1.11.

Electromagnetic wave equation from Maxwell equations in isotropic medium

According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in a homogeneous medium

(i) It has infinite resistance to the current and hence its conductivity is zero i.e. j = 0
(ii) It has no volume distribution of charge, thus the charge density =0
(iii) ⃗ = ε𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
Also and 𝐷 ⃗ = 𝝁𝐻
⃗
Hence Maxwell equations,
⃗ =𝜌
∇. 𝐷 (1)
⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵 (2)
⃗
𝜕𝐵
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝑡 (3)
⃗ 𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ = 𝜇(𝜕𝐷) = 𝜇ε
∇×𝐵 (4)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The wave equation of propagation of a wave can be obtained by taking curl of eq.(4) as
𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ = ∇ × 𝜇ε
∇×∇×𝐵
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗
= 𝜇ε(∇ × )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
= 𝜇ε 𝜕𝑡 (∇ × 𝐸⃗ )
𝜕 ⃗
𝜕𝐵
= 𝜇ε 𝜕𝑡 (− 𝜕𝑡 ) (from eq (3))

𝜕2 𝐵
= - 𝜇ε 𝜕𝑡 2 (5)

⃗ = ∇(∇. B) − ∇2 𝐵 = −∇2 𝐵
∴∇×∇×𝐵 (6) (∵ ∇. B = 0)

Comparing equations (5) & (6),

𝜕2 𝐵
−∇2 𝐵 =- 𝜇ε 𝜕𝑡 2

𝝏𝟐 𝑩
𝛁 𝟐 𝑩 = 𝝁𝜺 𝝏𝒕𝟐 (7)

Similarly, taking curl of eq (3), we get

𝝏𝟐 𝑬
𝛁 𝟐 𝑬 = 𝝁𝜺 𝝏𝒕𝟐 (8)

Equations (7) and (8) represent the space and time variation of magnetic and electric field.

Hence general wave equation is represented by

𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒚
𝛁 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒗𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐 (9)
 1 1
Where 𝑣2 = 𝜇𝜀 or 𝑣 =
√𝜇𝜀

Where 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 are permeability and permittivity of medium.

When the electromagnetic wave propagating in free space,

1
𝑣=
√𝜇0 𝜀0

1
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 and 𝜀0 = 4𝜋×9×109 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2

1
𝑣=
√4𝜋 × 10−7 1
4𝜋 × 9 × 109

𝒗 = 3× 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

Thus the velocity of propagation of variation of E and B is the same as the velocity of light.

Equation (9) indicate the wave propagation in 3-D free space. These waves involve periodic
variations of electric and magnetic field. So they are called electromagnetic waves.

1.12. Polarization states

Polarization describes the orientation and time evolution of the electric field vector 𝐸⃗ of an
electromagnetic (EM) wave as it propagates.

⃗ (direction of propagation),
⃗ is always perpendicular to 𝐸⃗ and 𝑘
Since the magnetic field 𝐵
polarization is fully determined by the electric field.

Suppose an EM wave travels in the +z-direction. The electric field can be written as:

E(z,t) = 𝑥̂Excos(kz−ωt+ϕx)+𝑦̂Eycos(kz−ωt+ϕy)

where

• Ex and Ey are amplitudes of the x- and y-components,

• ϕx and ϕy are their phase constants.

The relative phase difference

 Δϕ= ϕy − ϕx
determines the type of polarization.

Types of polarization states

(a) Linear polarization

Condition: Δϕ = 0 or π

• The two components oscillate in phase (or exactly opposite).

• The electric field vector points along a fixed straight line in the transverse plane.

Examples:

• If Ey = 0: wave polarized along x.

• If Ex = Ey, Δϕ=0: wave polarized at 45°

(b) Circular polarization

• Ex = Ey , and Δϕ = ±π/2
• The tip of 𝐸⃗ describes a circle in the transverse plane as time evolves.
• Two senses:
o Right circular polarization (RCP): Δϕ = −π/2.
o Left circular polarization (LCP): Δϕ = +π/2
• The handedness is defined by the rotation of 𝐸⃗ as seen by an observer looking in the
propagation direction.

(c) Elliptical polarization

• General case: arbitrary amplitudes Ex, Ey and arbitrary phase difference Δϕ

• The tip of 𝐸⃗ traces an ellipse.

• Circular and linear polarizations are special cases of elliptical.

[Link] of electromagnetic waves-Poynting Vector:

One important characteristic of electromagnetic waves is that they transport energy from one
point to another point.
The amount of field energy passing through unit area of the surface perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of energy is called as Poynting vector.

