Chapter-6 ICT Applications

6.1 Communication Media

• newsletters and posters
• websites
• multimedia presentations
• media streaming
• e-publications

Steps to create newsletters or posters

• First open a word-processor application

• Secondly, collect photos from different sources.
o Take photos with digital camera
o Search from internet or cloud
o Scan the hard copy photos
• If photos are taken with camera, connect the camera to the computer via USB or Bluetooth and transfer
the files to computer HDD or SSD
• If from internet, download photos and save on the computer HDD or SSD
• All these photos from HDD or SSD would be imported/inserted into word document
• Once imported, photos would need to be cropped, edited and/or resized.
• Text would be typed in using a keyboard
• Alternatively, any previously saved text would need to be imported.
• Photos need to be placed in their correct position and the text wrapped
• Finally, the whole document would need to undergo proofreading for errors and then saved, ready for
printing

Newsletter

• A newsletter is a very useful method for getting important information to a target group
• For example, you are doing a fundraising exercise, a well-presented newsletter to accompany the
fundraising would be invaluable.
• Newsletters can be either printed out or available online as an e-publication according to the target
audience
• With a printed document handed personally to somebody, you can be certain they have seen the
• newsletter – but in both cases it is nearly impossible to be certain that they have read it!

Guidelines to produce a newsletter

• Not too much information onto one page.

• Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts
• Decide on whether to use columns
• Avoid using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’!
• Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text.
• Use real photos rather than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting.
Posters

• Posters are a good way of publicizing, for example, a sporting event or an advertisement for a
forthcoming movie.
A sporting event poster would need to include at least the following information:
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 • what the event is and where it will take place
• date, time and place of event
• admission fees (if any)
• contact details
• other information

Movie Poster

The movie poster would need to include:

• an image taken from the movie to give some idea of the type of movie
• the date of release
• a list of the main characters.

Distributing Newsletters and Poster

• As with newsletters, posters can be printed out using high-quality printers or can be posted online.
• Printed posters can be any size.
• Large posters have the advantage that they are eye-catching and usually very difficult to miss.
• They are used in many countries on the sides of roads so motorists see them on their way to work.
• By placing the posters in strategic positions, it is possible to target certain people rather than the
general public
• The drawback is the cost of display and that they are subject to weather conditions, so only have a
limited life.

Websites

• Website is the online advertising method without needing the cost for printing like posters and
newspaper
• However, the cost for developing website is not cheap
• Companies can consider two options to develop the website
• They can either develop their own website or pay another company to advertise on third party
website
• The first option needs to employ a team of web designers and developer or go to a specialist
company with experience.
• Developing own website maybe expensive since you need to purchase own hardware and software
and also need to consider security features to prevent from hackers and pharming attacks
• Cheaper nowadays because can use off-the-shelf content management systems and pay hosting
fees to rent space on web server
• offer worldwide advertising capability
• no need to buy paper or pay people to deliver newsletters or flyers.
• National or international coverage

Advantages and disadvantages of using websites for communication

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Multimedia presentations

• Presentations that use animation, video and sound or music are generally much more interesting
than static presentations done on slides or paper.
• Presentations are produced using one of the many software packages on the market and then used
with a multimedia projector so that the whole audience is able to see the presentation.

Advantages of multimedia presentations

• Sound and animation/video effects - grab the attention of the audience, and can make the
presentation easier to understand

• Interactive hyperlinks - could access a company’s website or even key files stored on the cloud (such
as video footage, images, spreadsheets and so on)

• Transition effects - display facts in a key or chronological order

• can be interactive

• more flexible; because of the links to websites and other external systems (for example, the cloud),
the presentation can be tailored to suit a particular audience
Disadvantages of multimedia presentations

• Special equipment can be expensive

• May need internet access

• A bad presentation with too many animation effects and too much text or images.
Media streaming

• Media streaming is when users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the
internet.
• When using media streaming there is no need to actually download and save the video or audio
files.
Streaming

• Streaming is a continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote server where the files
are stored. This means data is transmitted and played in real time.
• In contrast, when downloading it is necessary for the user to store the entire file on the computer’s
HDD or SSD before they can watch the video or listen to the music. This uses up valuable storage
space and download times for a two-hour video can be up to one hour, depending on the internet
speed and the video quality.

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 • With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is interpreted by the web
browser. Streaming only works well if the internet speed is stable, and at least 25 Mbits/second
(for an HD video).

Buffering of media stream

• Because the playback of the media files is usually much faster than the rate at which data is received
over the internet, data packets are buffered in the computer.
• Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing.
• While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will be sending the data from the previous data packets
to the playback device.
• In this way, there appears to be no gaps in the received data.
• Obviously, having a large buffer will considerably reduce the possibility of freezing the play back.

e-publications
Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic format. For example:
1. e-books
2. digital magazines
3. digital newspapers
4. digital libraries.

• the publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet where it can be read
• E-publications also have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size and include media,
which would be impossible with the more traditional paper-based publications.
• Specific devices, such as the Kindle, allow a library of e-books to be stored on the device. These
devices use a white background with black text to fully replicate reading a normal book.
• Because no printing costs are incurred, e-publications are usually cheaper than their paper-based
counterparts.

6.1.2 Mobile communication

• Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to cover large
areas. The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network.
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 • Each tower transmits within its own cell. If you are driving a car and get to the edge of a cell, the
mobile phone signal starts to weaken.
• This is recognized by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal in one of the
adjacent cells.
• If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a different country, then satellite
technology is used to enable the communication to take place.
• Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it to connect to the
mobile phone cellular network, or they use wireless internet connectivity. Together they allow all
of the following features:
SIM card
» SMS (short message service) messaging
» phone calls
» Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) communication
» video calling
» internet access.
SMS (text) messaging

• SMS or text messaging allows a very quick way of communicating with another person by typing
on a keyboard
• Its advantage is that the other person does not need to be available, and can pick up the message
as and when they want.
• SMS/text messaging between phones using the same cellular network may be free-of-charge.

Some of the features of SMS/text messaging include:

• quicker and less expensive than making phone calls

• can be sent at any time of the day even if the recipient’s phone is switched off

• predictive texting, system auto suggest the words after you type in something, It also allows
the system to remember frequently used words – together they increase typing speed.
Phone calls

• Probably the most obvious use of a mobile phone is its ability to make a phone call on the move.

• Because mobile phones are so small and they have their own power source, they are an ideal way
of keeping in touch anywhere, provided there is a network signal.

• Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline systems and for that reason alone, landline
phones are still in common use.

Advantages of using mobile phones:

 There is no need to look for an operational public telephone in an emergency.
 It is possible to conduct business or personal phone calls on the move.
 It is easier to keep in contact with co-workers at the office no matter where you are.
VOIP
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 • One of the most common forms of internet telephony (that is, having a telephone conversation via the
internet) is Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method used to talk to people using the internet.

