Updated – version 1.

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Units 3 and 4: Mathematical Methods

Mathematical Methods Units 3 and 4 extend the introductory study of simple elementary functions of a single
real variable, to include combinations of these functions, algebra, calculus, probability and statistics, and
their applications in a variety of practical and theoretical contexts. Units 3 and 4 consist of the areas of study
‘Algebra, number and structure’, ‘Data analysis, probability and statistics’, ‘Calculus’, and ‘Functions,
relations and graphs’, which must be covered in progression from Unit 3 to Unit 4, with an appropriate
selection of content for each of Unit 3 and Unit 4. Assumed knowledge and skills for Mathematical Methods
Units 3 and 4 are contained in Mathematical Methods Units 1 and 2, and will be drawn on, as applicable, in
the development of related content from the areas of study, and key knowledge and key skills for the
outcomes of Mathematical Methods Units 3 and 4.
For Unit 3 a selection of content would typically include the areas of study ‘Functions, relations and graphs’
and ‘Algebra, number and structure’, applications of derivatives and differentiation, and identifying and
analysing key features of the functions and their graphs from the ‘Calculus’ area of study. For Unit 4, a
corresponding selection of content would typically consist of remaining content from ‘Functions, relations and
graphs’, ‘Algebra, number and structure’ and ‘Calculus’ areas of study, and the study of random variables,
discrete and continuous probability distributions, and the distribution of sample proportions from the ‘Data
analysis, probability and statistics’ area of study. For Unit 4, the content from the ‘Calculus’ area of study
would be likely to include the treatment of anti-differentiation, integration, the relation between integration
and the area of regions specified by lines or curves described by the rules of functions, and simple
applications of this content, including to probability distributions of continuous random variables.
The selection of content from the areas of study should be constructed so that there is a development in the
complexity and sophistication of problem types and mathematical processes used (modelling,
transformations, graph sketching and equation solving) in application to contexts related to these areas of
study. There should be a clear progression of skills and knowledge from Unit 3 to Unit 4 in an area of study.
In undertaking these units, students are expected to be able to apply techniques, routines and processes
involving rational and real arithmetic, sets, lists and tables, diagrams and geometric constructions,
algorithms, algebraic manipulation, equations, graphs, differentiation, anti-differentiation, integration and
inference, with and without the use of technology. They should have facility with relevant mental and by-hand
approaches to estimation and computation. The use of numerical, graphical, geometric, symbolic and
statistical functionality of technology for teaching and learning mathematics, for working mathematically, and
in related assessment, is to be incorporated throughout each unit as applicable.

Area of Study 1
Functions, relations and graphs
In this area of study students cover transformations of the plane and the behaviour of some elementary
functions of a single real variable, including key features of their graphs such as axis intercepts, stationary
points, points of inflection, domain (including maximal, implied or natural domain), co-domain and range,
asymptotic behaviour and symmetry. The behaviour of functions and their graphs is to be explored in a
variety of modelling contexts and theoretical investigations.
This area of study includes:
 graphs of polynomial functions and their key features
 graphs of the following functions: power functions, y  x n , n  Q ; exponential functions, y  a x , a  R  ,
in particular y  ex ; logarithmic functions, y  log e  x  and y  log10  x  ; and circular functions,
𝑦 = sin(𝑥) , 𝑦 = cos(𝑥) and 𝑦 = tan(𝑥) and their key features

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 transformation from y  f  x  to y  Af  n  x  b  c , where A, n, b and c  R , A, n  0 , and f is one of

the functions specified above, and the inverse transformation
 the relation between the graph of an original function and the graph of a corresponding transformed
function (including families of transformed functions for a single transformation parameter)
 graphs of sum, difference, product and composite functions involving functions of the types specified
above (not including composite functions that result in reciprocal or quotient functions)
 modelling of practical situations using polynomial, power, circular, exponential and logarithmic functions,
simple transformation and combinations of these functions, including simple piecewise (hybrid) functions.

