Module – IV

Sensors and transducers:

Transducers: A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal is
called a transducer.
The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency. A transducer uses many
effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from one form to other is
called transduction. A transducer is also called “Pick up”.
Actually electrical transducer consists of two parts which are every closely related to each other.
These two parts are sensing or detecting element and transduction element. The sensing or
detecting element is commonly known as sensor.
Sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a change in physical condition.
The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an electrical output, as shown in
Fig.

The common range of an electrical signal used to represent analog signal in the industrial
environment is 0 to 5V or 4 to 20mA. A current of 4 mA represents a zero output and current of
20mA represents a full scale value i.e 5V in case of voltage representation.
Many times the transducers is a part of a circuit and works with other elements of that circuit to
produce the required output. Such a circuit is called signal conditioning circuit.

Classification of transducers:

Basically there are two types of transducers namely electrical and mechanical transducers.
Mechanical Transducers: are those primary sensing elements that respond to changes in the physical
condition of a system and gives output in different form. Mechanical transducers are distinguished
from the electrical transducers on the basis of the output signal generated.
Electrical Transducers: Responds to non-electrical quantities but generate output signal which is
electrical by nature. It is practically always possible to use either mechanical or electrical transducer
for the measurement of any physical parameter. But it is observed that for each measurand, an
electrical transducers are preferred over the mechanical transducers.

In general the electrical transducers are classified according to their structures, application area,
method of energy conversion, output signal nature etc. thus the electrical transducers are classified.
i) As active and passive transducers
ii) on the basis of transduction principle used
iii) as analog and digital transducers
iv) as primary and secondary transducers and
v) as transducer and inverse transducer
Advantages of Electrical transducers are:

1.​ Electrical signals can be easily attenuated or amplified and can be brought upto a level
suitable for various devices, with the help of static devices FGK.
2.​ The power requirement of transducers is very small. The electrical systems can be controlled
with a small level of power.
3.​ The electrical output of the transducers can be easily used, transmitted and processed for
the purpose of measurement.
4.​ The reduced effects of friction and other mechanical nonlinearities.
5.​ Due to the integrated circuit technology, the electrical and electronic systems are compact,
having less weight and portable.
6.​ The data transmission through mechanical means is eliminated. Thus no mechanical wear
and tear and no possibility of mechanical failures exist.
7.​ The reduced effects of mass inertia problems.

Characteristics of transducers:

1.​ Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted
standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being measured.
2.​ Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads. It
should have overload protection.
3.​ Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input quantity
under measurement. It should have linear input – output characteristic.
4.​ Repeatability : The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same
environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.
5.​ High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can be easily
processed and measured.
6.​ High Stability and Reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly stable and
reliable so that there will be minimum error in measurement. (it should not be effected by
any environmental conditions such as temp or pressure)
7.​ Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical output
obtained per unit charge in the physical parameter of the input quantity.
8.​ Dynamic range: For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it can be used
over a wide range of measurement conditions.
9.​ Size: The transducer should have smallest possible size and shape with minimal weight and
volume. This will make the measurement system very compact.
10.​Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to changes in the
measured quantity. The response speed should be high.

Transducer Selection Factors:

There are so many kinds of transducers available picking the right transducer for a given
measurement application involves considering the transducers characteristics, desired system
performance, and input requirements.
1. Nature of Measurement:The selection of transducer will naturally depends upon the nature of
quantity to be measured. For eg. For temperature measurement temperature sensors will be used.
2. Loading Effect: The transducer is selected to have minimum loading effect to keep the errors to
minimum.
3. Environmental Considerations: A careful study should be made of the conditions under which a
transducer is expected to give satisfactory output. The aspects of the transducer location are the
temperature changes, shock and vibration and electromagnetic interface.
4. Measuring System Compatibility: The transducer selected and the electrical system used for
measurement should be compatible. The output impedance of the transducer and the impedance
imposed by the measuring system must be such that one does not adversely affect the other.
5. Cost and Availability: General factors involved in selection are cost, availability, basic simplicity,
reliability, and how maintenance.
Resistive Transducers:

In general, the resistance of a metal conductor is given by:

𝐿
𝑅= 𝐴

​ Where ρ= resistivity of conductor (Ωm)

​ ​ L = length of conductor (m)
​ ​ A = Area of cross section of conductor (m2)
The electrical resistive transducers are designed on the basis of the methods of variation of any one
of the quantities in above equation; such as change in length, change in area of cross section and
change in density.