• VoIP converts sound, picked up by the mobile device’s internal microphone, into discrete digital data
packets that can be sent to their destination via the internet.

• The internet can be accessed via a mobile phone network or a broadband network and the voice calls
are sent over the internet using VoIP technology.

• One of the big advantages is that phone calls themselves are free, no matter where in the world the
caller and receiver are

VOIP Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages

• Can use webcam for video chat

• No need additional hardware items (can use built in microphone, speaker and webcam)
• Video quality is not good but can use expensive webcam for better quality

Disadvantages

• Sound quality is poor

• Echo and weird sounds are common faults
• Security is main concern since it uses internet
The most prominent security issues over VoIP are

• identity theft,

• viruses and malware (malicious software),

• spamming (unwanted emails) and

• phishing attacks
Video Calling Software

• Video calling uses software such as FaceTime or Zoom. Both these options require the user to
download an app.

• FaceTime makes use of the built-in smartphone cameras and microphone/speakers. A split screen
allows you to see a number of people at the same time; although the small screen size limits the
potential of this feature.

• Zoom is a cloud-based video calling service that allows live video chatting on any device. It is also
possible to record sessions to be played back at a later date.

• Cloud-based video calling prevents the need for users to invest inexpensive infrastructure; users can
simply dial into a virtual meeting room which makes it much cheaper than conventional video
conferencing.

• Video calls permit:

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 o live video and audio chat
o screen-sharing during the call
o recording during sessions.
Internet access

• Any mobile device can connect to the internet either using a wireless broadband connection or via
the mobile phone network.

• Due to the use of smaller screens, internet pages displayed on mobile phones are often different to
those on desktop or laptop computers.

• Software detects which type of device is connecting to a website, which then sends out the web page
optimised for that device.

• Mobile devices also have a built-in feature which automatically selects wireless broadband
connectivity. This has the following advantages:
o less expensive
o lower power consumption
o quality of service (Wi-Fi usually offers greater bandwidth than the mobile phone network
giving the possibility of downloading more data more quickly).

6.2 Modelling Application

Computer Modelling

• A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the behaviour of the system.
The model is computer-generated and is based on mathematical representations.

• The whole idea is to try and find out how a system behaves, predict the behaviour of the system in
the future and see if it is possible to influence this future behaviour.
Advantages of using models

• Computer models is less expensive than building the real thing (for example, a bridge!).

• Safer to use a computer model (some real situations are hazardous, for example, chemical
processes).

• Computer modelling allows you to try out various different scenarios in advance.

• Nearly impossible to try out some tasks in advance in real life because of the high risk involved or the
remoteness (for example, in space, under the sea, in nuclear reactors, when crash testing cars, etc.).

• Faster to use a computer model than do the real thing (some applications would take years before a
result was known, for example, climate change calculations, population growth, etc.).

Disadvantages of using models

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 • A model or simulation depends on the programming or the data entered

• Building the real thing is expensive, sometimes computer modelling is also expensive so the two costs
need to be compared before deciding which to use.

• Some people don’t trust the simulation since it could produce false result
Examples of computer modelling
1. personal finance
2. bridge and building design
3. flood water management
4. traffic management
5. weather forecasting.

1. Personal finance
• By varying the values in column C or in column F, it would be possible to model the shop’s profit or
loss.

• This example is a very simple model, but it shows the principal of using spreadsheets to carry out any
type of modelling that can be represented in a mathematical form.

• Spreadsheets are often used in some form to carry out financial modelling.

2. Bridge and building design

Modeller’s Considerations

• Heavy loading
• Strong winds
• Earthquake
• Tidal waves and ice floes
• Vibration

Computer Modelling Bridge

• Test the above scenarios using computer model >

• Modify until all the scenarios have passed >
• Produce final design >
• Construct a scale model >
• Test wind tunnel trials
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Designing New Buildings (Skyscrapers)

• Natural phenomena such as hurricane winds, floods, earthquakes

• Disaster such as fire
• How to move out human occupants from the building efficiently?
• Computer model > Modify till success > Final design > Scale model > Wind tunnel trials

Computer Modelling Features

• Zoom into images to see fine details

• Rotate different ways to see different views
• Detect potential flaws before building the real thing which is expensive and dangerous if fails
• Can try out the various scenarios to see the effect on the design

3. Flood water management

Flood water management system to identify:

• sources of potential flooding

• the extent of flooding
• how any mitigation or protection measures could work

Computer models to predict:

• water levels
• water flows
• Potential flood depths.

Input to the system

• cross-section of rivers and sea inlets

• dimensions of any bridges, weirs or sluices in the flood area
• factors that can affect water flow rates (for example, tides are affected by the time of year and by
strong winds)
• boundary conditions (for example, upstream flows into rivers and downstream water levels)
• the start and finishing date for the simulation
• calibration data (observation of actual flooding in the past)

Computer Model Flood System

• Test the above scenarios using computer model >

• Modify until all the scenarios have passed >
• Produce final design >
• Construct a scale model >
• Test wind tunnel trials

Advantages of computer based flood system

• Sensors to monitor sea height, wave height, wind speeds

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 • Safer with computer than human manually monitoring
• Data collection is continuous and more accurate
• Faster response to changing conditions (alarm city dwellers quickly)
• Can feed the model simulation model with the data from sensors to improve the simulation

4. Traffic management
• 8 Lane Motorway which are divided by the central barrier in between
• The barrier will move according to the situation of the traffic
• Model A shows the barrier is in the middle which means traffic flow is normal in both ways
• Model B shows barrier is shifted to left because traffic flow from the right side is intense
• Company will test Model A and Model B in different time of day to see which one allows for the
best traffic flow
• The model will also try out the effects of different speed limit throughout the roadworks

Traffic light simulation

In this simulation it is necessary to consider:
1. how and what data needs to be collected
2. how the simulation is carried out
3. how the system would work in real life.

How and what data needs to be collected?

• Because the success (or failure) of a model depends on how realistic it is, data needs to be collected
by watching traffic for a long period of time at the Y-junction.
• Use induction loop sensors to count the number of vehicles at each junction.
• Manual data collection is possible, but is prone to errors and is difficult to do over an 18-hour
period per day

Traffic data collection

• the number of vehicles passing the junction in all directions

• the time of day needs to be recorded along with a vehicle count
• how many vehicles build up at the junction at different times of the day
• data should cover weekends, bank holidays, etc. as this can alter how the data needs be interpreted
• how long it takes a vehicle to clear the junction
• pedestrian crossings nearby
• how long it takes the slowest vehicle to pass through the junction
• consider other factors (for example, left turns, right turns, filtering, etc.).

How is the simulation carried out?