Area of Study 2
Algebra, number and structure
In this area of study students cover the algebra of functions, including composition of functions, inverse
functions and the solution of equations. They also study the identification of appropriate solution processes
for solving equations, and systems of simultaneous equations, presented in various forms. Students also
cover recognition of equations and systems of equations that are solvable using inverse operations or
factorisation, and the use of graphical and numerical approaches for problems involving equations where
exact value solutions are not required, or which are not solvable by other methods. This content is to be
incorporated as applicable to the other areas of study.

This area of study includes:

 solution of polynomial equations with real coefficients of degree 𝑛 having up to 𝑛 real solutions,
including numerical solutions
 functions and their inverses, including conditions for the existence of an inverse function, and use of
inverse functions to solve equations involving exponential, logarithmic, circular and power functions
 composition of functions, where f composite 𝑔, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, is defined by (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) given rg  d f
 solution of equations of the form f  x   g  x  over a specified interval, where f and g are functions of
the type specified in the ‘Functions, relations and graphs’ area of study, by graphical, numerical and
algebraic methods, as applicable
 solution of literal equations and general solution of equations involving a single parameter
 solution of simple systems of simultaneous linear equations, including consideration of cases where no
solution or an infinite number of possible solutions exist (geometric interpretation only required for two
equations in two variables).

Area of Study 3
Calculus
In this area of study students cover graphical treatment of limits, continuity and differentiability of functions of
a single real variable, and differentiation, anti-differentiation and integration of these functions. This material
is to be linked to applications in practical situations.
This area of study includes:

 deducing the graph of the derivative function from the graph of a given function and deducing the graph of
an anti-derivative function from the graph of a given function
 derivatives of 𝑥 𝑛 for n Q , 𝑒 𝑥 , log 𝑒 (𝑥), sin(𝑥), cos(𝑥) and tan(𝑥)

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f  x
 derivatives of f  x   g  x  , f  x   g  x  , and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) where f and g are polynomial functions
g  x
exponential, circular, logarithmic or power functions and transformations or simple combinations of these
functions
 application of differentiation to graph sketching and identification of key features of graphs, including
stationary points and points of inflection, and intervals over which a function is strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing
 identification of local maximum/minimum values over an interval and application to solving optimisation
problems in context, including identification of interval endpoint maximum and minimum values
 anti-derivatives of polynomial functions and functions of the form f  ax  b  where f is x n , for n Q , e x ,
sin  x  , cos  x  and linear combinations of these
 informal consideration of the definite integral as a limiting value of a sum involving quantities such as area
under a curve and approximation of definite integrals using the trapezium rule
 anti-differentiation by recognition that F'  x   f  x  implies  f  x  dx  F  x   c and informal treatment of
𝑏
the fundamental theorem of calculus, ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

 properties of anti-derivatives and definite integrals

 application of integration to problems involving finding a function from a known rate of change given a
boundary condition, calculation of the area of a region under a curve and simple cases of areas between
curves, average value of a function and other situations.

Area of Study 4
Data analysis, probability and statistics
In this area of study students cover discrete and continuous random variables, their representation using
tables, probability functions (specified by rule and defining parameters as appropriate); the calculation and
interpretation of central measures and measures of spread; and statistical inference for sample proportions.
The focus is on understanding the notion of a random variable, related parameters, properties and
application and interpretation in context for a given probability distribution.
This area of study includes:
 random variables, including the concept of a random variable as a real function defined on a sample
space and examples of discrete and continuous random variables
 discrete random variables:
 specification of probability distributions for discrete random variables using graphs, tables and
probability mass functions
 calculation and interpretation of mean, 𝜇, variance, 𝜎 2 , and standard deviation of a discrete random
variable and their use
 Bernoulli trials and the binomial distribution, Bi(𝑛, 𝑝), as an example of a probability distribution for
a discrete random variable
 effect of variation in the value(s) of defining parameters on the graph of a given probability mass
function for a discrete random variable
 calculation of probabilities for specific values of a random variable and intervals defined in terms of
a random variable, including conditional probability
 continuous random variables:
 construction of probability density functions from non-negative functions of a real variable
 specification of probability distributions for continuous random variables using probability density
functions

