Module – II

Extension of instrument ranges:

The instrument which measures current flowing in the circuit is called Ammeter.
The instrument which measures the voltage across any two points of a circuit is called voltmeter.
But there is no fundamental difference in the operating principle of analog voltmeter and Ammeter.
The action of analog ammeter and voltmeters depends on the deflecting torque produced by an
electric current.
Thus all the analog ammeter and voltmeters are basically current measuring devices.

Principle: Practically both ammeters and voltmeters are designed based on the principle called
D’Arsonval principle. “It states that, when a current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field
produced by the permanent magnet, the coil experiences a force and moves. The movement of
moving coil is proportional to the current passing through it”. Hence pointer is attached to the coil
which shows the deflection on a scale is proportional to the current through coil. While current
through the coil is proportional to the quantity to be measured. Such instruments are called
permanent magnetic moving coil (PMMC) instruments.

The coils used in such instruments are light, small and delicate. Hence it is necessary to protect these
coils from very high current. Thus in practice shunts and multipliers are required.

i) Basic [Link]:

[Link]

[Link]

[Link] single and multirange ammeter

The basic d.c. ammeter is nothing but a D’Arsonval galvanometer.

The coil winding of a basic movement is very small and light and hence it can carry very small current.
So for large currents, the major part of current is required to be bypassed using a resistance called
shunt.
Calculating the shunt resistance:
Let Rm = Internal resistance of coil Rsh = Shunt resistance Im = Full scale deflection current
Ish = shunt current I = Total current
Now I = Ish + Im As Rsh|| Rm voltage drop across them is same
Ish Rsh = ImRm
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
Rsh = 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚
But Ish = I – Im Rsh = 𝐼−𝐼𝑚
Rsh = 𝐼−𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼
−1
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚

𝐼 𝑅
where 𝐼 =m Rsh = 𝑚−1
𝑚
…..(1)
𝑚
‘m’ is called multiplying power of the shunt and defined as the ration of total current (I) to the current
through the coil (Im)
 𝐼 𝑅𝑚
m= =1+ using equation (1)
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠ℎ

Problem:
1) A 2mA meter with an internal resistance of 100Ω is to be converted to 0 – 150 mA ammeter.
Calculate the value of the shunt required.
Given values are:
Rm = 100Ω Rsh = Shunt resistance Im = 2 mA , I = 150 mA

2𝑥10−3 𝑥100
Rsh = Im Rm/(I – Im) 150𝑥10−3 −2𝑥10−3
= 1.351Ω

Problem:
2) A Moving coil ammeter has fixed shunt of 0.01Ω with a coil resistance of 750 Ω and a voltage drop
of 400 mV across it, the full scale deflection is obtained.
a) Calculate the current through shunt.
b) Calculate the resistance of meter to give full scale deflection if the shunted current is 50A.

Solution :
a) The drop across the shunt is same as drop across the coil
Ish Rsh = 400mV
400𝑥10−3
Ish = 0.01
= 40A
b) The voltage across shunt for shunted current of 50 A is
vsh = IshRsh = 50 x 0.01 = 0.5 V
For this voltage the meter should give full scale deflection.

In the first case, the current through the meter for full scale deflection was,
400𝑚𝑉 400𝑥10−3
𝐼𝑚 = = = 5.33𝑥10−4 𝐴
𝑅𝑚 750
The new voltage across the meter is 0.5V
ImRm’ = 0.5V 5.33𝑥10−4 𝐴 Rm’ = 0.5V
′
0.5
𝑅𝑚 = = 937Ω
5.33𝑥10−4 𝐴

Mutlirange Ammeter:

The range of the basic [Link] can be extended by using number of shunts and a selector switch.
Such a meter is called “multirange ammeter”.
• Registers R1, R2, R3 and R4 are four shunts, when connected in parallel with the meter, they
can give four different ranges I1, I2, I3 and I4.
• The selector switch S is multiposition switch, having low contact resistance and high current
carrying capacity. The make before break type switch is used for the range changing.
 • The multirange ammeters are used for the ranger upto 50A. While using the multirange
ammeter highest range should be used first and the current range should be decreased till
good upscale reading is obtained.
• At the shunts are very precise resistance and hence cost of such multirange ammeter is high.

About switch: If the ordinary switch is used, while changing the range, if switch remains open and full
current passes through the meter. The meter, may get damaged due to high current. So make before
break switch is used.
Mathematical Analysis:
Basic D.C ammeter is equally applicable to such multirange ammeter. Thus
R1 = Rm/m1 -1 R2 = Rm/m2 -1 ….. Rm / mn - 1
Where m1, m2 … m3 are the shunt multiplying powers for the currents I1, I2, I3… In.

Problem:
Design a multirange D.C multimeter with a basic meter having resistance 75Ω and full scale deflection
for the current of 2 mA. The required ranges are 0-10mA, 0-50mA and 0-100mA.

Solution: The first range is 0 – 10mA

I1 = 10 mA
While Im = 2 mA and Rm = 75Ω
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 2×75
R1 = 𝐼1 −𝐼𝑚
= (10−2) = 18.75Ω

• The second range is 0 – 50 mA

I2 = 50 mA
While Im = 2 mA and Rm = 75Ω
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 2×75
R2 = 𝐼2 −𝐼𝑚
= (50−2) = 3.125Ω
• The third range is 0 – 100 mA
I3 = 100 mA
While Im = 2 mA and Rm = 75Ω
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 2×75
R3 = 𝐼3 −𝐼𝑚
= (100−2) = 1.53Ω

Precautions to be taken while using an ammeter:

1) As the ammeter resistance is very low, it should never be connected across any source of e.m.f
(parallel). Always connect an ammeter in series with the load.
2) The polarities must be observed correctly. The opposite polarities deflect the pointer in
opposite direction against the mechanical stop and this may damage the pointer.
3) While using multirange ammeter, first use the highest current range and then decrease the
current until sufficient deflection is obtained. So to increase the accuracy, finally select the
range which will give the reading near full scale deflection.

Requirements of shunt:

1. The temperature coefficient of shunt and the meter should be low and should be as equal as
possible.
2. The shunt resistance should be stable and constant with time.
3. The shunt resistance should not carry currents which will causes excessive temperature rise.
4. The type of material used to join the shunts should have low thermo dielectric voltage drop
i.e the soldering of joints should not cause a voltage drop.
5. Due to the soldering the values of resistance should not be change.
6. The resistance should have low thermal electromotive force with copper.

The manganin is used for shunts of d.c instruments.

The constantan is used for shunts of a.c. instruments.
Basic [Link]:

The basic d.c. voltmeter is nothing but a PMMC D’Arsonoval galvanometer.