• Data from the above list is used to run the computer model.
• See the results are accurate by comparing the model’s results with actual traffic flow data
• Then different scenarios can be tried out to see how the traffic flow is affected. For example:
o varying the timing of the lights

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 o changing the number of vehicles stopped at part of the junction and then changing the timing
of the lights
o increasing or decreasing traffic flow in all directions
o how emergency vehicles affect traffic flow at different times of the day.

5. Weather forecasting
rainfall

temperature

Weather stations are set up to automatically gather wind speed

data from the environment. They are usually
automatic and use a variety of sensors to measure:
wind direction

barometric pressure
(air pressure)

humidity.

Weather Forecasting

• Data is gathered every hour, every day.

• Data is input into a model to simulate weather patterns
• Forecasters can predict the weather for next few days
• Weather models are based on the complex mathematical equations with the variables; air
movement, heat, moisture
• Atmosphere is divided up into a three-dimensional grid
• Data is input into appropriate grid

How weather models work

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6.3. Computer control systems
Robotics in manufacturing
Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing including:

• paint spraying of car bodies

• welding bodywork on cars
• manufacturing of microchips
• manufacturing electrical goods
• stock movement in automatic warehouses

How robot is controlled?

Controlled by either embedded microprocessors or robots linked to a computer system.
In order to do a series of task,
1. Programming or series of instructions are given to the robot
2. Robot arm is guided by a worker and each movement is stored as an instruction
(OR)
The worker wear sensors in his arm and make the movements which are stored as instructions such as
position relative to the object, arm rotation, etc.
After the instructions been saved, robots will carry out the tasks automatically.
How robots operate

• Robots are equipped with sensors to detect the surroundings

• Stop spraying paint if no car is present or paint has run out
• Very good at repetitive tasks but not good at some scientific works such as making specialist
glassware (in this case, human operators are better)

Advantages in using robots

• Work in environments harmful to human

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 • Work non-stop (24/7)
• Less expensive in the long term (expensive to buy initially, but no wages)
• Higher productivity (no holidays needed)
• Greater consistency (everything is identical)
• Can work boring, repetitive tasks for human who can do other skilled work
• Carry out different tasks with different end-effectors

Disadvantages in using robots

• Difficult to do unusual tasks (special art glassware)

• Higher unemployment (replacing labors)
• Human losing skills because of robots
• Robots are independent of the skills base, factories can be moved around the world
• Initial setup and maintenance are expensive

Production line control

• filling bottles with a liquid, capping the bottle and applying a label
• filling metal cans with baked beans, sealing the cans and applying labels
• The production line will be continuous, with various robots at each station given a specific task.

Advantages of robots in production line

• Faster operations (no of cans baked beans filled is 120 per min)
• Greater productivity (run 24/7 and 365)
• Greater consistency (exact weight of baked beans)
• Built-in quality control (auto test and reject the low qualities)
• Fewer staffs in the factory leads to reduced cost to the consumers (although initial cost is high)

Using robots in bottling plant

Sensor 1 – pressure sensor, light sensor or camera

• Sensor 1 detects the bottle; sensor is constantly sending signal back to the computer
• When the computer receive the signal that the bottle is present, computer then send a signal to an
actuator
• Actuator opens a valve to allow liquid flowing into the bottle

Sensor 2 – level sensor

• Sensor 2 detects the liquid height in the bottle and this sensor sends continuous signals back to the
computer
• When the signal indicates the bottle is full, computer sends a signal to actuator to close the valve
• Computer sends another signal to second actuator
• Second actuator operates a motor to move the conveyer belt to allow the next empty bottle to take
its position
• The whole process is continuous until stopped for maintenance, errors or change in the process

6.4. School management systems

Schools have to manage a number of different tasks in their day-to-day running.
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These tasks include:

• registration and attendance records of students

• student performance
• computer-aided learning.

Registration and attendance records of students

• Traditionally, attendance records were taken daily by pen and paper.

• It needs additional ten min session and prone to errors if student’s name was missed
• Nowadays, registration and attendance process are automated using software and hardware

Attendance Method 1 (Card)

• Magnetic stripe card is used as student ID card

• Card contains student ID, name of school, name of student, and date of birth
• Students swipe their ID card through a magnetic card reader for attendance
• The data would identify the student and the date and time of entry
• These data would be stored on database
• ID card would be swiped again when leaving the school and recorded again on database
• Upon entry and exit records, attendance for each student is calculated
• Using paper-based system, students can just go home after register. But with card system, student’s
attendance is known at all times
• At the end of a semester, attendance reports could be produced from database and sent out to
parents and teachers

ID Card features

• Use of PIN to stop another student swiping in with wrong card

• Use of GPS tracking to trace the students
• GPS require additional chip in the card
• However, there are privacy concerns surrounding location tracking

Attendance Method 2 (Biometrics)

• Fingerprint method is used to record attendance

• Fingerprints and student’s personal details are stored on database
• Scanner would read their fingerprints and record entry and exit data on database
• Since each student has unique fingerprint, this system is very secure

Advantages of biometric method compared to magnetic ID cards

• Fingerprints are unique, other students cannot register the attendance for you thus improving
security
• ID cards could be easily lost while fingerprints could not
• ID cards could be affected by magnetic fields and stop working (for e.g., placing near mobile
phones)
• Easier to clone ID cards but not fingerprints

Disadvantages of biometric method compared to magnetic ID cards

• Take a long time to record fingerprints of every student

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 • Fingerprint equipment is more expensive than magnetic stripe reader
• If a student cuts a finger, may not be identified by the system
• Invasion of privacy issues, fingerprints data is sensitive information and parents may object

Student performance
Teachers use spreadsheet to monitor the students’ performance.
Using spreadsheet teacher can produce the reports such as:

• Test results of each student over a term/year

• Performance against each students in the same subjects
• Students performance over the academic year
• Average grades for all students in a class
• Class and year group reports showing academic and behavioural performance

To produce these reports, system needs the following data:

• Student’s test results in all subjects over the term
• Behavioural data (attendance records, number of detention)
• CAT scores (standardisation test results)

Computer-aided learning

• CAL is the use of computer-based system in teaching

• Enhance traditional classroom teaching with computers as part of their learning
• Complete online tests to monitor students’ performance
• If problems occur, CAL can help find the troubleshooting guides and additional help

Advantages of using CAL

• Allow students to learn at their own space and their free time
• VR learning allow students to fully immerse into learning environment
• Stop at any point and return later
• Re-take tests until reaches required level
• More interactive learning
• Multimedia learning (short video clips, animation, music)
• Stimulate student learning
• MCQs, missing words, crossword puzzles, linking correct terms to descriptions and gaming are
used and marked by computer system immediately giving instant feedback
• Micro learning (topic broken down into smaller modules)

Disadvantages of using CAL

• Virtual learning – cannot experience lab equipment

• Expensive and time consuming to integrate CAL into the learning environment.
• Easily be distracted while online; for example, social media, websites or online games.
• Students maybe doing what they want on their own instead of learning

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 • CAL is not a self-contained learning system and cannot answer unusual questions, so students need
guidance from teacher

6.5 Online booking systems

• Ability to update files and data immediately

• Prevent double booking since response time is fast
• Online booking system are used in:
o the travel industry
o for concerts (theatre and music events)
o for cinema tickets
o when booking sporting events.