Consider an elementary volume in the form of a rectangular parallopiped of sides dx, dy and
dz as shown in fig. The volume of parallopiped is “dxdydz”. Suppose the energy is propagated
along X-axis, now the area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of energy is dydz. Let
𝜕𝑈
the electromagnetic energy in this volume is U. Then the rate of change of energy is 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑈
= − ∮𝑆 𝑃. 𝑑𝑠 (1)
𝜕𝑡

Negative sign is used to show that energy is entering in the volume. Since the energy per unit
volume in electric magnetic fields

1 1
𝑈 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 + 2 𝜇0 𝐻 2 (2)

Rate of decrease of energy in volume dV is given b

𝜕𝑈 𝜕 1 1
- = − 𝜕𝑡 ∫𝑉 (2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 + 2 𝜇0 𝐻 2 )𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐵
= − ∫𝑉 [𝜀0 𝐸( 𝜕𝑡 ) + 𝜇0 𝐵( 𝜕𝑡 )]𝑑𝑉 (3)

From Maxwell’s equations (iii) and (iv),

𝜕𝐸 ∇×𝐻 𝜕𝐻 ∇×𝐸
= and =− (4)
𝜕𝑡 𝜀0 𝜕𝑡 𝜇0

From equation (3) and (4)

𝜕𝑈 (∇×𝐻) ∇×𝐸
- = ∫𝑉 [−𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝜇0 𝐻( 𝜇 )]𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝜀0 0

𝜕𝑈
- = ∫𝑉 [𝐻(∇ × 𝐸) + 𝐸(∇ × 𝐻)]𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑈
- = ∫𝑉 ∇. (E × 𝐻)𝑑𝑉 (5)
𝜕𝑡

From Gauss theorem of divergence (5) can be written as

∫ ∇(E × 𝐻)𝑑𝑉 = ∫ (E × 𝐻)𝑑𝑆

𝑉
𝑺

Comparing (5) and (1)

 ⃗𝑷
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 × ⃗𝑯
⃗⃗

The vector shows that energy flow takes place in a direction perpendicular to the plane
containing E and H

1.14. Failures of classical electromagnetic wave theory

 The classical electromagnetic wave theory, developed by Maxwell and others in the
19th century, was extremely successful in explaining a wide range of optical and
electromagnetic phenomena (reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference,
polarization, propagation of radio waves, etc.).

 However, by the late 19th and early 20th century, several experimental results could
not be explained using this theory. These failures gave rise to quantum mechanics.

Here are the major failures of classical electromagnetic wave theory:

1. Blackbody Radiation Problem

 Classical theory predicted that a blackbody should emit infinite energy at short
wavelengths (ultraviolet catastrophe) according to the Rayleigh–Jeans law.

 Experimentally, blackbody radiation peaks at a finite wavelength and falls off at shorter
wavelengths.

2. Photoelectric Effect

Classical theory predicted:

 Light of any frequency should eject electrons if its intensity is high enough.

 The kinetic energy of emitted electrons should increase with light intensity.

 There should be a time delay for weak light before emission occurs.

Experimentally:

 Electrons were ejected only if light frequency exceeded a threshold,

independent of intensity.

 Kinetic energy depended on light frequency, not intensity.

 No measurable time delay was observed.

3. Compton Effect

 Classical wave theory could not explain the wavelength shift observed when X-rays
scatter off electrons.

 According to wave theory, scattering should not change the wavelength.

 Experimentally, a shift in wavelength depended on scattering angle.

4. Atomic Spectra

 Classical theory predicted that electrons orbiting a nucleus should continuously radiate
electromagnetic energy, spiraling into the nucleus.

 This meant atoms should be unstable, which contradicts observed stable matter.

 It also could not explain the discrete line spectra of elements.

5. Specific Heat of Solids

 Classical equipartition theorem predicted that specific heat should be constant (the
Dulong-Petit law) at all temperatures.

 Experimentally, specific heat decreases at low temperatures.

1.15. Quantum theory of light

 Several major experimental findings led to the revelation of quantum theory or quantum
mechanics of nature.

 In order to fit experimental observation of radiation from a heated electromagnetic

cavity, Max Planck (1900s) proposed that electromagnetic energy comes in packets or
is quantized.

 Each packet of energy or a quantum of energy E is associated with the frequency of

electromagnetic wave, namely

E = ћω = ћ(2πf) = hf (1)

Where h = 6.625 x 10-34Js is Planck’s constant and ћ = h/2π

Since ћ is very small, this packet of energy is very small unless ω is large. So the quantization
of electromagnetic field is first associated with light, a very high frequency electromagnetic
radiation.

1.16. Blackbody

 Radiation that is incident on an object is partially absorbed and partially reflected.

