such matters as railroad security, forest preservation, narcotics
control, fishery inspection, and enforcement of regulations on maritime, labor, and mine
safety.
The largest and most important of these ministry-supervised public safety
agencies is the Japan Coast Guard, an external agency of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport that deals with crime in coastal waters and maintains
facilities for safeguarding navigation. The agency operates a fleet of patrol and rescue
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craft in addition to a few aircraft used primarily for anti-smuggling patrols and rescue
activities. In 1990 there were 2,846 incidents in and on the waters. In those incidents.
1,479 people drowned or were lost and 1.347 people were rescued.

NEW ZEALAND LAW ENFORCEMENT

Organization and Training Features:
 New Zealand Police is a decentralized organization divided into twelve districts,
each with a geographical area of responsibility, three communications centers that
each receives calls from 555 traffic, 111 emergency or general queues, and a Police
National Headquarters that provides policy and planning advice as well as national
oversight and management of the organization.
 District Commanders hold the rank of Superintendent, as do sworn National
Managers, the road policing manager in the Waitemata District, responsible for the
motorway network and traffic alcohol group, and the commandant of the Royal New
Zealand Police College. Area Commanders hold the rank of Inspector as do Shift
Commanders based in each of the three Communications Centers. District Section
Commanders are typically Senior Sergeants. The New Zealand Police is a member
of Interpol and has close relationships with the Australian police forces, at both the
state and federal level. Several New Zealand Police representatives are posted
overseas in key New Zealand diplomatic missions.
 The Police also work closely with the Serious Fraud Office.
-A recently graduated Constable is considered a Probationary Constable for up
to two years, until he or she has passed ten workplace assessment standards and a
compulsory university paper. The completion of the above is known as obtaining
permanent appointment. Detective ranks somewhat parallel the street ranks up to
-Detective Superintendent. Trainee Detectives spend around 6-12 months time
as a Constable on Trial after completing an intensive Selection and Induction course,
before progression to Detective Constable after successful completion of several
training modules. There is then a Workplace assessment for Detective Constables, and
after approximately 2-3 years in the Criminal Investigation Branch, a Detective
Constable may take the pre-requisite examination and qualifying course to become a
Detective.
-The rank of Senior Constable is granted to Constables after 14 years of
service and the Commissioner of Police is satisfied with their conduct. Senior
Constables are well regarded within the New Zealand Police for their extensive policing
experience, and are often used to train and mentor other police officers.
-Detective and Detective Constable are considered designations and not
specific ranks. That is, Detectives do not outrank uniformed constables. A police officer
with a Detective designation will generally assume control of a serious crime scene
rather than a uniform staff member regardless of rank.

UNIFORMS:
New Zealand police uniforms formerly followed the British model closely but
since the 1970s a number of changes have been implemented. These include the
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adoption of a medium blue shade in place of dark blue, the abolition of helmets and the
substitution of synthetic leather jackets for silver buttoned tunics when on ordinary duty.
AOS and STG members, when deployed, wear the usual charcoal-coloured clothing
used by armed-response and counter-terror units around the world.
Training & Educational Change:
Under new management, in early 2009 The Royal New Zealand Police College
embarked upon an assessment of its quality purpose and personnel. This assessment
led to the initiation of a programme of change. Within the programme are multiple
projects. managed via four work streams addressing change in the areas of:
a. Strategy & Growth
b. Business Planning & Performance
c. Learning Pathways
d. Technology Assisted Learning
In Sept 2009, the programme had submitted a restructure to the organization
through formal consultation. By Nov 2009, 400 formal submissions were recorded.
Implementation planning is believed to be underway.
The New Zealand Police (Māori: Ngā Pirihimana o Aotearoa) is the national
police force of New Zealand, responsible for enforcing criminal law, enhancing public
safety, maintaining order and keeping the peace throughout New Zealand. With over
11,000 staff it is the largest law enforcement agency in New Zealand, and with few
exceptions has primary jurisdiction over the majority of New Zealand criminal law.
The New Zealand police also have responsibility for traffic and commercial
vehicle enforcement as well as other key responsibilities including dignitary protection,
firearms licensing and matters of national security.
The New Zealand Police is considered one of the least corrupt police forces in
the world. Despite this, there have been a number of recent controversies that have put
the Police under close scrutiny. While the Police Complaints Authority is an independent
body that investigates complaints against the New Zealand Police, the following events
have either fallen outside the authority's ambit or received significant publicity.

Police Culture
An investigation into "Police Culture" reported on 10 October 2005 that while
the defunct Emergency Response Group at Counties-Manukau used excessive force
and took inappropriate and degrading photographs of people in custody, there was no
nationwide problem with police culture.

SAUDI ARABIA LAW ENFORCEMENT

Organization and Training Features:
 The main police force is called the Department of Public Safety. They handle most
of the daily law enforcement functions in the country. This department is divided into
regular police and special investigative police of the General Directorate of
Investigation, the mubahith or secret police. This mubahith conduct criminal
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investigations and handle matters pertaining to domestic security and counter

intelligence.
 Another police force is the Department of Public Safety under this is the Saudi
Arabia's "morals force" religious police known as mutawa which ensures that Saudi
citizens live up to the rules of behavior derived from the Qur'an.
 The mutawa also ensures that businesses are closed during prayer hours. Mutawas
actual leadsership comes from the Ujama, the council of religious authorities who
are deeply involved in most aspects of Saudi life especially the administration of
criminal justice. Mutawa is separate from regular police but cooperates closely.
 The commissioned officers received three years of training and are promoted
through the ranks from second lieutenant to general. The director of public safety,
who heads the Saudi police, usually is a relative of the king. Non-commissioned
police personnel must be literate and spend three months in training. They are not
eligible to become commissioned officers.