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 calculation and interpretation of mean, 𝜇, variance, 𝜎 2 , and standard deviation of a continuous

random variable and their use
 standard normal distribution, N(0, 1), and transformed normal distributions, N(𝜇, 𝜎 2 ), as examples of
a probability distribution for a continuous random variable
 effect of variation in the value(s) of defining parameters on the graph of a given probability density
function for a continuous random variable
 calculation of probabilities for intervals defined in terms of a random variable, including conditional
probability (the cumulative distribution function may be used but is not required)
 statistical inference, including definition and distribution of sample proportions, simulations and
confidence intervals:
 distinction between a population parameter and a sample statistic and the use of the sample statistic
to estimate the population parameter
 simulation of random sampling, for a variety of values of 𝑝 and a range of sample sizes, to illustrate
the distribution of 𝑃̂ and variations in confidence intervals between samples
𝑋
 concept of the sample proportion 𝑃̂ = 𝑛 as a random variable whose value varies between samples,
where 𝑋 is a binomial random variable which is associated with the number of items that have a
particular characteristic and 𝑛 is the sample size

 approximate normality of the distribution of 𝑃̂ for large samples and, for such a situation, the mean
𝑝(1−𝑝)
𝑝 (the population proportion) and standard deviation, √ 𝑛
 determination and interpretation of, from a large sample, an approximate confidence interval
𝑝̂ (1−𝑝̂ ) 𝑝̂ (1−𝑝̂)
(𝑝̂ − 𝑧√ , 𝑝̂ + 𝑧√ ), for a population proportion where 𝑧 is the appropriate quantile for the
𝑛 𝑛

standard normal distribution, in particular the 95% confidence interval as an example of such an
interval where 𝑧 ≈ 1.96 (the term standard error may be used but is not required).

Outcomes
For each unit the student is required to demonstrate achievement of three outcomes. As a set these
outcomes encompass all of the areas of study for each unit. For each of Unit 3 and Unit 4 the outcomes as
a set apply to the content from the areas of study covered in that unit.

Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to define and explain key concepts as specified in the
content from the areas of study and apply a range of related mathematical routines and procedures.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills outlined in all the areas of
study.

Key knowledge
 the key features and properties of a function or relation and its graph and of families of functions and
relations and their graphs
 the effect of transformations on the graphs of a function or relation
 representations of points and transformations of the plane
 the concepts of domain, maximal domain, range and asymptotic behaviour of functions
 the concept of an inverse function, connection between domain and range of the original function and
its inverse relation and the conditions for existence of an inverse function, including the form of the
graph of the inverse function for specified functions

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 the concept of combined functions, and the connection between domain and range of the functions
involved and the domain and range of the combined functions
 the features which enable the recognition of general forms of possible models for data presented in
graphical or tabular form
 exponent laws and logarithm laws
 analytical, graphical and numerical approaches to solving equations and the nature of corresponding
solutions (real, exact or approximate) and the effect of domain restrictions
 features which link the graph of a function to the graph of the corresponding gradient function or its
numerical values, the tangent to a curve at a given point and how the sign and magnitude of the
derivative of a function can be used to describe key features of the function and its derivative function
 the sum, difference, chain, product and quotient rules for differentiation
 the properties of anti-derivatives and definite integrals
 the concept of approximation to the area under a curve using the trapezium rule, the ideas underlying
the fundamental theorem of calculus and the relationship between the definite integral and area
 the concepts of a random variable (discrete and continuous), Bernoulli trials and probability distributions,
the parameters used to define a distribution and properties of probability distributions and their graphs
 the conditions under which a Bernoulli trial or a probability distribution may be selected to suitably model
various situations
 the definition of sample proportion as a random variable and key features of the distribution of sample
proportions
 the concept of confidence intervals for proportions, variation in confidence intervals between samples
and confidence intervals for estimates