Advantages of online booking system

• Prevent double booking

• Immediate feedback on availability of seats, booking is successful, etc.
• Book at any time (24/7)
• Can get ‘special offer’ when registered with email
• For flight reservations, seating plan is easy to browse
• Can make reservation first and think for a period before finalizing the booking
• No printing thus saving postal costs and allow impulse booking in few hours advance
• QR code which contains all the booking information can be scanned on arrival at airport

Disadvantages of online booking system

• Initial setup and maintenance cost is expensive

• Need computer or phone and internet
• Difficult to cancel and get the refund back
• If the system breaks down or server down, impossible to book
• If website is designed badly, customers get confused and make mistakes thus resulting in additional
fees to correct an error
• Online booking cannot build personal relationship with agents who might offer free upgrades and
special offers

The travel industry in online flight booking system,

• User fill in the appropriate fields

• System search for available flights
• User choose flight and make booking
• Pay the funds with their bank account
• No human operator is needed unless error occur

Event booking system

• Customer choose the performance they wish to see

• Date and time are selected
• Number of seats is entered
• Seating display is shown
• User selects seat by highlighting the seats on the screen and click confirm
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 • Seat availability is checked in the database
• If seats are available, total price is shown
• Customer check the price and click confirm
• The seats are now shown as “No Longer Available” and no one can book it
• Customer enters personal details (no need for a returning customer)
• Payment method is selected and made payment
• Seats are now booked in the customer’s name
• Final details are shown on the screen
• Confirmation email is sent to the customer
• Email contain QR code which contains all the booking details
• QR code act as e-ticket and then scanned at the venue
• Finally, update the database with booking transaction and seats are permanently no longer available

Banking Systems
The use of computer technology has revolutionized in our banking transactions.

• the use of automatic teller machines (ATMs)

• electronic funds transfer (EFT)
• credit/debit card transactions
• cheque clearing
• internet banking.

Automatic teller machines (ATMs)

Automatic teller machines (ATMs) allow the customer to:

• withdraw cash
• deposit cash
• deposit cheques
• check the balance of their account
• see a mini bank statement
• pay a bill
• do a money transfer

Withdrawal of money from an ATM

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Depositing cheques at an ATM

• Insert the debit card and type in the PIN

• A number of services are shown on the screen
• Customer choose ‘deposit a cheque’ service
• A drawer will open and customer inserts the cheque and then drawer will close
• OCR device will read cheque details including the amount of money
• Amount appears on screen and customer confirm it
• Customer’s account is updated with the amount on the cheque (pending cheque clearance within
24 to 48 hours)
• Printed receipt of the cheque is issued to customer
• If they do not need another service, card is returned to the customer

Advantages of using ATMs

• Can withdraw cash at any time of day

• Offer many banking services without the need to go to bank such as statement, balance, bill paying
which help people to manage their money easily
• Possible to access an account from anywhere in the world
• Provide quicker service than waiting in a queue in bank

Disadvantages of using ATMs

• ATM are in places where theft can take place at night

• Potential for shoulder surfing and card cloning scams
• Some banks charge for using their ATMs
• Cash withdrawal limits
• If card is faulty, cannot withdraw the money
• Loss of personal touch, some people don’t like it

Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

• EFT System that allows money transfer instructions to be sent directly to a bank’s computer system
• Transfer money electronically (no cash involved in the process)
• When EFT instruction is received, computer system auto transfer money from one account to
another
• One example is the payment of salaries to the staff. On the pay day, company informs bank to
transfer money from their account to employees’ account
• Another example is using credit/debit card in a supermarket where payment is made. This is called
EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer at point-of-sale)

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Advantages and Disadvantages of EFT
Advantages

• very secure payment method

• very quick payment method
• less expensive than using cheques
• customer has the right to dispute an EFT payment for up to 60 days

Disadvantages

• once an amount has been transferred the bank cannot reverse a transaction (requires a full dispute
investigation)
• customer needs to have funds available immediately (unlike when using a cheque).
• cannot guarantee the recipient (someone with a fake ID could collect the money).

Credit/debit card transactions

• Chip and magnetic stripe store key information such as PIN

• Better security than relying only on signature
• A form of EFT

Using Chip & PIN card at restaurant

• Enter PIN using keypad

• Check card’s expiry date or reported stolen
• Keyed in PIN is checked against the PIN on the card
• If the same, transaction is proceeded
• If different, transaction is terminated
• The restaurant’s bank contacts the customer’s bank
• Check whether enough fund is available
• If the card is invalid and not enough funds, transaction is terminated
• If the card is valid and enough funds, transaction is authorized
• Authorization code is sent to the restaurant
• Money is deducted on customer’s account while being debited to restaurant’s bank account
• Receipt is printed
Advantages and disadvantages of credit/debit cards

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Cheques

• Expensive, slow and less secure payment method

Centralised clearing of cheques

• Cheque is submitted to a bank

• Cheque is scanned using OCR software and electronic image is made Bank details & amount are
read
• Suppose you uses a bank called Bank A and you pay a cheque for $50 to a company called H&M
Ltd, who bank with the Bank B. How is the H&M bank account credited with $50?
• Out clearing is done first.
• You pay a cheque to H&M whose bank is Bank B.
• When H&M presents a cheque to Bank B, bank takes an image of the cheque and turns into
electronic format using OCR software
• Bank B uses this electronic data to create a digital record of the money using the sort code and the
account number on the cheque
• The cheque image and digital record are added into the cheque list file. The list file contains all the
cheque images and digital records submitted in that day. Each file is made according to the bank
(E.g. cheques related to Bank A is called A file, Bank B is called B file.)

• Bank B sends all files to a central facility

• Then the central facility processes these files including your bank file
• Break down the file into individual payment messages
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 • Payment validation is also done
• Creates and sends a ‘request to pay’ message to your bank (Bank A)
• The message includes copy of cheque image and encoded info (sort code, acc no, amount)
• And then your bank will receive ‘request to pay’ images and carry out transactions
• Your bank A makes ‘pay’ or ‘no pay’ decision based on sufficient funds, blocked account, cheque
not signed or suspected fraud
• After decision been made, send the message back to central facility
• Central facility routes ‘pay’ or ‘no pay’ response to Bank B
• All this happens in less than 24 hours; slower than card payments but much faster than older paper-
based method

6.7 Computers in medicine

6.7.1 Information systems in medicine
Computers are used in many areas of medicine, such as:

» keeping patient records and pharmacy records

» use of 3D printers in many areas of surgery and customized medicines.
Patient and pharmacy records

• Hospitals and doctors keep records of all their patients in Databases

• Up-to-date medical history is important for diagnosis and treatment

• Data can be shared between medical practitioners and pharmacies (for example, to ensure no drugs
are prescribed which interact with each other in an unsafe manner).