The resistance is required to be connected in series with the basic meter to use it as a voltmeter. This
resistance is called a multiplier.
The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the basic meter so that the meter current
does not exceed the full-scale deflection value.
The voltmeter measures the voltage across the two points of a circuit or a voltage across a circuit
component.
The multiplier resistance can be calculated as:
Let Rm = Internal resistance of coil Rs = Series multiplier resistance Im = Full scale deflection
current V = Full range voltage to be measured.
 V = Im(Rm + Rs)
V = ImRm + ImRs
ImRs = V – ImRm
 Rs = V – ImRm / Im = V/Im – Rm
‘m’ the multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of full range voltage to be measured and the voltage
drop across the basic meter.
Let v = Drop across the basic meter
v = ImRm
 m = V/v = Im(Rm +Rs) / ImRm = ImRm + ImRs/ ImRm = ImRm/ ImRm + ImRs/ImRm
m = 1+ Rs/Rm
 Rs = (m – 1) Rm

Problem:
A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection for a current of 20mA with a potential difference
of 200mV across it. Calculate :
i) Shunt required to use it as an ammeter to get a range of 0 – 200mA
ii) Multiplier required to use it as a voltmeter of range 0 – 500V.

Solution:
The meter current : Im = 20mA
Drop across meter: Vm = 200mV
Now Vm = ImRm = 200mV = (20mA)Rm Rm = 10Ω.

i) For using it as an ammeter, I = 200mA

20𝑥10−3 𝑥10
Rsh = Im Rm/(I – Im) = 0.001Ω
200𝑥10−3 −2𝑥10−3

ii) For using it as a voltmeter:

Rs = V/Im – Rm = (500/20x10-3)-10 = 24.99kΩ

Problem 2: A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with a current of 40µA. While the
internal resistance of the meter is 500Ω. It is to be used as a voltmeter to measure a voltage range of
0 – 10V, calculate the multiple resistance needed.

Solution:
Given values are Rm = 500Ω, Im = 40µA and V = 10V
Rs = V/Im – Rm = (10/40x10-6)-500 = 249.5kΩ
Multirange Voltmeter:

The range of the basic d.c. voltmeter can be extended by using number of multipliers and a selector
switch. Such a meter is called ‘multirange voltmeter’
The R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the four series multipliers.
When connected in series with the meter, it gives four different voltage ranges as V1, V2, V3 and V4.
By using the selector switch ‘S’ the required multiplier can be selected in the circuit.

Mathematical Analysis:
Basic d.c voltmeter is equally applicable for multirange voltmeter
Thus, R1 = V1/Im – Rm
R2 = V2/Im - Rm
Rn = Vn/Im - Rm

Practical multirange voltmeter:

In this arrangement of multirange voltmeter, multipliers are connected in series. The connection are
brought out from the junction of the resistances.
The selector switch is used to select the required range.
When the switch ‘S’ is at V1 and the resistances R1 +R2 + R3 + R4 act as a multipliers resistances.
When the switch ‘S’ is at V2 and R2 + R3 + R4 act as a multiplier resistances.
Similarly when switch ‘S’ at V3 and R3 + R4 act as a multiplier resistance.
At V4 , R4 as multiplier resistance, V4 is the lowest voltage range, V1 is the maximum voltage range.
The multiplier resistances can be calculated as :
In position V4, R4 is the only multiplier resistance. The total Resistance (RT) at this point is
RT = V4/Im R4 = RT – Rm ….(1)
V4 = Im(R4 + Rm)
 RT = R 4 + R m
In position V3 the multiplier is R3 + R4
 RT = V3/Im R3 + R4 = V3/Im since V3 = Im(R3 + R4 + Rm)
R3 + R4 = RT – Rm
 R3 = RT – (Rm + R4)….(2)
In position V2 the multiplier is R2+ R3 + R4
 RT = V2 /Im R2+ R3 + R4 = V2/Im since V2 = Im(R2 + R3 + R4 + Rm)
 R2 + R3 + R4 = RT – Rm
 R2 = Rt – (Rm + R3 +R4)….(3)
In position V1 the multiplier is R1+ R2+ R3 + R4
 RT = V1 /Im R1+ R2+ R3 + R4 = V1/Im since V1 = Im(R1+R2 + R3 + R4 + Rm)
R1+ R2 + R3 + R4 = RT – Rm
 R1 = Rt – (Rm+ R2+ R3 +R4)….(4)
Using equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) multiplier can be designed.
Problem: A basic D’Arsonoval movement with an internal resistance of 50Ω and full scale deflection
current 2mA is to be used as a multirange voltmeter. Design the series string of multipliers to obtain
the voltage ranges of 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-100V, 0-500V.

Solution: Rm = 50Ω and Im = 2 mA

• At V4 = 10V, Multiplier is R4
𝑉4 10
𝑅4 = − 𝑅𝑚 = − 50 = 4.95𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑚 2 × 10−3
• At V3 = 50V, Multiplier is R3 + R4
𝑉3 50
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = − 𝑅𝑚 ∴ 𝑅3 = − 50 − 4.95𝑘Ω = 20 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑚 2 × 10−3
• At V2 = 100V, Multiplier is R2+ R3 + R4
𝑉2 100
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = − 𝑅𝑚 ∴ 𝑅2 = − 50 − 4.95𝑘Ω − 20 𝑘Ω = 25𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑚 2 × 10−3
• At V1 = 500V, Multiplier is R1+ R2+ R3 + R4
𝑉1 500
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = − 𝑅𝑚 ∴ 𝑅1 = − 50 − 4.95𝑘Ω − 20 𝑘Ω − 25𝑘Ω = 200𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑚 2 × 10−3

Sensitivity of Voltmeter:
In a multirange voltmeter, the ratio of the total resistance RT to the voltage range remains same. This
ratio is nothing but the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the meter i.e, 1/Im. This value
is called sensitivity of the voltmeter.
Thus the sensitivity of the voltmeter is defined as

S = 1/full scale deflection current.

S = 1/ImΩ/V or kΩ/V
The internal resistance of the voltmeter is not the same in each of its ranges. The higher is the range
of the voltmeter, greater is the internal resistance. Internal resistance of a voltmeter can be obtained
from its sensitivity as,
Internal resistance of voltmeter = Maximum voltage (range) x sensitivity in Ω/V

 The sensitivity is useful in calculating the resistance of a multiplier in d.c. voltmeter.

The resistance offered/volt of full scale deflection by the multimeter is known as multimeter
sensitivity. It indicates the internal resistance of the multimeter. If the sensitivity is high it mean that
it has high internal resistance when such a meter is connected in the circuit to read voltage it will draw
less current. If the sensitivity is low it would cause series error in voltage measurement.