Key skills
 identify key features and properties of the graph of a function or relation and draw the graphs of specified
functions and relations, clearly identifying their key features and properties, including any vertical or
horizontal asymptotes
 describe the effect of transformations on the graphs of a function or relation
 find the rule of an inverse function and give its domain and range
 find the rule of a composite function and give its domain and range
sketch by hand graphs of polynomial functions up to degree 4; simple power functions, y  x where
n


 1,  ,  0,1 and 1,a  ); log e  x  ; log10  x 

n  N , y  a x , (using key points  1
; and simple transformations
 a

of these
 apply a range of analytical, graphical and numerical processes (including the algorithm for Newton’s
method), as appropriate, to obtain general and specific solutions (exact or approximate) to equations
(including literal equations) over a given domain and be able to verify solutions to a particular equation
or equations over a given domain
 solve by hand equations of the form sin(ax  b)  c , cos(ax  b)  c and tan(ax  b)  c with exact value
solutions over a given interval
 apply algebraic, logarithmic and circular function properties to the simplification of expressions and the
solution of equations
 evaluate derivatives of basic, transformed and combined functions and apply differentiation to curve
sketching and related optimisation problems
 find derivatives of polynomial functions and power functions, functions of the form f  ax  b  where f is
x n , for n Q , sine, cosine; tangent, e x , or log e  x  and simple linear combinations of these, using pattern
recognition, or by hand
 apply the product, chain and quotient rules for differentiation to simple combinations of functions by hand
 find derivatives of basic and more complicated functions and apply differentiation to curve sketching and
optimisation problems

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 find anti-derivatives of polynomial functions and power functions, functions of the form f  ax  b  where
f is x n , for n Q , e x , sine or cosine, and simple linear combinations of these, using pattern recognition,
or by hand
 evaluate approximations to the area under a curve using the trapezium rule, find and verify anti-
derivatives of specified functions and evaluate definite integrals
 apply definite integrals to the evaluation of the area under a curve and between curves over a specified
interval
 analyse a probability mass function or probability density function and the shape of its graph in terms of
the defining parameters for the probability distribution and the mean and variance of the probability
distribution
 calculate and interpret the probabilities of various events associated with a given probability distribution,
by hand in cases where simple arithmetic computations can be carried out
 apply probability distributions to modelling and solving related problems
 simulate repeated random sampling and interpret the results, for a variety of population proportions and a
range of sample sizes, to illustrate the distribution of sample proportions and variations in confidence
intervals
 calculate sample proportions and approximate confidence intervals for population proportions

Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to apply mathematical processes in non-routine
contexts, including situations with some open-ended aspects requiring investigative, modelling or problem-
solving techniques or approaches, and analyse and discuss these applications of mathematics.
To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills outlined in all the areas of
study.

Key knowledge
 key mathematical content from one or more areas of study related to a given context
 specific and general formulations of concepts used to derive results for analysis within a given context
 the role of examples, counter-examples and general cases in working mathematically
 key elements of algorithm design, including sequencing, decision-making and repetition, and
representations of the ordered steps for an algorithm including through the use of pseudocode
 inferences from analysis and their use to draw valid conclusions related to a given context

Key skills
 specify the relevance of key mathematical content from one or more areas of study to the investigation of
various questions in a given context
 identify important information, variables, constraints and other key features to the investigation of various
questions in a given context
 develop mathematical formulations of specific and general cases used to derive results for analysis within
a given context
 use algorithms, patterns, models and simulation to solve problems related to a given context
 use a variety of techniques to verify results
 make inferences from analysis and use these to draw valid conclusions related to a given context
 communicate results and conclusions using both mathematical expression and everyday language, in
particular, the interpretation of mathematics with respect to the context

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Outcome 3
On completion of this unit the student should be able to apply computational thinking and use numerical,
graphical, symbolic and statistical functionalities of technology to develop mathematical ideas, produce
results and carry out analysis in situations requiring investigative, modelling or problem-solving techniques
or approaches.
To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills outlined in all the areas of
study.