 At thermodynamic equilibrium, the rate at which an object absorbs radiation is the same
as the rate at which it emits it.

 Therefore, a good absorber of radiation (any object that absorbs radiation) is also a
good emitter.

 A perfect absorber absorbs all electromagnetic radiation incident on it; such an object
is called a blackbody.

Blackbody Radiation

 Although the blackbody is an idealization, because no physical object absorbs 100% of

incident radiation, we can construct a close realization of a blackbody in the form of a
small hole in the wall of a sealed enclosure known as a cavity radiator, as shown in
Figure

 The inside walls of a cavity radiator are rough and blackened so that any radiation that
enters through a tiny hole in the cavity wall becomes trapped inside the cavity.

 At thermodynamic equilibrium (at temperature T), the cavity walls absorb exactly as
much radiation as they emit.

 Furthermore, inside the cavity, the radiation entering the hole is balanced by the
radiation leaving it.
 Figure 1. A schematic of a blackbody. At thermal equilibrium all radiation absorbed
and also emitted

Experimental study of Blackbody Radiation

First attempt was made by Lummer & Pringsheim in 1899. They plotted some curves between
𝐸(𝜆) and 𝜆 for various temperatures as shown below in fig. (2). These plots are known as
spectral energy distribution curve of blackbody radiation.

Characteristics of Blackbody radiation.

1. It is clear from the figure that the graph is continuous which means, at every
temperature, radiation for all wavelengths emitted the spectral emissive power is
different for different wavelengths.

2. Spectral energy density 𝐸(𝜆) for each 𝜆 increases with temperature.

3. At a particular temperature at first 𝐸(𝜆) increases with 𝜆 but after reaching certain
highest value it goes decreasing. The highest value is cloned by 𝐸(𝜆)𝑚ax & wavelength
at which 𝐸𝜆 is maximum is denoted by 𝜆max.
 Figure 2:The spectrum of black-body radiation with increasing temperature showing
blue shift at high temperatures.

4. Wien's Displacement Law – As we see from the graph 𝜆max decreases with temperature, It
was Wien who first mathematically discovered

𝟏 𝒃
𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝜶 or 𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (2)
𝑻 𝑻

where b is Wien's Constant value is b= 2.898 x10-3 meter-kelvin. The above law is known as
Wien's displacement law.

5. Stephan’s Boltzmann’s Law- At a particular temperature the area under the curve is given
by 𝐸.d𝜆, which is the is total emissive Power of blackbody. Hence the area of the curve
represents total emissive power. It is found to be proportional to T4 i.e.

𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇4 (3)

where σ = Stephan’s constant having value σ = 5.67x10-8 watt/m2/K4. This law is known Stefan
Boltzmann's law.

Wien's Distribution Law

Wien used thermodynamics to show that the Spectral density between 𝜆 and 𝜆+d𝜆 wavelength
range is given by

𝑨
𝐸(𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = 𝝀𝟓 𝑓(𝜆𝑇) 𝑑𝜆 (4)

To find the form of function 𝑓(𝜆𝑇), he compared blackbody distribution curve with Maxwellian
energy distribution curve. After the comparison he deduced
 𝑓(𝜆𝑇) = 𝑒−𝑎∕𝜆𝑇 (5)

hence, he found

𝑨
𝐸(𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = 𝝀𝟓 𝑒−𝑎∕𝜆𝑇 𝑑𝜆 (6)

Where A and a are constants, T is temperature in Kelvin. This equation (9) is known as Wien's
distribution law.

Rayleigh Jeans Distribution Law

In 1900 Rayleigh & Jeans used Maxwell Boltzmann statistics to derive anther distribution in
order to explain blackbody radiation. According to Rayleigh, the radiation waves in
blackbody can be compared to the standing waves in the cubical cavity and hence he
calculated number of modes in wavelength range 𝜆 and 𝜆 + d 𝜆

8𝜋
𝑁(𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = (7)
λ4

As Per the principle of equipartition of energy, assignment of an average energy of kT to each

mode of vibration leads to an energy density 𝑈(𝜆)d𝜆 for waves with wavelength range 𝜆 and 𝜆
+ d 𝜆 given by

8𝜋𝑘𝑇
U(𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑑λ (8)
λ4

Above equation is known as Rayleigh Jeans formula for blackbody radiation.

 In Rayleigh Jeans formula the energy density 𝑈(𝜆) in a given wavelength range d 𝜆
increases rapidly as 𝜆 decreases and approaches infinity for very short wavelengths,
which is not true.

 Later on Paschen showed that Wien's formula agreed with the experimental curves for
shorter wavelengths while Rayleigh formula agreed with longer wavelengths.