Consider the practical multirange voltmeter circuit shown in the fig. above

Let S = Sensitivity rating Ω/V

Rm = Internal resistance of basic meter or coil

Than the multiplier resistance can be obtained as,

R1 = V1 /Im – ( Rm+ R2+ R3 + R4 )

R1 = V1 (1/Im )– ( Rm+ R2+ R3 + R4 )
R1 = SV1 – ( Rm+ R2+ R3 + R4 )

R2 = SV2 – ( Rm +R3 + R4 )
R3 = SV3 – ( Rm+ R4 )
R4 = SV4 – ( Rm )

Where V1, V2, V3 and V4 are the required voltage ranges.

This is called as sensitivity method of calculating the multiplier resistances.

Problem:
Problem: A basic D’Arsonoval movement with an internal resistance of 50Ω and full scale deflection
current 2mA is to be used as a multirange voltmeter. Design the series string of multipliers to obtain
the voltage ranges of 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-100V, 0-500V. (Solve this by sensitivity method)

Solution: S = 1/Im = 1/ 2 x 10-3 = 500 Ω/V

Rm = 50Ω and Im = 2 mA
• At V4 = 10V, Multiplier is R4
𝑅4 = 𝑆𝑉4 − 𝑅𝑚 = 500 𝑥 10 − 50 = 4.95𝑘Ω
• At V3 = 50V, Multiplier is R3 + R4
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝑆𝑉3 − 𝑅𝑚 ∴ 𝑅3 = 𝑆𝑉3 − (𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅4 ) = 500𝑥50 − (50 + 4.95𝑘Ω) = 20 𝑘Ω
• At V2 = 100V, Multiplier is R2+ R3 + R4
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝑆𝑉3 − 𝑅𝑚 ∴ 𝑅2 = 𝑆𝑉2 − (𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅3 ) = 500𝑥100 − (50 + 4.95𝑘Ω + 20 𝑘Ω)
= 25𝑘Ω
• At V1 = 500V, Multiplier is R1+ R2+ R3 + R4
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝑆𝑉 − 𝑅𝑚 ∴ 𝑅1 = 𝑆𝑉1 − (𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 )
= (50 + 4.95𝑘Ω + 20 𝑘Ω + 25𝑘Ω) = 200𝑘Ω

Loading Effect:
While selecting a meter for a particular measurement, the sensitivity rating is very important.
A low sensitive meter may give the accurate reading in low resistance circuit, but not accurate for high
resistance circuit.
The voltmeter is always connected across the two points between which the potentials is to be
measured. If the high resistance voltmeter is connected across a low resistance then voltmeter
resistance is high, most of the current will pass through a low resistance and will produce voltage
drop which will be nothing but the true voltage reading.
But if the voltmeter is connected across high resistance then due to two high resistances in parallel,
the current will divide almost equally through the two paths. Thus the meter will record voltage drop
across the high resistance which will be much lower than the true reading.
Thus the low sensitivity instrument when used in high resistance circuit gives a lower reading than the
true reading. This is called loading effect of the voltmeter. It is caused due to low sensitivity
instruments.

Problem:
Precautions to be taken while using a voltmeter:
1. The voltmeter resistance is very high and it should always be connected across the circuit or
component whose voltage is to be measured.
2. The polarities must be observed correctly. The wrong polarities deflect the pointer in the
opposite direction and this may damage the pointer.
3. While using the multirange voltmeter, first use the highest range.
4. Take care of the loading effect. The effect can be minimized by using high sensitivity
voltmeter.
5.
Instrument Transformers:
[Link] : Instrumentation Transformer
In heavy currents and high voltages a.c. circuits the measurement cannot be done by using the low
range meters.
For this specially constructed accurate ratio transformer called instrument transformers are used.
These can be used, irrespective of voltage and current ratings of the a.c. circuits.
These makes their handling very safe.
These are generally classified as:
i) Current transformer ii) Potential transformer

I) Current Transformer (C.T):

[Link] : Theory of C.T
[Link] : Characteristics of C.T

The large alternating currents which cannot be sensed or passed through normal ammeter and current
coil of wattmeter.
It can be easily measured by the use of current transformers along with normal range instruments.
A transformer is a device which consists of two windings called primary winding and secondary
windings. It transfers energy from one side to another side with suitable change in the level of current
or voltage.
Fig shows, how a current transformer is used to measure a large current using a low range ammeter.
The primary winding of the current transformer which has only a few numbers of turns is connected
in series with the load circuit, through which large current IP is flowing.
The secondary winding which has a large number of turns is connected to an ammeter, through which
a small current Is flows.

Working principle:
These transformers are basically step up transformers i.e stepping up a voltage from primary to
secondary. Thus the current reduces from primary to secondary. So from current point of view, these
are step down transformers, stepping down the current value from primary to secondary.
Let N1 = Number of turns of primary
N2 = Number of turns of secondary
I1 = Primary current
I2 = Secondary current.
For a transformer
I1 / I2 = N2/N1
As N2 is very high compare to N1 , the ratio of I1 to I2 is also very high for current transformers. Such a
current ratio is used to indicate the range of current transformer.
For Eg: consider a 500:5 range then it indicates that CT steps down the current from primary to
secondary by a ratio 500 to 5
I1 / I2 = N2/N1 = 500/5.

Construction of current transformer:

There are two types of construction for current transformer.

i) Wound type current transformer:

The primary is wound for more than one full turn, on the core.
In a low voltage wound type current transformer, the secondary winding is wound on a bakelite
former.
The heavy primary winding is directly wound on the top of the secondary winding with a suitable
insulation in between the two.
The other way the primary is wound completely, separately and then taped with suitable insulating
material and assembled with the secondary on the core.
The core material for wound type is Nickel Iron alloy or an oriented steel.

ii) Bar type current transformer:

The insulation on the bar type primary is bakelized paper tube or a resin directly moulded on the bar.
Such bar type primary in the integral part of the current transformer. The core and the secondary
windings are same in bar type transformer.
The stampings used for the laminations in C.T must have high cross sectional area than the basic
transformer, due to this, the reluctance of the interleaved corners remains as low as possible. Hence
the corresponding magnetizing current is also small.
The winding are also placed closed to each other so as to reduce the leakage reactance’s.
To avoid corona effect, the external diameter of the tube is kept large.
The windings are so designed, that they can withstand the damage due to short circuit in which the
current transformer is inserted.
For small line voltages the tape and varnish are used for insulation. For high line voltage i.e above 7kV
the oil immersed or compound filled current transformers are used.

Why secondary of C.T should not be open?