The resistive transducers can be used either as primary or secondary transducers. The methods
based on measurement of the resistance change are most widely used in various industrial
applications as:

1)​ Both a.c and d.c voltages and currents are suitable for the measurement of resistance
change.
2)​ The speed of response of the resistive transducers is high.
3)​ They are available in various sizes with wide range of resistance value.
4)​ High resolution in measurements can be achieved as large variety of electrical circuits are
available.

The resistance change due to the change in the length of the conductor is used in translational or
rotational potentiometers are measure linear or rotational displacement.
The change in resistance of conductor or semiconductor due to the strain applied is the working
principle of the strain gauge which is used to measure various physical such as pressure,
displacement and force.
The change in resistivity of conductor due to the temperature variations causes change in resistance.
This principle is used to measure temperature.

i) Potentiometric Resistance Transducers:

It is generally used to measure linear or angular displacement. A resistance potentiometer consists a

wire wound resistive element along with a sliding contact which is called as wiper.
A wire is made up of plantinum or nickel alloy with diameter as small as 0.01 mm.
The resistive element is made up of cement, hot moulded carbon or carbon film.
The wire is wound on an insulating former. The linear and rotary potentiometer is shown in figure.
Using resistance potentiometers mechanical displacement is converted in to electrical output.
Linear and angular displacement is applied to the sliding contact and then corresponding change in
resistance is converted into voltage or current.
To measure combination of linear and angular motion, the helipots are used. As the resistive
element in such potentiometer is in the form of helix, so it is called helipot.
Advantages and disadvantages:

1)​ Simple in construction and operation

2)​ Best suitable for measurements in the systems with least requirements.
3)​ High electrical efficiency and provides sufficient output for further control operations.
4)​ Useful for displacement measurements of large amplitudes.
5)​ Cost is less.

Disadvantages:

1)​ In linear potentiometers, large force is required to move a wiper.

2)​ Suffer from mechanical wear and misalignment of wiper.
3)​ Limited resolution and high electronic noise in output.

ii) Strain Gauge Transducers:

The strain gauge is a passive transducer which converts a mechanical displacement into a change of
resistance. It is a thin wafer-like device that can be attached to a variety of materials to measure the
applied strain. Metallic strain gauges are manufactured from small diameter resistance wire or thin
foil sheets of constantan, which is the trade name of copper-nickel alloy of 60% copper and 40%
nickel. The resistance of the wire or metal foil changes with the length as the material to which the
gauge is attached undergoes tension or compression. This change in the resistance of the of the wire
or foil is proportional to the applied strain and is measured with a special Wheatstone bridge.

The strain is defined as the change (Δl) in length (l) per unit length and is expressed as 𝑙/𝑙 in
microstrains.

Derivation of Gauge Factor:

The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic of the wire or foil known as
the gauge factor. The gauge factor of a strain gauge is defined as the ratio of the per unit change in
the resistance of the wire or foil to per unit change in its length.
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅/𝑅
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑙/𝑙
…(1) where S = Gauge factor or sensitivity ΔR = change in resistance R = resistance
of the wire Δl = change in length l = length of the wire.
Derivation: Consider that the resistance wire is under tensile stress and it is deformed by Δl as
shown in Fig.
Let ρ = specific resistance of wire material in Ω-m
L = Length of th wire in m
A = cross section of the wire in m2
When uniform stress σ is applied to this wire along the length, the resistance changes to R+ΔR
because of change in length and cross-sectional area.
Canceling ∂σ from both sides:

Key point : Thus for finite stress, total change in resistance is due to fractional change in length, area
and resistivity.