SINGAPORE LAW ENFORCEMENT

Generally, law enforcement in Singapore comes under the direct purview of the
Singapore Police Force, the main government agency entrusted with the maintenance
of law and order in Singapore.
Besides the Singapore Police Force, other government agencies also enforce
specific laws as follows:
1) Central Narcotics Bureau, dealing with drug related offences
2) Immigration and Checkpoints Authority, involved in prosecuting immigration
related offences
3) Employment Inspectorate Department, Ministry of Manpower is the one that
deals with violations of manpower regulations like the employment of illegal immigrants.
Auxiliary Police Forces
The government agencies are augmented by the auxiliary police forces, which
are private companies with officers certified to perform security-related duties with arms.

UNITED STATES LAW ENFORCEMENT

Law enforcement in the United States is one of three major components of the
criminal justice system, along with courts and corrections. Although there is an inherent
inter-relatedness between the different groups that make up the criminal justice system
based on their crime deterrence purpose, each component operates independently from
one another. However, the judiciary is vested with the power to make legal
determinations regarding the conduct of the other two components.
TYPES OF POLICE:
1. Federal
Federal police possess full federal authority as given to them under United
States Code (U.S.C.). Federal Law Enforcement Officers are authorized to enforce
various laws not only at the federal level, but also state, county, and local in many
circumstances.
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The Department of Justice (DOJ) is the largest and most pronounced law
enforcement agency, and handles most law enforcement duties at the federal level. [8]
It includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF),
the United States Marshals Service, and others.
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is another branch with
numerous federal law enforcement agencies reporting to it. U.S. Customs and Border
Protection (CBP), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), United States
Secret Service (USSS), United States Coast Guard (USCG), and the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA) are some of the agencies that report to DHS.
The federal government is prohibited from exercising general police powers due
to restrictions in the constitution, due to the fact that the United States is organized as a
union of sovereign states, which each retain their police, military and domestic law-
making powers.

2. County
Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by
Sheriffs' Departments or Offices and County police.
County Police
County police tend to exist only in metropolitan counties and have countywide
jurisdiction. In some areas, there is a sheriff's department which only handles minor
issues such as service of papers such as a constable in other areas, along with security
for the local courthouse. In other areas, there are no county police and the local sheriff
is the exclusive law enforcement agency and acts as both sheriff and county police,
which is much more common than there being a separate county police force.
MUNICIPAL
Municipal police range from one-officer agencies (sometimes still called the
town marshal) to the 40,000 men and women of the New York City Police Department.
Most municipal agencies take the form (Municipality Name) Police Department. Many
individual cities and towns will have their own police department, with larger
communities typically having larger departments with greater budgets, resources, and
responsibilities
ENTRY QUALIFICATIONS
Nearly all U.S. states and the federal government have by law adopted
minimum-standard standardized training requirements for all officers with powers of
arrest within the state. Many standards apply to in-service training as well as entry-level
training, particularly in the use of firearms, with periodic re-certification required. These
standards often comply with standards promoted by the US Department of Justice.
These standards typically require a thorough background check that potential police
recruits:
i. Be a United States citizen.
ii. Must have a high school diploma or a G.E.D. and if necessary a college degree or
served in the United States military without a dishonorable discharge;
iii. Be in good physical and psychological condition;
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iv. Maintain a clean criminal record without either serious or repeated misdemeanor or
any felony convictions;
v. Must have a valid driver's license with a clean driving record and that is not currently
or has a history of being suspended or revoked;
vi. Be of high moral character;
vii. Not have a history of prior narcotic or repeated marijuana use or alcoholism;
viii. Not have a history of ethical, professional, prior employment, motor vehicle, or
financial improprieties;
ix. Not have a history of domestic violence or mental illness;
x. Not to pose a safety and security risk;
xi. Be legally eligible to own and carry a firearm.
xii. Repeated interviews, written tests, medical examinations, physical fitness tests,
comprehensive background investigations, fingerprinting, drug testing, a polygraph
examination and consultation with a psychologist are common practices used to review
the suitability of candidates. Recruiting in most departments is competitive, with more
suitable and desirable candidates accepted over lesser ones, and failure to meet some
minimum standards disqualifying a candidate entirely Departments maintain records of
past applicants under review, and refer to them in the case of either reapplication or
requests from other agencies.

References
DocMckee. (n.d.). Section 5.3: Japanese policing strategies. Retrieved from
[Link]
strategies/
Héra, G. (2024, January 29). The Japanese kōban community policing system.
Academic Journal of Internal Affairs, 72(1). HUN-REN Centre for Economic and
Regional Studies.
JapanGov. (2016, Spring). Sharing the community-based police model
Tomodachi. Retrieved from
[Link]
Wikipedia contributors. (2025, August). Kōban. Wikipedia. Retrieved from
[Link]
Wikipedia contributors. (2025, August 19). Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Wikipedia. Retrieved from
[Link]
Wikipedia contributors. (2025, August). Dubai Police Force. Wikipedia.
Retrieved from [Link]
Moyao, W.G. (2023). Comparative Models in Policing
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