[Link]

It is very important the secondary of C.T should not kept open. Either it should be shorted or must be
connected in series with a low resistance coil (i.e Ammeter or wattmeter).
If it is left open, then current through secondary becomes zero, hence the ampere turns produced by
secondary which generally oppose primary ampere turns becomes zero.
As there is no counter M.M.F, unopposed primary m.m.f produce high flux in the core. This produces
excessive core losses, heating the core beyond limits.
Similarly heavy e.m.f is induced on both the side. This may damage the insulation on the windings.
Hence never open the secondary winding circuit of a current transformer while its primary winding is
energised.
Most of the current transformer have a short circuit link or a switch at the secondary terminals.

Theory of Current transformer:

[Link] : Theory of C.T

Various symbols are:

n = turn ratio = secondary turns/primary turns = Ns/Np
rp = resistance of primary winding
Xp = reactance of primary winding
rs = resistance of secondary winding
Xs = Reactance of secondary winding
re = resistance of external burden i.e load on secondary
Xe = Reactance of external burden i.e Load on secondary
Ep = primary induced voltage
Es = Secondary induced voltage
Vs = secondary terminal voltage
Ip = primary current
Is = secondary current
Io = no load current or existing current
Ic = core loss component of Io i.e Io cos o
Im = Magnetising component of Io i.e Io sin o
 = working flux of transformer
 = angle between Es and Is
= phase angle of total impedances of secondary including burden
𝑋𝑠+𝑋𝑒
= tan-1( 𝑟𝑠+𝑟𝑒
)
θ = phase angle of transformer
𝑋𝑒
 = phase angle of load or burden i.e re + jXe = tan-1( 𝑟𝑒
)
 = angle between Io and working flux θ

Phasor diagram of Current transformer:

[Link]
[Link] by EKeeda
[Link] by Agra pal

Derivations of actual ratio and Phase angle θ:

[Link] by Agra Pal

i) Derivation for Actual ratio: [R]

Consider the phasor diagram of the transformer with a lagging p.f. load as shown in figure.
Consider bac as shown in the small section which is,
bac = 90o -  - , ac = Io, Oa = nIs, Oc = Ip
 bc = ac sin (90o -  - ) = Iosin[90o – ( + )] = Io cos(  + )
 ab = ac cos(90o -  - ) = Iocos[90o –(+  )] = Io sin ( + )

From the right angle triangle Obc,

(Oc)2 = (Ob)2 + (bc)2 = (Oa +ab)2 + (bc)2

= [n Is + Io sin ( + )]2 + [Io cos(  + )]2
=𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 sin(𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐼02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿 + 𝛼)+𝐼02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) (a2 + 2ab+b2)
i.e Ip = √𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 sin(𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐼02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) = 1
𝐼𝑝
Actual ratio = 𝑅 = … As per definition
𝐼𝑠

√𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 +2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 sin(𝛿+𝛼)+𝐼02

𝑅 =
𝐼𝑠
Practically for properly designed transformer Io<< n Is
√𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 +2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 sin(𝛿+𝛼)+𝐼02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿+𝛼)
𝑅= …….. Adjusting 𝐼02 as 𝐼02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) [(a+b)2]
𝐼𝑠
𝑛𝐼𝑠 +𝐼0 sin(𝛿+𝛼) 𝐼0
𝑅= =𝑛+ sin(𝛿 + 𝛼)………(3)
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
This is approximate vale of actual ratio but practically very close to actual result
The equation (3) can be further expanded as,
𝐼0
𝑅=𝑛+ [sin𝛿 cos 𝛼 + cos𝛿 sin 𝛼]
𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑚 𝑐 𝐼
But 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐼𝑚 and 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝐼𝑐 [𝐼0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ]
𝐼0 𝐼0
𝑅=𝑛+ sin𝛿 cos 𝛼 + cos𝛿 sin 𝛼
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑐
𝑅=𝑛+ sin𝛿 cos 𝛼 + cos𝛿 sin 𝛼
𝐼𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑐
𝑅=𝑛+ sin𝛿 + cos𝛿
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜹 + 𝑰𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜹
𝑹=𝒏+
𝑰𝒔

Note that  is positive for lagging p.f load while negative for leading p.f. load.

Derivation for phase angle (θ) of transformer:

Phase angle :

The phase angle θ is defined as the angle between reversed secondary current phase i.e reflected
secondary current phasor and the primary current.
Sign conversion: θ is positive, if reflected secondary current leads primary current. θ is negative if
secondary current lags primary current.
 𝜃 = 𝑛𝐼𝑠 ^𝐼𝑝
From the phasor diagram, right angle OBC
𝑏𝑐 𝑏𝑐 𝐼𝑜 cos(𝛿 + 𝛼)
tan 𝜃 = = =
𝑂𝑏 𝑂𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑛𝐼𝑠 + 𝐼𝑜 sin(𝛿 + 𝛼)
Now tanθ =θ as θ is very small
𝐼𝑜 cos(𝛿 + 𝛼)
 𝜃= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑛𝐼𝑠 + 𝐼𝑜 sin(𝛿 + 𝛼)
But I0<< nIs hence neglecting from denominator,
𝐼𝑜 cos(𝛿 + 𝛼) 𝐼𝑜 [cos  cos  − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛]
𝜃= = … . . cos(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏
𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑛𝐼𝑠
𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹+𝑰𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹
 𝜃= radians
𝒏𝑰𝒔
Converting to degrees,
180𝑜 𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹+𝑰𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹
𝜃= [ ] degrees
𝜋 𝒏𝑰𝒔

Errors in current transformer:

For instrument transformer it is necessary that
Actual ratio = N1/N2
Phase θ = 180o secondary from that of primary
These characteristics of I.T are affected by the two types of errors:
i) Ratio error ii) Phase angle error

i) Ratio error:
In practice it is said that current transformer ratio I2/I1 is equal to the turns ratio N1/N2. But this is not
true practically because of magnetizing and core loss components of the exiting current. It also gets
affected due to secondary current and its power factor.
In potential transformer, the ratio of V2/V1 is not exactly equal to N2/N1 due to the same factors as in
C.T.
Thus the transformation ratio (Actual ratio) is not constant but depends on the load current, power
factor of load, and existing current of the transformer. Due to this fact, large error is introduced in
the instrument transformer. Such error is called as ratio error
The ratio error is defined as :
% ratio error = (Nominal ratio – Actual ratio /Actual ratio ) X 100 = (Kn – R/R) x 100
ii) Phase Angle error:
In the power measurement, it is must that the phase of secondary current is to be replaced by exactly
180o from that of primary current for C.T. while the secondary voltage is to be 180 o from that of
primary voltage. But this is not so. The error introduced due to this fact is called phase angle error.