• Quick and easy search for patient records in databases (immediate access to patient’s medical history
in emergency life and death situation)

• Medication can be prescribed in email instead of paper prescriptions

Data on a patient database
» a unique identification number
» name and address
» date of birth
» gender (male or female)
» medical history (for example, recent medicine/treatment)
» blood group
» any known allergies
» doctor
» any current treatment
» any current diagnosis
» important additional information such as X-rays, CT scans, and so on.

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Use of 3D printers
Anatomical parts can be printed using 3D printers for diagnosis and surgical procedures. Parts can be
scanned using:
» CT (computed tomography) – which involves producing images of the internal parts of the body in
a series of thin slices less than 0.1 mm thick, or
» MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – this uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a
series of images of the internal organs in the body.
Surgical and diagnostic aids

• 3D printers can produce prosthetics such as false arms, hands and legs.

• While myoelectric prosthetics (muscle controlled) cost tens of thousands of dollars, 3D-printed
prosthetic arm can be as little as $100.

• Many more people now having a chance to replace missing limbs at a fraction of the cost compared
to existing methods
Tissue engineering

• 3D printing of bio-compatible materials, cells and supporting structures.

• Producing artificial cells and tissues within a 3D printed object
• 3D bio-printing (using bio-inks) is a very complex process and requires input from biologists,
medical engineers, physicists and other engineers
• Successfully produced multi-layered skin tissue, bone tissue, heart/artery grafts and tracheal splints
• Thanks to 3D printing, the goal of growing replacement organs is getting closer

Artificial blood vessels

• 3D printing of artificial blood vessels using human cells

• Work in the same way as natural blood vessels.
• Biomimetic blood vessels can be fabricated using 3D printing and bio-inks.
• ‘Biomimetic’ refers to the imitation of elements that occur in nature (such as human cells) to create
solutions to human anatomy problems.
• ‘Bio-inks’ are biological inks developed to work with 3D inkjet printers. By using 3D layering,
they produce artificial live tissue. These biological inks are made up of human cells and other
materials (usually biopolymer gels).

Customized medicines

• Customize medicines to suit the individual known as patient-centric medicine

• 3D printed medicines are called printlets (printed tablets).
• Since medicines are personalized for individual, only the required amount is released into the body
and prevent from overdosing
• Multiple medicines can be combined into single printlet
• Vapor printing technique is used by evaporating a powdered medicine and combine it with nitrogen
gas

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Advantages of customised medicines

• tailor-made medicines to suit the individual

• better control of medicine release into the body
• saves money (many modern medicines are very expensive)
• better targeting of the medicine so its effects can be optimized
• less chance of an overdose of the medicine, thus reducing harmful side-effects

6.8 Expert systems

Expert systems have been developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in a particular field.
Examples:

• prospecting for oil and minerals

• diagnostics (finding faults in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.)
• medical diagnosis
• strategy games (e.g. chess)
• tax and financial planning
• route scheduling for delivery vehicles
• identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds.

Advantages of expert systems

• high level of expertise

• high accuracy
• Consistent results
• store vast amounts of ideas and facts
• traceable logical solutions and diagnostics
• have multiple types of expertise
• very fast response time (much quicker than a human expert)
• unbiased reporting and analysis of the facts
• indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct

Disadvantages of expert systems

• Users need training to ensure correctly used

• set-up and maintenance costs are very high
• give very ‘cold’ responses which may not be appropriate in certain medical situations (e.g. you
have cancer)
• only as good as the information/facts entered into the system
• Users sometimes make the very dangerous assumption that they are infallible (မမှား�ိင
ု )်

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User interface

• This is where user interacts with the expert system

• Interaction through dialogue boxes, command prompts or other input methods
• Yes/No Questions which are based on the responses to previous questions

Explanation system

• the reasoning behind the expert system’s conclusions and recommended actions
• For example, a patient will be given the diagnosis of mercury poisoning with a reasoning such as
‘impaired vision, lack of coordination, weak muscles, slurred speech and the patient used to work
in a paint factory’
• supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to take
• give the percentage probability of the accuracy of its conclusions
• For example, the following statement ‘Based on the information given to me, the probability of
finding oil bearing rocks in location 123AD21G is about 21%’

Inference engine

• main processing element of the expert system

• acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base for information/data that matches the
queries
• gather information from the user by asking a series of questions and applying responses; each
question is based on the previous responses.
• the problem-solving part of the expert system, which makes use of inference rules in the rules base.
• Because the knowledge base is a collection of objects and attributes, the inference engine use
information gathered from the user to find an object that matches (use rules base to find a match).

Knowledge base

• a repository of facts
• stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from several expert resources
• a collection of objects and their attributes

Example of Expert System

So, if we had the following series of questions and answers:

• Is it a mammal? YES
• Does it live in water? YES

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 • Does it make sonic sounds? YES
• Is its body covered in skin? YES
• Does it have any legs? NO
The conclusion would be: it is a WHALE.
Rules base

• a set of inference rules

• Inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions
• They follow logical thinking like the example above; usually involving a series of ‘IF’ statements,
for example:
• IF continent = ‘South America’ AND language = ‘Portuguese’ THEN country = ‘Brazil’.

Setting up an expert system

Medical diagnosis

Oil prospecting

• An interactive user screen with multiple-choice questions or yes/no responses

• Ask about geological profiles
• Answers are typed in by the operator
• The next questions are based on the previous response(s) input by the operator
• The inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base
• The system suggests the probability of finding oil as an output
• Also indicates the probable depth of deposits (usually as a % probability)
• The explanation system explain how the expert system arrived at its conclusions

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 • Produces contour maps showing concentration of minerals, rocks, oil, etc

Route scheduling for delivery vehicles

• Find the most efficient route for a parcel delivery van

• Determine the fastest and least expensive route, as well as suggest the number of vehicles and drivers
used
• The inputs needed for the delivery system are:
o the number of drop-off points and their location
o the distance between the drop-off points
o the type of vehicle used
o delivery times expected at each drop-off point
o layout of the road network.