 As none these formulae could account the entire radiation curve, Paschen Suggested
that the fundamental assumptions of classical theory were at fault.

[Link] Ultraviolet Catastrophe

Rayleigh Jeans formula for blackbody radiation is
8𝜋𝑘𝑇
U(𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑑λ (1)
λ4
 In this equation, we see that energy density decreases with 𝜆, which is correct only in
the higher wavelength region. Hence Rayleigh Jeans distribution law holds only for
larger 𝜆 part.

 At small 𝜆 this law Rayleigh Jeans law fails. The most disturbing aspect of Rayleigh
Jeans law is that the area under the curve is infinite, this area represents the total energy
radiated by the black body.

Figure 3 Classical thermodynamic principles Rayleigh-Jeans' formula and Wien's

displacement law could not explain Blackbody ration at high temperatures called UV
catastrophe. While Planck's theory provides perfect matching.
• The paradox —or rather the breakdown of the Rayleigh–Jeans formula— happens at
small wavelength λ

• If we take the limit for λ→0 in Equation (8), we obtain that U(λ)→∞.

• In other words, as the wavelength of the emitted light gets smaller (approaching the UV
range), the intensity of the radiation approaches infinity, and the black body emits an
infinite amount of energy.

• This divergence for low wavelength (high frequencies) is called the “ULTRAVIOLET
CATASTROPHE”, and it is clearly unphysical.

• This is because the excess radiation is found at short wavelength in UV region. It

signalled a fundamental flaw in Classical thermodynamics.

• As was the case with Wien distribution law. So, Wien as well as Rayleigh Jeans
couldn’t improve the prediction.
1.18. Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric effect is the process of emitting the electrons from the a metal surface when
the metal surface is exposed to an electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency.
For example, ultraviolet light is required in the case of example, ultraviolet light is required
in the case of ejection of electrons from an alkali metal.

Apparatus Description

• An evacuated tube has two electrodes connected to an external circuit.

• The metal plate whose surface is to be irradiated acts as the anode.

• Some of the photoelectrons that emerge from the radiated surface have sufficient
energy to reach the cathode despite its negative polarity and they cathode despite its
negative polarity and they constitute the current.

• As the retarding potential is increased fewer and fewer electrons are able to reach the
cathode and the current drops. When V exceeds a certain value V0 no further electrons
are able to strike the cathode and the current drops to zero

Laws of Photoelectric Emission

• There is no time lag between the irradiation of the surface and the ejection of the
electrons. • At a particular fixed frequency of incident radiation the rate of the emission
of photo electrons i.e. the photocurrent increases with increase in the intensity of the
incident light. increase in the intensity of the incident light.

• Photo electric effect does not occur at frequency less than threshold frequency.

• At the frequency above the threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of the ejected
electrons depends only on the frequency of the exposed radiation and not on its intensity

Explanation of Photoelectric Effect

 i. The photoelectric effect cannot be explained on the basis of electromagnetic
theory. In 1905 Einstein proposed that the photoelectric effect could be
understood through the idea proposed by the German theoretical physicist
Max Planck in 2000.
ii. Planck was seeking to explain the characteristics of the radiation emitted by
hot bodies. radiation emitted by hot bodies.
iii. Plank assumed that while the radiation is emitted continuously as little
bursts of energy called quanta but propagated continuously in space as
electromagnetic waves.
iv. Einstein proposed that light not only was emitted as quanta at a time but also
propagated as individual quanta, sufficiently small to be absorbed by the
electron
v. Planck found that the quantity associated with a particular frequency ν of
light all had the same energy and that this energy was proportional to ν that
is E = hν
vi. Photoelectric effect can be explained by the following equation
E(=hν) = hν0 + Tmax

Here E is the total energy of the photon incident on the metallic surface, ν is the frequency of
the incident radiation, ν0 is the threshold frequency of the metal and Tmax is the maximum
kinetic energy with which the electron moves after ejection from the surface

Even when V is zero there is some current. This is due to some of the electrons coming out
have sufficient energy to reach the cathode all by themselves. When Vis increased the electrons
not having sufficient KE are also pulled by the cathode and hence current increases. For a given
intensity when all the ejected electrons are pulled by the cathode there are no more electrons
left to reach the cathode. After this even if V is increased the current After this even if V is
increased the current does not increase. This is the saturation current
When V is made negative and increased the electrons are repelled. However, some electrons
having sufficient energy are still able to reach the cathode and constitute the current. The value
of V when even the most energetic electron is not allowed to reach the cathode is known as
stopping potential and the current now becomes zero

If the frequency of the incident radiation is fixed Tmax will not change. Hence, the stopping
potential will remain the same even if the intensity is increased or decreased.