Now the Poisson’s ratio µfor the wire is defined as the ratio of strain in lateral direction to strain in
the axial direction.
This is also denoted as G.
In general

iii) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):

RTD is a primary electrical transducer which is used to measure the change in the temperature. It is
commonly known as resistance thermometer.

The resistance thermometers are based on the principle that the resistance of the conductor changes
when the temperature changes.

The conductor material (temperature sensing element) used in RTD should have the following
properties:

1)​ The temperature co-efficient of resistance of the material must be as large as possible so
that wide ranges of temperature can be measured.
2)​ The sensing element should not undergo permanent change with use or age.
3)​ The sensing should have the linear change in resistance with change in temperature.
4)​ Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure temperature.

The relationship between temperature and resistance of the conductor is given by equation.

Construction of RTD:

The wire resistance thermometer usually consists of a coil wound on a mica or ceramic former, as
shown in fig. The coil is wound in bifilar form so as to make it noninductive. Such coils are available
in different sizes and with different resistance values ranging from 10 ohms to 25,000 ohms.

To avoid corrosion of resistive element, usually elements are enclosed in a protective tube of pyrex
glass, porcelain, quartz or nickel, depending on the range of temperature and the nature of the fluid
whose temperature is to be measured. The tube is evacuated and sealed or filled with air or any
other inert gas and kept around atmospheric pressure or in some cased at a higher pressure.
Advantages:

1.​ The measurement is accurate.

2.​ Indicators, recorders can be directly operated.
3.​ The temperature sensor can be easily installed and replaced
4.​ Measurement of differential temperature is possible.
5.​ Resistance thermometers can work over a wide range of temperature of -200oC to +650oC.
6.​ They are suitable for remote indication.
7.​ They are smaller in size.
8.​ They have stability over long periods of time.

Disadvantages:

1.​ A bridge circuit with external power source is necessary for their properties.
2.​ They are comparatively costly.
3.​ There is a possibility of self heating.
4.​ Large bubsize as compared to thermocouple.

iv) Thermistors:
Basically thermistor is a contraction of a word ‘thermal resistors’. The resistors depending on
temperature are thermal resistors. The resistors having negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) are
called thermistors. The resistance of a thermistor decreases as temperature increases. The
thermistors are very sensitive and can detect very small changes in temperature too.
Construction:
Thermistors are composed of a sintered mixture of metallic oxides, such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. Their resistance at ambient temperature may range from 100 Ω to
100 kΩ. Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes as shown in fig.

They are widely used for measurements in the temperature range -100oC to +200oC . The
measurement of the change in resistance with temperature is carried out with a Wheatstone bridge.

Resistance temperature characteristics:

The mathematical relationship according to which resistance of thermistor behaves as temperature is
given by:
The equation consists of an exponential term and shows that it is highly nonlinear in nature. It has
high negative temperature coefficient characteristics. The resistance temperature characteristics of a
thermistor is shown in fig.

v) Pressure sensors:

Pressure is basically a physical parameter encountered in many fields. It is defined as the force acting
per unit area measured at a given point or over a surface.

Most pressure measuring devices use elastic members for sensing pressure at the primary stage.
These elastic members are of amny types and converts the pressure into mechanical displacement
which is later converted into an electrical form using a secondary transducer.