6.9 Computers in the retail industry

Computers are used in the retail industry at point-of-sale (POS) terminals, where they are also used in the
automatic stock control systems.
Point-of-sale (POS ) terminals
• POS system use barcode to identify the product details.
• Barcode reader scan the barcode and retrieve the price of the product
• It also sends back the information to the computer system to update the files (product stock)
Barcodes
• Barcodes are made up of alternating dark and light lines of varying thickness
• A number underneath the barcode usually consists of four parts:
• a country code
• manufacturer’s code
• product code
• a check digit
• The check digit is a form of validation to ensure no errors occurred during the reading of the
barcode.
• The check digit is the last digit of the number. The check digit is calculated from all the preceding
digits, and it is used by any scanning system to check that the number scanned in from a barcode is
correct.
Barcodes and POS System
The sequence on how barcodes and POS terminals are used in the automatic stock control system:
» Barcodes are attached to all items sold by the supermarket.
» Each barcode is associated with a stock details file such as price, stock levels, product description – the
barcode is the primary key in the file.

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» A customer takes their basket to the POS terminal
» The barcode on each item is scanned at the POS – if the barcode cannot be read, operator type in barcode
manually
» The barcode is searched in the stock file until a match is found.
» Once found, the appropriate record is accessed.
The price of the item is sent back to the POS together with a product description.
» The stock level is reduced by one and the new stock level is written back to the file.
– If stock is less than or equal to the re-order/minimum number, then the computer automatically orders a
batch of items from the suppliers.
– Once ordered from supplier, the item is flagged on the file to indicate an order has been placed to prevent
re-order being triggered every time this item is scanned until the new stock arrives.
– When new goods arrive, the barcodes on the cartons will be used to update the stock files; also any flags
associated with these goods will be removed so that the stock checks can start to be made again.

» The above procedure is repeated until all the items in the customer’s basket have been scanned.
» When all the items have been scanned, the customer is given an itemized bill
» The computer also updates the files containing the daily takings.
» If the customer has a loyalty card, the system automatically update their points total.

Electronic funds transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS )

• When payment is made by card or electronic device (such as a mobile phone) at the POS terminal, it
is known as electronic funds transfer at the point-of-sale (EFTPOS).
• The communication between the supermarket EFTPOS terminals and the bank take place through a
secure connection over the internet.
• The following payment methods could be used:
• chip and PIN
• contactless cards
• near field communication (NFC) devices.
Chip and PIN
• Insert the card into a reader
• The reader makes a connection with the chip embedded in the card
• Customer enters the PIN
• The PIN and encrypted data from the chip is now sent to the customer’s bank.
• Security checks are made such as card reported stolen, expiry date, sufficient funds, etc.
• If checks are ok, an authorisation code is sent back to the terminal
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 • The funds are transferred to the supermarket’s bank.
Advantages and Disadvantages of chip and PIN cards
Advantages
• More secure system than magnetic stripe cards (PIN typed in must match up with PIN stored on chip).
• Quicker system than magnetic stripe cards and allows for contactless payments to be made (with
chip and PIN the card reader does not need to be actually connected to the internet to start the
transaction process; with magnetic stripe cards, the card reader must first contact the customer’s
bank before any authorisation can take place).
Disadvantages
• The risk of fraud when typing in the PIN – the customer needs to be careful people around
• Some countries do not accept chip and PIN cards.

Near field communication (NFC) devices

NFC contactless payment at a POS terminal
» Phone is held close to the NFC reader; about a distance of 5 cm, so the devices need to be very close
together.
» When the NFC payment is initiated, the NFC terminal and smartphone pass encrypted data back and forth
to each other to enable the payment to be made.
» Very secure because NFC communications are encrypted and dynamic (encrypted data being shared
changes every time a transaction takes place).
» Mobile phone manufacturers use tokenization to improve security.
Use of tokenization with mobile phones
• Tokenization is used when setting up a mobile wallet.
• The user takes a photograph of their credit card
• The details on the card (such as card number and name of bank) are securely sent by the mobile
wallet company to the bank that issued the card.
• The bank replaces the details on the card with a series of randomly generated numbers (called
tokens)
• Mobile wallet company receive the tokens and stored in the user’s smartphone
• This random number (tokens) is then used for transactions
• Retailers or other third parties involved in mobile wallet transactions never have access to real credit
card details because of these random numbers
• If their systems are hacked, then the stored credit card details are not the real ones and therefore
useless to the hackers.

• Many smartphones are also protected by touch ID or face ID technology, which means that even if
the smartphone is stolen, the thief still cannot use the smartphone to make payments.

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Internet banking and internet shopping
Internet banking (online bank account management)
• Money transfer
• Bill payment
• Account statement

Online shopping (no travelling needed)

• Buy goods and services
• Book travels
• Electronic payment using credit/debit card
Advantages of online shopping and banking
• No travelling thus reducing costs (fuel, bus fares) and congestion, pollution

• Access to worldwide market and variety of products thus less expensive and less time consuming
for looking around
• Benefits to disabled and elderly people since no travelling needed
• 24/7 because it is online
• People can spend more time on other things instead of giving time for shopping outdoor
• Bill payment and cheque posting is easier and less time consuming using online banking
• less embarrassing to ask for a bank loan using the internet rather than enduring a face-to-face
discussion with bank staff
• long queues at the banks so internet banking saves time

Disadvantages of online shopping and banking

• isolation and lack of socialisation if people stay at home to do all their shopping and banking
• health risks - lack of exercise; if people physically go shopping then getting some exercise.
• Security issues (hacking, stealing credit card details, viruses, malware, phishing, pharming)
• Accidentally using fraudulent bank or shopping websites is always a risk
• Need computers/smartphones and internet
• Unlike high-street shopping, cannot try clothes, only see pictures which might not portray the real
item
• Need to wait for the delivery and returning item is expensive and time consuming
• delivery traffic and pollution
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 • deserted high streets due to closing of street shops and banks
• easier to make errors with online banking and transfer money incorrectly to different accounts

Effects on companies due to the spread of online shopping and banking

• Companies can save costs because fewer staff need to be paid
• Because the internet is global, the potential customer base is increased
• some increased costs because of the need to retrain staff and employ more staff in
dispatch(delivery) departments
• Setup and maintenance cost for shopping website
• Because there is no customer–employee interaction, drop in customer loyalty, which could lead to
loss of customers
• Robberies are less likely due to the decrease in the number of high-street banks
• Cost benefits for banks since fewer security staff is needed

Use of OMR to read school registers

• The paper-based registers are often scanned into a computer using OMR.
• The attendance records are then stored on a central database.
• The database can be searched or sorted to find data about the attendance of any student.

Use of OMR to read multiple-choice question (MCQ) papers

• Completed multiple-choice forms can be scanned in using OMR
• Using OMR software, a template is created to map out the X-Y coordinates of each lozenge (area
filled in by pencil)
• As each question is scanned, a light passes through the scanner which picks up the position of any
lozenge which has been filled in by pencil/ink
• The position of the filled in lozenges is compared to the corresponding coordinates on the ‘answer
sheet template’
• If the position matches to the X-Y coordinates, then the answer is recorded as being correct.
• If more than one is filled in, OMR simply discards
• The scanned results are exported to a database or spreadsheet.