The phase angle error is given by

Characteristics of C.T:

The effect of various parameter on the characteristics of current transformers

1. Effect of power factor of secondary circuit:
The power factor of the secondary circuit depends on the power factor of the burden in
secondary. This directly affects the two errors of the transformer
a) Ratio error: For all inductive loads,  is positive hence sin(+), hence actual ratio R is
always greater than the turns ratio ‘n’. For capacitive burden,  is negative and R is less
than the turns ratio.
b) Phase angle error:
When load is inductive and  is small positive than θ is positive.
But as load becomes highly inductive and  approaches to 90o then θ becomes negative.
For capacitive load,  is negative and θ always positive.
2. Effect of change in Ip:
The Ip and Is are directly related, as Ip changes Is also changes.
For low value of Ip, Io is dominating thus Im and Ic also dominating parts of Ip and thus error are
higher. Hence Ip should higher to reduce the errors if Ip increases, Io becomes insignificant
from Ip.
3. Effect of change in burden on secondary:
More burden on secondary means more errors. The secondary winding circuit burden
increases means volt ampere rating increases. Due to increased secondary current, secondary
flux increases which induces more voltage on secondary. Thus both Im and Io increases to keep
flux constant. Due to this errors also increases.
4. Effect of change in frequency:
Increase in frequency means reduce in errors. If frequency is increased at constant voltage,
the flux and the flux density decreases. Thus reduction in Im and Ic and hence reduction in
errors.

II) Potential transformer (P.T):

Fig. shows how a potential transformer is used to measure a large voltage using a low range voltmeter.
The basic principle of these transformers is same as that of current transformer.
The high alternating voltage are reduced in a fixed proportion for the measurement purpose with the
help of potential transformers.
These P.T are extremely accurate ratio step down transformers.
The primary winding consists of large numbers windings (turns) while secondary has a smaller number
of turns and usually rated for 110V, irrespective of the primary voltage rating.
The primary is connected across the high voltage line while secondary is connected to the low range
voltmeter coil.
One end of the secondary is always grounded for safety purpose.
As a normal transformer, its ratio can be specified as
𝑉1 𝑁1
=
𝑉2 𝑁2
So if voltage ratio of P.T is known and the voltmeter reading is known than the high voltage to be
measured can be determined.

Construction of P.T:

The potential transformer use large core and conductor sizes compare to conventional transformer.
The shell type or core type construction is preferred for potential transformer.
The shell type is used for low voltage and core type for high voltage transformer.
At the time of assembly special core is required to reduce the effect of air gap at the joints.
The coaxial primary and secondary windings are used to reduce the leakage reactance.
The secondary which is low voltage winding is always next to the core.
The primary winding - for low voltage transformer a single coil.
- For high voltage transformer, due to the insulation problem, primary is divided into number
of small sections of short coils to reduce the need of insulation between coil layers.
The cotton tape and varnished cambric are used as the insulation for windings.
Hard fiber separators are used in between the coils. The immersed potential transformers are used
for the voltage levels above 7kV.
Two bushings are used when no side of the line is at earth potentials.

Theory of Potential transformer:

[Link]

Various symbols are:

n = turn ratio = primary turns/secondary turns = Np/Ns
rp = resistance of primary winding
Xp = reactance of primary winding
rs = resistance of secondary winding
Xs = Reactance of secondary winding
re = resistance of external burden i.e load on secondary
Xe = Reactance of external burden i.e Load on secondary
Ep = primary induced voltage
Es = Secondary induced voltage
Vs = secondary terminal voltage
Ip = primary current
Is = secondary current
Io = no load current or existing current
Ic = core loss component of Io
Im = Magnetising component of Io
𝑋𝑒
 = phase angle of secondary load current= tan-1( 𝑟𝑒
)
Vp = primary applied voltage.

𝑁𝑝 𝐸𝑝
For P.T 𝑛 = =
𝑁𝑠 𝐸𝑠
Phasor diagram

Derivations of Actual ratio and phase angle θ: All links by Agra Pal
[Link] Part -1(Ratio and phase angle error)
[Link] Part-2
[Link] Part 3

Actual ratio:
Primary:
Secondary:

Consider the phasor diagram with all the quantities referred to the primary side in the phasor diagram
𝐼𝑠
𝑂𝑒 = 𝐼0 , 𝑂𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝 , 𝑂𝑓 = , 𝑂𝑔 = 𝑛𝑉𝑠 , 𝑂𝑏 = 𝑉𝑝
𝑛
Θ = Phase angle of transformer = Vp ^ Vs reversed.
𝐼
 = Phase angle of secondary load = nVs ^ 𝑛𝑠
 = Phase angle between Ip and Vs reversed
Oa is nVs extended and ba is perpendicular drawn from b on nVs extended
 Oa = Ob cos θ = Vp cosθ………………..(1)
Now Oa is made up of various components.
Oa = nVs + nIs rs cos∆ + nIs xs sin∆ + Ip rp cos + Ip xp sin…………..(2)
Equating (1) and (2)
𝑉𝑝 cosθ = nVs + nIs (rs cos∆ + xs sin∆) + Ip (rp cos + xp sin)……..(3)
For potential transformer the load is nothing but a voltmeter hence θ is very small hence both Vp as
well as nVs can be assumed to be perpendicular to .
Thus approximately, Ocd =  and ecd =

𝐼𝑠
 𝑐𝑑 = 𝐼𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑐ℎ + ℎ𝑑 = 𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ + 𝐼𝑐 ………………(4)
𝐼𝑠
And 𝐼𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛∆ ……………….(5)
As θ is very very small, cos θ = 1.
 Vp cosθ = Vp ………………….(6)
Using in equ(3), all the result of (4), (5) and (6)
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑝 = nVs + nIs (rs cos∆ + xs sin∆) + rp [ cos + 𝐼𝑐 ] + xp [𝐼𝑚 + sin∆]
𝑛 𝑛

rP xP
= nVs + Is cos∆ [𝑛rs + ] + Is sin∆ [𝑛xs + ] + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
𝑛 𝑛
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑝 = nVs + cos∆(𝑛2 rs + 𝑟𝑝 ) + 2
sin∆(𝑛 xs + 𝑥𝑝 ) + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝 ……….(7)
𝑛 𝑛
Now 𝑛2 rs + 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑅1𝑒 =equivalent resistance referred to primary.
𝑛2 xs + 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑋1𝑒 = equivalent reactance referred to primary.
𝐼
 𝑉𝑝 = nVs + 𝑛𝑠 [𝑅𝑙𝑒 cos∆ + 𝑋𝑙𝑒 sin∆] + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝 ……..(8)
Thus the actual ratio is,

………………..(9)

The result also can be derived interms of parameters referred to secondary equation of Vp can
be written as
𝑛2 𝑟𝑝 𝑛2 𝑥𝑝
𝑉𝑝 = nVs + 𝐼𝑠 cos∆ (rs + 2 ) + 𝐼𝑠 sin∆ (xs + 2 ) + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑟
(rs + 𝑛𝑝2 )= 𝑅2𝑒 =equivalent resistance referred to Secondary
𝑥
xs + 𝑛𝑝2 = 𝑋2𝑒 =equivalent reactance’s referred to Secondary
 𝑉𝑝 = nVs + 𝑛𝐼𝑠 [𝑅2𝑒 cos∆ + 𝑋2𝑒 sin∆] + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝 ……………(10)

…………………….(11)
Derivation of Phase Angle θ:

Phase angle:
Primary:

Secondary:

From the phasor diagram shown in the Fig.