Principle of working:

The fluids or gas whose pressure is to be measured is made to press the pressure sensitive element
and since the element is an elastic member, it deflects causing a mechanical displacement. The
displacement is proportional to the pressure applied. The displacement is then measured with the
help of electrical transducers. The output of the electrical transducer is proportional to the
displacement and hence to the applied input pressure. The commonly used sensitive devices are:

a)​ Diaphragms b) Capsules c) Bourdon tube d) Bellows

Inductive transducers:

Inductive transducer is a simple and most popular type of displacement transducers in which
variation of inductance as a function of displacement is achieved by variation in self inductance or
mutual inductance.
In general the value of self inductance of an inductor is given by L = N2/S
Where, N = Number of coil S = Reluctance of the coil (A/Wb)
But reluctance S is given by S = l/µa
Hence self inductance L is given by L = N2µa/l
Where N = number of turns of coil
µ= permeability of core (H/m)
a = area of magnetic circuit through which flux is passing (m2)
l = length of the magnetic circuit (m)
Thus the variation in the self inductance may be due to
i)​ Change in number of turns
ii)​Change in reluctance
iii)​ Change in permeability.
The mutual inductance between two coils is given by

Where M = mutual inductance between two coils

k = coefficient of coupling.
The mutual inductance between two coils can be varied by varying either self inductances of the coils
or coefficient of coupling.
In general, inductive transducers are used for the measurement of physical quantities such as
displacement, force, pressure, velocity, position, vibration etc.
i) Self inductance transducer (Number of turns):
From the expression of the self inductance it is clear that L is directly proportional to N2. This
property can be used to measure linear as well as angular displacement as shown in fig.

In both the cases, as number of turns changes, the value of self inductance changes and hence the
output voltage also changes
ii) Variable permeability inductive transducer:

The value of self inductance of a coil also depends on the permeability µ. The transducer based on
variable permeability is as shown in fig.

In this transducer, the displacement to be measured is applied to the rod which moves in and out
ferrite core according to the direction of the displacement. When iron core moves in, the effective
permeability increases, when the coil moves out, the effective permeability decreases and
accordingly output voltage changes.

iii) Variable reluctance inductive transducer:

The self inductance L is inversely proportional to the reluctance S. A variable reluctance type
inductive transducer is as shown in fig. It is a self generating type transducer.

A coil is wound by C shaped ferromagnetic core with a target plate placed above the core with a
small air gap.
The size of air gap determines the reluctance of the magnetic circuit which inturn decides the self
inductance.
The displacement which is to be measured is applied to the target plate. As the displacement moves,
the target plate moves which changes the air gap and hence the self inductance changes and also
output changes.

iv) Eddy current type inductive transducer:

An eddy current type inductive transducer is shown in fig. it is self generating type transducer.

A non ferrous plate moves in a direction perpendicular to the lines of flux of a magnet. The eddy
currents are generated in a plate which are proportional to the velocity of the plate. Thus output is
proportional to the change in eddy current or the acceleration of the plate. As the air gap between
the magnet and the plate remains constant, the transducer characteristics are linear.

V) Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT):

The LVDT transducer is the most widely used inductive transducer to measure force in terms of the
displacement of the core of the transformer. The very fine resolution, high accuracy and good
stability make LVDT most suitable as a position – measuring device. LVDT forms the basic sensing
element in the measurement of pressure, load, and acceleration. It is also a basic element of
electronic comparators, thickness – measuring units, and level indicators.

Construction and working of LVDT:

As illustrated in the fig, the linear variable differential transformer consists of a single primary
winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former.
Both secondaries have equal number of turns but they are connected in series opposition so that the
emf induced in the coils oppose each other.
The primary winding is connected to an ac source, whose frequency range from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
A movable soft iron core slides inside the hollow former. The position of the movable core
determines the flux linkage between the primary and two secondary windings.
The core made up of nickel-iron alloy. The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm
attached to the core.
When the core is at centre position the induced emfs in the secondaries are equal and since they
oppose each other, the output voltage will be zero volt.
When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, the more flux links the
secondary coil S1 (left hand coil) than S2. The emf Es1 induced in S1 is more than emf Es2 induced in S2.
The magnitude of output voltage is than equal to Es1 – Es2 and it is in phase with Es1.
When an externally applied force moves the core to the right-hand position, the more flux links the
secondary coil S2 (right hand coil) than S1. The emf Es2 induced in S2 is more than emf Es1 induced in
S1. The magnitude of output voltage is than equal to Es1 – Es2 and it is in phase with Es2.
Therefore the amplitude of the output voltage is a function of the distance the core moves, while the
polarity or phase indicates the direction of the motion.
Advantages:

1.​ Linearity: The output voltage of LVDT is almost linear for displacement upto 5 mm.
2.​ Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is continuous, stepless.
3.​ High output: LVDT gives reasonably high output and hence requires less amplification
afterwards.
4.​ High sensitivity: about 300mV/mm
5.​ Ruggedness : it is mechanically rugged and can withstand mechanical shock and vibrations.
6.​ Less friction: no sliding contact and friction is less.
7.​ Low hysteresis: hence its repeatability is extremely good under all conditions.
8.​ Low power consumption: consumes less than 1 W of power.
 9.​ They are small, light in weight. They are stable and easy to align and maintain.

Disadvantages:

1.​ Comparatively large displacements are necessary for appreciable differential output.
2.​ They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
3.​ The dynamic response is limited by the mass of the core.
4.​ Temperature affects the transducer.

Applications of LVDT:

1.​ It can be used in all applications where displacement is to be measured.

2.​ Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used to measure force, weight, and pressure
etc.

Capacitive Transducer:
The capacitive transducers work on the fundamental principle of electrical capacitance. The
capacitance C of a system depends on the dielectric medium used and properties of a capacitive
system.
The important capacitances used in the capacitance transducers are:
1. Parallel plate capacitor: The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

The arrangement is shown in the fig. by using simple methods, the capacitance of the capacitor can
be varied and change in its value can be used for transduction in a transducer.

2. Composite capacitor:
This capacitance consists of more than one dielectric medium in between the plates as shown in fig.
It consists of three layers of dielectrics having relative permittivity’s ε1, ε2 and ε3. The layers having
thicknesses d1, d2 and d3. The capacitance of a system is given by

The system creates the effect of three capacitance connected in series.

3. Cylindrical capacitor:
In this system, the plates are cylindrical separated by a dielectric as ashown in the Fig
Let r = outer radius of inner cylinder R = Inner radius of outer cylinder
Then its capacitance is given by,

And l is length of the cylinders.

i) Capacitance type level meter:

The capacitive transducer using the method of change in dielectric is used for the measurement of
the liquid levels.

It uses concentric cylinder capacitor. The two plates are cylindrical using the dielectric material with
a permittivity ε1. Most of the times, this dielectric is an air with εr = 1 and ε= εo. The outer cylinder
plates have holes at the bottom through which passage of liquid is possible between the plates.
Let r = outer radius of inner cylinder R = inner radius of inner cylinder
d = height of tank d2 = level of liquid in tank ε2 = permittivity of
liquid
As the liquid level d2 changes the composite capacitor formed experiences changes in its value. The
value of the capacitance is given by

ii) Capacitive pressure transducer:

The capacitive pressure transducer is based on the principle that when the distance between the two
parallel plates changes, capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor changes. The capacitive pressure
transducer is a shown in the fig.

In capacitive pressure transducer diaphragm acts as one of the plates of a two plate while other plate
is fixed. These two plates are separated by a dielectric material.
When the pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it changes its position from initial position. Due to
this the distance between the two plates changes, hence the capacitance also changes. The change
in the capacitance can be measured by using any simple a.c. bridge or any oscillator circuit. In this
way, by using capacitive transducer, applied force can be measured interms of change in the
capacitance.

Advantages :
1.​ The force requirement is very small, hence the power required to operate is small and very
useful in small systems.
2.​ They are highly sensitive.
3.​ They have good frequency response and very high input impedance, so loading effects are
minimum.

Disadvantages:
1.​ Proper insulation is required between the metallic parts of the capacitive transducers.
2.​ The stray capacitances affect the performance of the transducer.
3.​ Due to long leads and the cables used, loading effect makes low frequency response poor
and reduces sensitivity.