Advantages of OMR devices

• very fast way of inputting the results of a survey

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 • no typing, so more accurate than keying in the data
• more accurate than OCR methods

Disadvantages of OMR devices

• The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks/shading are correctly positioned
to gather accurate information.
• problems if filled in incorrectly and have to manually check before being read –time consuming and
expensive.
• only work with black pen or pencil
• limited to the questions on the paper; not possible to get expansion to answers in a questionnaire

Automated number plate recognition (ANPR) systems

How ANPR is used in a car park to enable entry and exit to be automatically controlled by a computer
system.
Step 1
• A sensor detects a vehicle and sends a signal to instruct a camera to capture an image of the front
of the vehicle (an infrared camera is used to give a clearer image and for use at night)
Step 2
• An algorithm is used to extract only the number plate area from the image
• Brightness and contrast is adjusted to clearly read the characters
• Each character on the number plate is then segmented
• Each character is then recognised using OCR software and converted into text string
• This text string is then stored on a database.
Step 3
• Once all of this has happened, the car park barrier is raised and the motorist is issued with a ticket.
The ticket shows the date and time of entering the car park.
Step 4
• When the motorist returns to the car park, they insert their ticket into a machine which calculates
the car park charges. The payment is registered on the database.
• The motorist then drives to the exit barrier and the ANPR system again reads the number plate and
checks its database. If the number plate is recognised (and payment made), the exit barrier is
raised.

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Advantages of ANPR
• Can monitor average speed of vehicles
• Save money since no need car park security guard
• much faster system because ticket is only used for payment and entry/exit is monitored only by
number plate (not by ticket)
• can be used as a security system; preventing illegal parking and preventing unauthorised access to
private car parks
• used to analyse driver behaviour
• Can be used in inner-city congestion charging systems; automatically charge a motorist if they enter
a congestion zone
Disadvantages of ANPR
• No security man in the car park could lead to vandalism and crimes
• Invasion of privacy issues due to the recording of drivers’ number plates

• Damaged or very dirty number plates will not be recognised by the system
• Someone can clone the number plate and pass the security gate

Radio frequency identification devices (RFID)

Four uses of RFIDs:
• tracking of stock
• passports
• automobiles
• contactless payments

Advantages of using RFID

• No line-of-sight contact is necessary; the tags can be read from a distance
• very robust and reliable technology
• Tags are much more difficult to forge than barcodes; barcodes can be altered or even damaged, but
RFID tags are more robust and difficult to alter
• Fewer staff needed because in a warehouse, tracking of items is automatic (thus reducing costs).
• very fast read rate (typically < 100 milliseconds to respond)
• bi-directional data transfer (allows read and write operations to take place)
• Bulk detection (detect several RFID tags at the same time)

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Disadvantages of using RFID
• Tag collision – the signals from two or more tags overlap, interfering with each other.
• Because RFID uses radio waves, easy to jam or interrupt
• easy to hack into the data/signal transmitted by the tag
• Although saving in staff wages, the initial cost of an RFID system is more expensive than a barcode
system

RFID
• RFID readers use radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag.
• Depending on the power of the radio waves used, the tag can be read from several metres (in
livestock tracking) to only a few millimeters (in contactless card payments)
• The RFID tag is made up of two components:
» a microchip that stores and processes information
» an antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information.
• The tags can be passive or active.
• Passive tags use the reader’s radio wave energy to relay back the information (no power supply)
• Active tags use a small embedded battery to power the RFID.
• Passive tags are the most widely used because they are smaller and cheaper to implement than
active tags.
• Because active tags have their own power supply, they can be read from up to 50 metres away.

Tracking of stock
Livestock tracking:

• keep track of the where abouts of every animal on a farm using active tags
• allow farmers to identify who owns an animal; important where animals trespass on the
neighboring fields
• keep data about the animals on the tag (for example, medical history, date of birth, identification
(passport) number, and so on)

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Retail market:
• details, such as price, description, can all be stored on the tag and automatically read at a checkout.
Several tags can be read at the same time, thus speeding up the checkout process
• In distribution centres; an item can easily be located because the tag can store its exact location in
the warehouse
• allow automatic tracking of an item from warehouse to customer; the customer can be informed at
all stages where the item is.
• Tiny RFID chips and antenna (i.e. tags) are now embedded into passports
• The RFID tags in passports are passive tags with no power supply.
• When the passport is presented to an RFID scanner, scanner provides enough energy so that the
chip can broadcast its stored information
• This information is then sent to a computer.
• The tiny chips can contain security data such as photographs and fingerprints, so impossible for a
person to falsify their identity
• The data sent to the computer is encrypted, increasing the security of the system
• The RFID in a passport can be read from six meters so it poses a security risk; but this risk is
mitigated by encrypting the data

Use of RFID in vehicles

• The tags allow or deny access to parking in a secure, private car park
• RFID tags in delivery vans can be used at weigh-stations to ensure the vehicle is not carrying too
much weight
• Tags can be used in toll gates where the barrier reads the tag in the car and checks the stored
reference number. If it is valid, barrier will open.
• RFID tags can be used on a car production line to track its progress through the assembly process.

Contactless credit/debit cards

• The chip in the RFID tag is passive and emits a low-powered radio wave when it comes into contact
with an RFID reader
• An antenna is built into the card to allow a connection with the contactless reader
• The RFID reader picks up a signal from the chip and this initiates the payment process

NFC Vs RFID
• NFC can also be used by smartphones when making payments
• NFC is a subset of RFID technology (wireless data transmission)
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 • In contrast to RFID, the frequency at which NFC operates requires the sender and receiver to be in
very close proximity which makes communication more secure
• NFC devices can act as a receiver (passive) or a reader (active).
• NFC has a range up to 5 cm and has a transmission rate of about 420 kilobits per second, smaller
than WIFI or Bluetooth but no need to pair

Three distinct modes of operation with NFC

 Peer-to-peer mode (used by smartphones):
• Two NFC-enabled devices exchange information with each other (e.g., two smartphones
sharing links, contacts and photographs by tapping them together).
• Both devices switch between active (when sending data) and passive (when receiving data).
 Read/write mode:
• One-way transmission of data.

• The passive device (e.g., a tablet) links up with another device and reads data from it.
• Use when an active tag is sending out advertising data to other devices.
 Card emulation mode:
• An NFC device can function as a smart or contactless card.
• This allows the card to make payments
• Used as way of entering public transport systems, where the card is placed on an NFC
reader to allow access to a metro system.
NFC Modes
• NFC has a range up to 5 cm
• A transmission rate of about 420 kilobits per second which is much smaller than Wi-Fi or Bluetooth
• NFC has very fast connectivity since, unlike Bluetooth, there is no need to pair the two devices
connecting

Biometric recognition systems

Biometric recognitions systems include:
• face recognition
• iris and retina recognition
• finger and thumb recognition
• hand recognition
• voice recognition.