Key knowledge
 the role of computational thinking (abstraction, decomposition, pattern and algorithm) in problem-solving,
and its application to mathematical investigation
 exact and approximate specification of mathematical information such as numerical data, graphical
forms and general or specific forms of solutions of equations produced by use of technology
 domain and range requirements for specification of graphs of functions and relations when using
technology
 the role of parameters in specifying general forms of functions and equations
 the relation between numerical, graphical and symbolic forms of information about functions and
equations and the corresponding features of those functions and equations
 the similarities and differences between formal mathematical expressions and their representation by
technology
 the purpose and effect of sequencing, decision-making and repetition statements on relevant
functionalities of technology, and their role in the design of algorithms and simulations
 the appropriate functionality of technology for a variety of mathematical contexts

Key skills
 use computational thinking, algorithms, models and simulations to solve problems related to a given
context
 distinguish between exact and approximate presentations of mathematical results produced by
technology, and interpret these results to a specified degree of accuracy
 use technology to carry out numerical, graphical and symbolic computation as applicable
 produce results, using technology, which identify examples or counter-examples for propositions
 produce tables of values, families of graphs and collections of other results using technology, which
support general analysis in investigative, modelling and problem-solving contexts
 use appropriate domain and range specifications to illustrate key features of graphs of functions and
relations
 identify the relation between numerical, graphical and symbolic forms of information about functions and
equations, and the corresponding features of those functions and equations
 specify the similarities and differences between formal mathematical expressions and their representation
by technology, in particular, equivalent forms of symbolic expressions
 select an appropriate functionality of technology in a variety of mathematical contexts and provide a
rationale for these selections
 design and implement simulations and algorithms using appropriate functionalities of technology
 apply suitable constraints and conditions, as applicable, to carry out required computations
 relate the results from a particular technology application to the nature of a particular mathematical task
(investigative, modelling, or problem-solving) and verify these results
 specify the process used to develop a solution to a problem using technology and communicate the key
stages of mathematical reasoning (formulation, solution, interpretation) used in this process

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School-based assessment
Satisfactory completion
The award of satisfactory completion for a unit is based on whether the student has demonstrated the set of
outcomes specified for the unit. Teachers should use a variety of learning activities and assessment tasks to
provide a range of opportunities for students to demonstrate the key knowledge and key skills in the
outcomes.

The areas of study and key knowledge and key skills listed for the outcomes should be used for course
design and the development of learning activities and assessment tasks.

Assessment of levels of achievement

The student’s level of achievement for Units 3 and 4 will be determined by School-assessed Coursework.
School-assessed Coursework tasks must be a part of the regular teaching and learning program and must
not unduly add to the workload associated with that program. They must be completed mainly in class and
within a limited timeframe.
Where teachers provide a range of options for the same School-assessed Coursework task, they should
ensure that the options are of comparable scope and demand.

The types and range of forms of School-assessed Coursework for the outcomes are prescribed within the
study design. The VCAA publishes Support materials for this study, which includes advice on the design of
assessment tasks and the assessment of student work for a level of achievement.
Teachers will provide to the VCAA a numerical score representing an assessment of the student’s level of
achievement. The score must be based on the teacher’s assessment of the performance of each student on
the tasks set out in the following table.

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Contribution to final assessment

School-assessed Coursework for Unit 3 will contribute 20 per cent to the study score.

Unit 3

Outcomes Marks allocated Assessment task

Outcome 1
Define and explain key concepts as specified in 15 Application task
the content from the areas of study and apply a A function and calculus-based mathematical
range of related mathematical routines and investigation of a practical or theoretical context
procedures. involving content from two or more areas of study,
Outcome 2 with the following three components of increasing
complexity:
Apply mathematical processes in non-routine 20
contexts, including situations with some open-  introduction of the context through specific cases
ended aspects requiring investigative, modelling or examples
or problem-solving techniques or approaches,  consideration of general features of the context
and analyse and discuss these applications of  variation or further specification of assumption or
mathematics. conditions involved in the context to focus on a
Outcome 3 particular feature or aspect related to the context.