𝑎𝑏 𝐼𝑝 𝑥𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝐼𝑝 𝑟𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 + 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑥𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ − 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛∆

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑂𝑎 nVs + nIs rs cos∆ + nIs xs sin∆ + Ip rp cos + Ip xp sin
In the expression of Oa, the terms other than nVs are very small and can be neglected.
Similarly as θ is very small, tanθ = θ
𝐼𝑝 𝑥𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝐼𝑝 𝑟𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 + 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑥𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ − 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛∆
𝜃=
nVs
𝐼 𝐼
𝑥𝑝 [ 𝑠 cos∆ + 𝐼𝑐 ] − 𝑟𝑝 [𝐼𝑚 + 𝑠 sin∆] + 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑥𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∆ − 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛∆
𝑛 𝑛
=
nVs
x r
Is cos∆ [ 𝑛P + 𝑛xs ] − Is sin∆ [ 𝑛P + 𝑛rs ] + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
=
nVs
Is cos∆ 2 Is sin∆
𝑛
[𝑟𝑝 + 𝑛 rs ] − 𝑛
[𝑥𝑝 + 𝑛2 xs ] + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
=
nVs

Now 𝑟𝑝 + 𝑛2 rs = 𝑅1𝑒 and 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑛2 xs = 𝑋1𝑒

Is cos∆ I sin∆
[𝑋1𝑒 ]− s [𝑅1𝑒 ]+𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 +𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
𝑛 𝑛
𝜃= Radians
nVs
Interms of quantities referred as secondary,
𝑅 𝑋
𝑅2𝑒 = 𝑛1𝑒2 and 𝑋2𝑒 = 𝑛1𝑒2
𝑛Is [𝑋2𝑒 cos∆ − 𝑅2𝑒 sin∆] + 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
𝜃=
nVs
Is 𝐼𝑐 𝑟𝑝 +𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑝
𝜃= [𝑋2𝑒 cos∆ − 𝑅2𝑒 sin∆] + radians
𝑉𝑠 nVs
It can be noted that the phase angle is treated positive when Vs reversed i.e nVs leads the primary
winding voltage Vp. The θ is treated negative when nVs lags the primary winding voltage Vp.

Once R and θ are obtained then the errors in potential transformer are,
𝐾𝑛 −𝑅
% ratio error = 𝑅
× 100 and Phase angle error = θ radians

Errors in Potential transformer:

i) Ratio errors:
The ratio error is defined as :
% ratio error = (Nominal ratio – Actual ratio /Actual ratio ) X 100 = (Kn – R/R) x 100

ii) Phase Angle error:

The phase angle error is given by = θ radians.

Characteristics of potential transformer:

1. Effect of power factor of secondary circuit:
The p.f of secondary circuit depends on the p.f of the secondary burden. From the equation R =
Vp/Vs, R increases as Vs decrease due to decrease in the p.f. of secondary circuit.

2. Effect of change in burden on secondary:

The change in burden on secondary changes the secondary current and secondary voltage ampere
(VA). As the secondary current increases, primary current increases. This increase the various
drops. For constant Vp, Vs decreases. This increases the transformation ratio R. Thus ratio error
increases as the secondary current i.e burden increases.
3. Effect of change in frequency:
If frequency is increased at constant voltage, then the flux and flux density decreases. This reduces
the value of Im and Ic and in turn Io. This tends to reduce the error.
But if frequency is increased, the leakage reactance increases, the voltage drop increases. This
increases the ratio and ratio error.
This effects are opposite to each other and the resultant effects depends on relative value of Io and
leakage reactance’s.
4. Effect of primary voltage:
The primary voltage is particularly constant and these is hardly any significant change in it hence
there is no significant change in errors.

Ratio of Instrument transformers:

1. Actual ratio [R] [Transformation ratio]:
The actual transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of actual primary phases to
the corresponding magnitude of the actual secondary phasor.
R= Magnitude of actual primary current/ Magnitude of actual secondary current for C.T
R = Magnitude of actual primary voltage/Magnitude of actual secondary voltage for P.T
2. Nominal ratio :[Kn]
It is defined as the ratio of rated primary quantity to the rated secondary quantity, either current
or voltage.
Kn= Rated primary current/ Rated secondary current for C.T
Kn = Rated primary voltage/ Rated secondary voltage for P.T
3. Turn ratio [n]:
n = Number of turns of secondary winding / Number of turns of primary winding for C.T
n = Number of turns of primary winding / Number of turns of secondary winding for P.T
4. Ratio correction factor (RCF):
It is the ratio of actual ratio to the nominal ratio
RCF = R/Kn i.e R = RCF x Kn
Applications of Potential Transformers

The applications are

• Used in relay and metering circuits

• Uses in power line carrier communication circuits
• Used in protection systems electrically
• Used for protecting feeders
• Used for the protection of impedance in the generators
• Used in synchronization of generators and feeders.
• Used as protection voltage transformers

Burden on Instrument transformer:

The permissible load across the secondary winding expressed in volt-amperes at the rated secondary
winding voltage or current, such that error do not exceed the limits is called burden of an instrument
transformers.

Total secondary winding burden = (Secondary winding induced voltage)2/ (Total impedance of
secondary circuit including load and winding)

Total secondary winding burden = (Secondary winding induced current)2 x (Total impedance of
secondary circuit including load and winding)
Only for impedance of the load is considered:
Total secondary winding burden = (Secondary winding induced voltage)2/ (Total impedance of load on
secondary circuit)

Total secondary winding burden due to load= (Secondary winding induced current)2/ (Total impedance
of load on secondary circuit)

Total secondary winding burden due to load = (Secondary winding induced voltage)2 x (Total
impedance of load on secondary circuit )

Reduction of errors in instrument transformer:

The ratio and phase angle errors can be minimized by using following methods:
1. Reducing the core loss and magnetising component Io:
The Io depends on Im and Ic. The following precautions are taken to reduce Ic and Im:
a) Choosing low reluctance core
b) Using materials of high permeability
c) Providing smaller magnetic path to the flux.
d) Using large cross section of the core.
e) Keeping flux density in the core to low value.
2. Reduction of resistance and leakage reactance:
The errors depend on the voltage drops which are in turn depend on the values of resistance
and leakage reactance.
The resistance can be reduced by increasing cross-section of conductors and decreasing the
length of the mean turn.
The leakage reactance depends on the leakage fluxes. Thus mutual coupling between the
winding must be high, hence winding must be as possible.
3. Providing turns compensation:
For the P.T:

At no load, secondary current Is = 0 hence,

R = n+(Icrp+ImXp)/Vs
 Thus at not load, actual ratio exceeds by (Icrp+ImXp)/Vs
The remedy for this is : Reduce the primary turns or increase the secondary. Thus at one
particular value of load, the actual ratio made equal to nominal ratio.
This reduces the ratio error over the entire range of burden. This is called Turns
compensation.
But however, the turns compensation does not effect the phase angle.