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Retina recognition
» The retina is the light-sensitive area at the back of the eye that has a unique pattern of blood vessels.
» The retina cannot be seen without specialized equipment – this means it is a secure technology, but
more expensive to implement.
» The special equipment is used to take an infrared photograph of the retina.
» It is quite invasive – the subject has to sit very still and stare directly into the light source.
» It is slower to scan and verify.
» It is only used in very specialized high-security settings.

Iris recognition
The iris is the colored part of the eye, surrounding the pupil.
» A digital camera is utilized which uses both visible and near infrared light to take a sharp
photograph of a person’s iris.
» The method produces a unique pattern of a person’s iris by locating and taking an image of:
– the center of the pupil
– the edge of the pupil
– the edge of the iris
– the eyelids and eye lashes.
The system works with contact lenses and glasses, and for blind people. It is used as a method for uniquely
identifying a person and, because of the speed of verification (less than 5 seconds), is used a security system
in the following areas:
» immigration control (in some countries)
» some banks have introduced this in some branches as a security feature.

6.11 Satellite systems

• global positioning systems and satellite navigation
• geographic information systems (GIS)
• media communication systems (satellite television and satellite phones)

Global positioning systems and satellite navigation

• Global positioning systems (GPS) are used to determine the exact location of a number of modes of
transport (for example, aeroplanes, cars, ships, etc.). Cars usually refer to GPS as satellite navigation
systems (i.e. ‘satnav’).

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 • Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) owned and run by the USA
• Russian GLONASS and the EU’s Galileo
Satellite
• Satellites surrounding the Earth transmit signals to the surface
• Computers installed in the mode of transport receive and interpret these signals
• Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time
• Satellites need very accurate timing in order to know their position relative to the Earth
• They use atomic clocks, which are accurate to a billionth of a second per day
• The computer on board the mode of transport calculates its exact position based on the
information from at least three satellites.
Geographic information systems (GIS)
• Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system that allows us to map, model, query and
analyze large amounts of data according to their location.
• A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, and
displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. GIS can show many kinds of data on one
map, such as streets, buildings, and vegetation. This enables people to more easily see, analyze, and
understand patterns and relationships.
• In GIS, users can:
• Create interactive queries
• Edit map data
• Analyze spatial information (Spatial information refers to how objects fit together in space.)
 The technology combines maps with computer graphics and databases.
GIS
• Include information about the landscape, such as the location of streams, different kinds of
vegetation, and different kinds of soil. It can include information about the sites of factories, farms,
and schools, or storm drains, roads, and electric power lines.
• With GIS technology, people can compare the locations of different things in order to discover how
they relate to each other. For example, using GIS, a single map could include sites that produce
pollution, such as factories, and sites that are sensitive to pollution, such as wetlands and rivers.
Such a map would help people determine where water supplies are most at risk.
• Amalgamation (result of combining) of information into easily understood maps
• performance of complex analytical calculations and then presentation of the results in the form of
maps, tables or graphics
• geographers, scientists and engineers can see the data in several different ways in order to see
patterns and relationships
• anything that can be placed on a map is a candidate for GIS.
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Examples of the use of GIS
» Emergency services use GIS to send the closest emergency personnel to a location.
» Biologists and environmentalists use GIS to protect animal life and plants in certain vulnerable areas
» Teachers can use GIS in their geography, science or engineering lessons.
» It can be used for crime mapping in a region or in a country.
» It can be used for route monitoring (used in conjunction with route scheduling software).
» It can be used for management of agricultural crop data.
» It can address public health issues – it was used in 2020 and 2021 during the Covid-19 pandemic to show
how the virus spread in different parts of the world and allowed data to be combined (such as, age groups,
ethnic group, population density, and so on) to create a unique insight into how it spread.
» It can map of wildfire risks (it was used in Australia in 2019 during the wildfire outbreaks; it was possible
to map out where and how the fire was spreading).
Advantages and Disadvantages of GIS

Advantages of GIS
» It allows geographical and thematic (relating to particular subject) data of any kind to be combined in a
way which shows how they are connected to each other.
» It allows the handling and exploration of huge amounts of data (massive number crunching).
» It allows data to be integrated from a wide range of very different sources (which appear at first to be
totally unconnected).
Disadvantages of GIS
» The learning curve on GIS software can be very long.
» GIS software is very expensive.
» GIS requires enormous amounts of data to be input (thus increasing the chances of errors).
» It is difficult to make GIS programs which are both fast and user-friendly; GIS requires very complex
command language interfaces to work properly.
Media communication systems
• Communication media refers to a method of delivering and receiving data/information using
telecommunications.
• Satellites contain antennas, transponders (to allow receiving and sending of data), solar panels (for
power from the Sun) and propulsion (to ensure the satellite is in the correct orbit at all times).
• Signals are converted to analogue and then beamed to the satellite from a satellite dish on the
Earth.
• The signals are delivered by carrier waves which consist of radio waves.
• Each signal has its own frequency and bandwidth (the larger the bandwidth the more data can be
transmitted).
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 • Once the data reaches the satellite, it is then re-sent to Earth.
• The satellite usually ‘boosts’ the signal before sending it back.
• Often the frequency of the signal is changed to prevent the signal received being confused with the
signal sent.
• Satellite systems are used to transmit data from one part of the planet to another.
• Due to the great distances involved, cables would be too costly and there is also the problem of
signal deterioration in cables over long distances.
• Satellites systems are used to transmit television, telephone and internet data around the world.
Advantages of media communication systems
» They have good global coverage (covers the majority of the Earth’s surface).
» They are cheaper, faster and safer than laying cables in difficult or treacherous terrain (dangerous land).
» They have a very high bandwidth.
» It is relatively easy to expand the network (there are numerous companies now manufacturing satellites
for various uses).
» Security in satellite transmission is very good due to the fact that data is coded and the receiver requires
decoding equipment to read the data.
» During emergency situations it is relatively easy to move stations on the ground from one place to
another; satellites can also change their orbits if necessary, using built-in boosters.
» They are well-suited for broadcasting, that is, one satellite signal being picked up by many different
receivers on the ground.
» Satellite receivers on the ground can be portable, enabling mobile communication in very remote
locations.
Disadvantages of media communication systems
There is a time delay in receipt of the signals (this can be a problem in voice communications, where even
0.5 seconds delay can be noticeable as the sound and video appear out of synchronisation) or there may
appear to be an ‘echo’ on the sound (note that there would also be a time delay for long-distance fibre-
optic communications too).

» The signals received can be affected by bad weather (for example, heavy rain or hailstones မိုးသီး),
obstructions (such as tree branches) and whether the satellite dish has been correctly orientated.
» Sunspot activity can affect the performance of a satellite.
» If they are not in a fixed position relative to the Earth then they need to be monitored and controlled on
a regular basis to ensure they remain in the correct orbit.

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