Apply computational thinking and use numerical, 15

graphical, symbolic and statistical functionalities
of technology to develop mathematical ideas,
produce results and carry out analysis in
situations requiring investigative, modelling or
problem-solving techniques or approaches.

The application task is to be of 4–6 hours’ duration over

Total marks 50
a period of 1–2 weeks.

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School-assessed Coursework for Unit 4 will contribute 20 per cent to the study score.

Unit 4

Outcomes Marks allocated Assessment tasks

Outcome 1 15 8 Modelling or problem-solving task 1

Define and explain key concepts as specified in 7 Modelling or problem-solving task 2
the content from the areas of study and apply a
range of related mathematical routines and
procedures.

Outcome 2 20 10 Modelling or problem-solving task 1

Apply mathematical processes in non-routine 10 Modelling or problem-solving task 2
contexts, including situations with some open-
ended aspects requiring investigative, modelling
or problem-solving techniques or approaches,
and analyse and discuss these applications of
mathematics.

Outcome 3 15 7 Modelling or problem-solving task 1

Apply computational thinking and use numerical, 8 Modelling or problem-solving task 2
graphical, symbolic and statistical functionalities
of technology to develop mathematical ideas,
produce results and carry out analysis in
situations requiring investigative, modelling or
problem-solving techniques or approaches.

Total marks 50 One of the modelling or problem-solving tasks is to

address the Data analysis, probability and statistics
area of study.
Each modelling or problem-solving task is to be of
2–3 hours’ duration over a period of 1 week.

External assessment
The level of achievement for Units 3 and 4 is also assessed by two end-of-year examinations.

Contribution to final assessment

Examination 1 will contribute 20 per cent to the study score and Examination 2 will contribute 40 per cent to
the study score.

End-of-year examinations

Description
The examinations will be set by a panel appointed by the VCAA. All of the content from the areas of study
and the key knowledge and key skills that underpin the outcomes in Units 3 and 4 are examinable.

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Examination 1
This examination comprises short-answer and some extended-answer questions covering all areas of study
in relation to Outcome 1. It is designed to assess students’ knowledge of mathematical concepts, their skills
in carrying out mathematical algorithms without the use of technology and their ability to apply concepts and
skills.

Conditions
The examination will be completed under the following conditions:
 Duration: 1 hour.
 No technology (calculators or software) or notes of any kind are permitted. A sheet of formulas will be
provided with the examination.
 Date: end-of-year, on a date to be published annually by the VCAA.
 VCAA examination rules will apply. Details of these rules are published annually in the VCE
Administrative Handbook.
 The examination will be marked by assessors appointed by the VCAA.

Examination 2
This examination comprises multiple-choice questions and extended-answer questions covering all areas of
the study in relation to all three outcomes, with an emphasis on Outcome 2. The examination is designed to
assess students’ ability to understand and communicate mathematical ideas, and to interpret, analyse and
solve both routine and non-routine problems.

Conditions
The examination will be completed under the following conditions:
 Duration: 2 hours.
 Student access to an approved technology with numerical, graphical, symbolic and statistical functionality
will be assumed.
 One bound reference text (which may be annotated) or lecture pad may be brought into the examination.
 Date: end-of-year, on a date to be published annually by the VCAA.
 VCAA examination rules will apply. Details of these rules are published annually in the VCE
Administrative Handbook.
 The examination will be marked by assessors appointed by the VCAA.

Further advice
The VCAA publishes specifications for all VCE examinations on the VCAA website. Examination
specifications include details about the sections of the examination, their weighting, the question format(s)
and any other essential information. The specifications are published in the first year of implementation of the
revised Unit 3 and 4 sequence together with any sample material.

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