For the C.T:

R = n + Ic/Is
Thus the actual ratio (R) becomes more than nominal ratio
So turns ratio is reduced by reducing the secondary winding turns. This makes the actual ratio
equal to nominal ratio. This is called turns compensation in C.T.

Comparison of C.T and P.T:

Current transformer Potential transformer
It can be treated as series transformer under It can be treated as parallel transformer
virtual short circuit conditions under open circuit secondary
Secondary must be always shorted Secondary is nearly under open circuit
A small voltage exists across its terminals as Full line voltage appears across its terminals
connected in series.
The windings carries full line current The winding is impressed with full line
voltage
The primary current (IP) and excitation The line voltage is almost constant hence
varies over a wide range. exciting current and flux density current and
flux density varies over a limited range.
The primary current is independent of the The primary current depends on the
secondary circuit condition secondary circuit conditions.
Needs only one bushing, saves the cost Two bushings are required when neither
side of the line is at ground potential.

Advantages of instrument transformer:

1. The normal range voltmeter and ammeter can be used along with the transformer to
measure voltage and current.
2. The rating of low range meter can be sized irrespective of the value of high voltage or
current to be measured.
3. These can be used for operating many types of protecting devices such as relays and pilot
lights.

Disadvantages of instrument transformer:

The only disadvantage is the I.T can be used only for a.c circuits not for d.c. circuits.

D.C and A.C Potentiometer:

A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by comparing it with a
known voltage. The known voltage may be supplied by a standard cell or any other reference voltage.

Advantages:
Potentiometer makes use of a balance or null condition, no current flows and hence no power is
consumed in the circuit containing the unknown emf when the instrument is balanced.
It can also be used to determine current, simply by measuring voltage drop produced by the unknown
current passing through a known standard resistance.
Potentiometer is extensively used for a calibration of voltmeter and ammeters and has infact become
the standard for the calibration of these instruments.
Basic Potentiometer circuit:

Adjusting the current:

When the switch “S” in the “Operate” position and the galvanometer key ‘K’ open, the ‘battery’
supplies the working current through the rheostat ‘R’ and the slide wire. The working current can be
varied by varying the ‘Rheostat R’.

Measuring the unknown voltage ‘E’:

When the switch “S” in the “operate” position and the galvanometer key ‘k’ is closed, vary the slide
wire position, and find the position for the sliding contact such that galvanometer shows zero
deflection i.e indicates null condition.
Zero galvanometer means that the unknown voltage ‘E’ is equal to the voltage drop E1, across portion
A.C of the slide wire.
Thus determination of unknown voltage E, is now the matter of evaluating the voltage drop E1.

Standardization:
The slide wire has a uniform cross-section and hence resistance along its entire length.
A calibrated scale is cm, is placed along the slide wire so that the sliding contact can be placed
accurately at any desired position.
Since the resistance of the slide wire is known accurately, the voltage drop along the slide wire can be
controlled by adjusting the value of working current.
The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the voltage drop across a portion of sliding
wire against a standard reference source is known as “standardization”.
Procedure for standardization illustrated by example. The slide wire has a total length of 200 cm. and
a resistance of 200Ω.
The e.m.f of the standard cell is 1.0186V. Switch ‘S’ is changed to “Calibrate” position and the sliding
contact is placed at 101.86 cm on the slide wire.
The rheostat Rh is now adjusted as varied till the galvanometer shows no deflection or null.
Now the voltage drop across the 101.86cm portion of the slide wire is equal to the standard cell
voltage of 1.0186V.
Hence the working current adjusted to
1.0186/101.86 x 1000 = 10mA
If the potentiometer is calibrated once its working current is never changed.

Applications of D.C potentiometer:

1. Calibration of voltmeter
2. Calibration of ammeter
3. Measurement of resistance
4. Measurement of power
5. Calibration of wattmeter.

[Link]:
The principle of [Link] is same as that of [Link]. the most important
difference between a d.c. and an [Link] is that, in d.c only the magnitude of the unknown
e.m.f and potentiometer voltage drop have to be made equal to obtain balance.
In A.C instrument both magnitude and phases of two have to be same to obtain balance. Thus an
ordinary [Link] cannot be used for a.c. measurement and certain modifications have to
be made, so that it may be used for a.c work.
The [Link] is a complicated instrument and there are certain important factors which
must be considered for its operations: They are
1. A necessary requirement for balance in an a.c potentiometer is the quality of voltages being
compared in all instants. Thus requires equal phase and magnitude at all instants.
2. A vibration galvanometer is used as a detector in [Link] (it is also called tuned
device).
3. There being no a.c. reference source (like in d.c standard cell or Zener source).
4. Extra or stray [Link] picked up from stray fields or coupling between portion of the
potentiometer circuit seriously effect the result. These [Link] must be eliminated,
compensated for or measured since they may add vectorially to the emf being measured.

Standardizing of A.C potentiometer and use of transfer instruments:

The standardization is done with the help of a standard [Link], i.e a standard cell or a Zener source
and a transfer instrument.
This transfer instrument is usually an electro-dynamometer multi-ammeter so constructed that its
response to a.c is same as its d.c response such instrument can be calibrated on d.c and then brought
to the same setting on A.C. Thermocouple type of instrument can also be used as transfer instrument.

Types of [Link]:
Two types : i) Polar type ii) Co-ordinate type
i) Polar type : (voltage phase angle (Vθ)).
In this instrument, the magnitude of the unknown voltage is read from one scale and its phase angle
with respect to some reference phasor, is read from a second scale (provision upto 360o).
Drysdale Polar potentiometer:
This instrument consists of potentiometer of ordinary d.c type, except that the resistance coils are
non-inductively wound and the following auxiliary apparatus is used:
1. Drysdale phase shifting potentiometer:
 It consists of a laminated silicon steel stator which houses a two or three phase windings.
The rotor is also a laminated structure having slots in which a winding is provided.
There is a small air gap between the rotor and stator. When current flows in the stator
winding, a rotating field is produced, thereby inducing an emf in the rotor winding. The rotor
can be adjusted to any angle. A scale and a pointer are provided on top of instrument to
indicate the angle of rotor moved from its zero position.
A phase shifter operated from a single phase supply. This phase shifter have two separate
windings displaced by 90o in space on the stator.
One winding is directly connected to supply while other winding is connected in series with a
variable resistor R and capacitor C. The value of R and C are adjusted until the current through
the two windings are equal and are 90o displaced from each creating a uniform revolving field
(voltage).
(How to know the angle is 90o: If the voltage is constant at any position of rotor than the phase
angle is 90o, if it is not than vary R1, R and C to make voltage constant and phase angle 90o by
the charging the current through coils).
For a particular position of the rotor the induced emf due to each of the stator winding is
proportional to the cosine of the angular displacement from position of maximum emf.
The emf induced in rotor winding due to stator winding-1
e1 = KI sin t cos θ
And due to stator winding-2
e2 = KI sin (t+90o) cos (θ+90o) = KI cos t sin θ K = flux of stator 1,2 I = cross sectional
area of rotor coil.
 The resultant emf in the rotor
e = KI [sin t cos θ - cos t sin θ] = KI (sin t – θ)
the above relationship shows that the rotor emf has a constant amplitude but the phase angle
is given by rotor position θ.
2. Transfer instrument:
A precision type electro-dynamometer ammeter is required for standardization purpose. In
order to standardize the [Link] the slide wire circuit is switched on in a d.c. supply
and the standard current is obtained in the ordinary way using standard cell. This standard
current is measured by ammeter.
 3. Operation with alternating current:

The kelvin varley slide principle is employed in the slide wire current as shown in fig. VG is a
vibration galvanometer used as a detector. ‘r’ is a shunting resistor for the reduction of the
range of the potentiometer. When this resistor is connected in circuit by the switch ‘S1’, the
resistor ‘R’ is simultaneously connected in series with the slide wire circuit in order that the
resistance of the working portion of the potentiometer may be maintained constant.
‘R` ’ is a rheostat for adjustment of the slide wire current.
The potentiometer is first standardized by adjusting rheostat and the standard current is
noted. The switch ‘S’ being thrown over the battery side for this standardization, the vibration
Galvanometer being replaced by a d’Arsonval galvanometer.
The switch ‘S’ is then connected to the alternating supply side and d’Arsonval galvanometer
being replaced by vibration galvanometer.
The stator windings of the phase shifter are then adjusted to exact quadrature by means of
the variable resistor and capacitor, these being adjusted until the alternating current in the
slide wire is constant for all positions of the rotor.
Balance of the potentiometer is obtained by successive adjustment of the sliding contacts of
the slide wire circuit and of the rotor of the phase shifter.
The readings of potentiometer dials and the slide wire at balance, give the magnitude of the
voltage being measured, while the reading on the scale of the phase shifter gives the phase of
the voltage being measured relative to the power supply voltage.

ii) Gall-Tinsley (Co-ordinate type) [Link]:

Construction and working:

Two separate potentiometer, circuits are enclosed in a common case, one is called “Inphase”
potentiometer and other is called as “Quadrature” potentiometer.
The inphase potentiometer is used for measurement of in phase component of unknown voltage.
The ‘quadrature’ potentiometer is used for the measurement of quadrature component of the
unknown voltage.
The slide wire circuits are supplied with currents which have phase difference of 90o.
Sliding contacts CC’ and BB’ and RR’ are used for current adjustment.
The power supply is provided to the potentiometer by the phase splitting circuit.
Transformer T1 and T2 are two step down transformer that supply 6V to the potentiometer circuits.
They isolate the potentiometer from the line and provide with earthed between the windings.
The supply to T2 is acquired through a variable resistor R and a capacitor C for the purpose of phase
splitting.
Quadrature phase displacement is achieved by adjusting the variable resistor R and capacitor C.
A vibration galvanometer VG is placed in series with a switch ‘k’ and electrodynamometer type
ammeter is tuned to the supply frequency.
S1 and S2 are switches which are used to change the sign for reversing the direction of unknown e.m.f.
S3 is the selector switch with 4 pair terminals used for applying an unknown voltage to the
potentiometer.

Standardization:
The current in the in-phase potentiometer wire is first adjusted to its standard value by means of a d.c
supply and a standard cell and replacing the D’Arsnoval galvanometer and getting null.
In d.c standardization D’Arsonval galvanometer is used instead of vibration by using a standard cell.
Without causing any disturbance to the setting, the a.c standardization is done adjusting the slide wire
current till it gives a null deflection in the galvanometer.
In a.c standardization, vibration galvanometer is used and direct current is replaced by a.c. supply.
Rheostat is adjusted till the magnitude of current in the quadrature potentiometer wire is same as
that in the in-phase potentiometer.

Measurement of Unknown e.m.f:

The unknow e.m.f is connected across the terminals A-A’.
To get the balance condition adjust the sliding contacts of both in-phase and quadrature
potentiometer.
The balance condition is pointed out by the null deflection of vibration galvanometer.
At the balance, the reading of the slide-wire of the in-phase potentiometer together with the position
of S1 gives the magnitude and sign of inphase component of the unknown voltage.
While the reading of the quadrature potentiometer, with the position of S2, gives the magnitude and
sign of the quadrature component.
For eg. If both S1 and S2 are in the position positive and V1 and V2 are the in-phase and quadrature
components of the unknown voltage V. Then the phase difference V is given by the angle θ, where θ
is tan θ = V2/V1 and its magnitude is V = √𝑉12 − 𝑉22

Application of [Link]:

1. Voltmeter calibration
2. Calibration of ammeter
3. Wattmeter and energy meter testing
4. Measurement of self reactance of a coil.
 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Measurement and Instrumentation 18EE44
Date: 2024-2025 ASSIGNMENT – II [Link]: 10

MODULE - II
Assignment - II

Assignment questions:
1. Draw the figure and derive expressions for multirange ammeter. Listout the
precautions. CO2, L3
2. Draw the figure and derive expressions for practical type voltmeter. List out the
precautions.CO2, L3
3. Write a note on : i) Sensitivity ii) Loading effect CO2, L1
4. Explain with diagram the working principle and construction of C.T. CO2, L3
5. Explain with diagram the working principle and construction of P.T. CO2, L3
6. List out ratio’s of Instrument transformer. CO2, L2
7. Explain in detail how to reduce the errors in Instrument transformer. CO2, L3
8. Draw the figure of basic D.C Potentiometer and explain the working principle. CO2, L3
9. Draw the figure of A.C potentiometer and explain the working principle. (any one)
CO2, L3

And all the numerical which had done in class room.

All students are requested to write the assignment and keep ready before coming to college.