1.1 What is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This means it applies a
systematic, scientific approach to understand why people act and think the way they do. A
key principle is that psychology is based on empirical evidence (information gained through
observation or experiment) and is falsifiable (meaning it can be proven wrong). This
distinguishes it from other forms of understanding human nature.
●​ Behavior refers to observable, external actions, such as speaking, running, or facial
expressions.
●​ Mental processes are internal, private experiences like thoughts, feelings, emotions,
and motivations, which can only be inferred from behavior.

1.2 Research Methods in Psychology (Overview)

Psychology uses a variety of research methods to collect data, which are broadly categorized
into quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative Research

This type of research aims to establish generalizable, universally applicable laws by collecting
and analyzing numerical data. It uses a nomothetic approach. The researcher is often
eliminated from the study to ensure objectivity.
●​ Experiment: The only method that can establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The
researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) to measure its effect on a
dependent variable (DV). For example, a researcher might manipulate the amount of a
drug (IV) to see its effect on anxiety levels (DV).
●​ Correlational Study: Measures the relationship between two variables. It can indicate a
correlation (e.g., as one variable increases, the other tends to increase or decrease)
but cannot prove that one variable causes the other. The phrase "correlation does not
equal causation" is a fundamental concept here.
●​ Quantitative Descriptive Study: Used to describe a phenomenon in a population,
often through surveys or questionnaires. It provides numerical data on what a group of
people think, feel, or do.

Qualitative Research

This approach focuses on a deep, in-depth understanding of a specific case or phenomenon

using an idiographic approach. It uses text-based data to explore human experiences,
interpretations, and meanings. The researcher is included in the study and their subjectivity is
acknowledged.
●​ Interview/Focus Group: Involves a detailed conversation to gain an in-depth
understanding of a participant's perspective.
●​ Case Study: An intensive investigation of a single person, a small group, or a unique
event.

1.3 Analysing Research (Methodological Considerations)

The quality of a research study is judged on three main criteria: generalizability, credibility,
and bias.

Generalizability

This is the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied beyond the study's specific
context.
●​ Quantitative Research:
○​ Population Validity: Can the results be generalized to a larger group of people
(the target population)? This depends on how representative the sample is.
○​ Ecological Validity: Can the results be generalized to a real-life setting? An
experiment conducted in a controlled lab setting may have low ecological validity.
●​ Qualitative Research:
○​ Transferability/Case-to-case generalizability: Can the findings be applied to a
similar situation or context?
○​ Theoretical Generalizability: Can the findings be used to develop or support a
new theory?

Credibility

This refers to the trustworthiness of the research findings. It is the degree to which the results
reflect the studied reality. In quantitative research, this is also known as internal validity. A
study has high credibility if it has effectively controlled for extraneous variables.

Bias

Bias is a systematic error that can influence research findings. It can threaten the credibility of
a study.
●​ Threats to Internal Validity (Quantitative Research):
○​ Selection Bias: Occurs if the groups in an experiment are not equivalent from the
 start.
○​ Maturation Effect: Changes in participants over time (e.g., getting older, more
tired) that may affect the results.
○​ History Effect: An event that happens during the study that affects the
participants.
●​ Participant Bias (Qualitative and Quantitative Research):
○​ Social Desirability Bias: Participants respond in a way they think is socially
acceptable.
○​ Demand Characteristics: Participants guess the purpose of the study and
change their behavior accordingly.
●​ Researcher Bias (Qualitative and Quantitative Research):
○​ Confirmation Bias: The researcher interprets data in a way that confirms their
pre-existing beliefs.
○​ Leading Questions: The researcher's questions may subtly guide participants to
a certain answer.

Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting participants from a target population.

●​ Quantitative Sampling: Aims to obtain a representative sample to achieve high
population validity.
○​ Random Sampling: Each person in the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
○​ Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and then
a random sample is taken from each subgroup.
●​ Qualitative Sampling: The focus is on finding participants who can provide the most
relevant, detailed information for the study.
○​ Purposive Sampling: The researcher handpicks participants who fit certain
criteria.
○​ Snowball Sampling: Participants are asked to recommend other potential
participants.
○​ Convenience Sampling: Participants are selected because they are readily
available.
1.4 The Experiment
The experiment is the only method that allows researchers to make cause-and-effect
inferences. This is achieved by defining the Independent Variable (IV), manipulating it, and
measuring the corresponding changes in the Dependent Variable (DV) while attempting to
keep all other variables constant.

Controlling Variables in Detail

Psychological research aims to isolate the IV so that when it is manipulated, nothing else
changes. This helps ensure that any observed change in the DV is a direct result of the IV.

Example: Sleep Deprivation and Memory

●​ Aim of study: Investigating the influence of sleep deprivation on memory

performance.
●​ IV: Sleep deprivation (manipulated by having one group stay awake past their normal
bedtime).
●​ DV: Memory performance (measured by a simple memory test).
●​ Control: The control group participates in the memory test after sleeping normally.

Confounding Variables

Confounding variables are extraneous variables that distort the relationship between the IV
and the DV. They introduce bias and must be controlled.

●​ Example from the study: If the experimental group is supervised in a laboratory

setting while the control group sleeps at home, the difference in the sleep
environment could be a confounding variable, rather than the sleep deprivation itself.
The unfamiliar environment might cause stress, which would reduce memory
performance independent of the actual sleep deprivation.
●​ Control method: Confounding variables must be eliminated or kept constant across
all groups of participants so they don't affect the comparison.

Sampling in the Experiment

Experiments aim to discover universal laws of behavior applicable to large groups of people
(the target population).

●​ Target population: The entire group of people to which the findings of the study are
 expected to be generalized.
●​ Sample: A smaller group of people actually taking part in the experiment.

The key to generalization is obtaining a representative sample—one that reflects all

essential characteristics of the target population.

Activity: Influence of Praise on School Performance

●​ Aim: Investigating the influence of praise on the school performance of teenagers.

●​ IV: Praise (Experimental Group receives praise three times a week; Control Group
receives praise once a week).
●​ DV: Performance grades in the two groups.
●​ Question for the researcher: Will you be able to generalize the findings to teenagers
in general?
○​ Answer: Generalizability depends on how representative the sample is. The
sample must reflect the essential characteristics of the target population.
●​ Challenge: Given the study's aim, how would you increase the representativeness of
your sample?

Sampling Techniques
The choice of sampling technique depends on the research aim, available resources, and the
nature of the target population.

1. Random Sampling

●​ Definition: Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
●​ Idealism: It is the ideal approach to obtain a representative sample, assuming a
sufficiently large sample size.
●​ Challenge: It is not always possible for practical reasons (e.g., getting a pre-election
telephone survey list of the entire country, which includes all citizens, not just social
media profile users).

2. Stratified Sampling

●​ Definition: A theory-driven approach that ensures the sample perfectly reflects the
essential characteristics of the target population as observed in the population.
●​ Process:
1.​ Decide on the essential characteristics (e.g., age, school level, GPA).
2.​ Determine the distribution of these characteristics in the target population
(e.g., using official school records).
 3.​ Recruit participants to maintain the same proportions in the sample as in the
population.
●​ Example: If 20% of students in the target population are in primary school, 50% in
middle school, and 30% in high school, the sample must reflect those exact
proportions for each sub-population (e.g., Low GPA, Average GPA, High GPA).
●​ Benefit: Ideal when small sample sizes are necessary, as it is fairer and ensures
theoretical representation.

3. Convenience (Opportunity) Sampling

●​ Definition: Recruiting participants who are easily available.

●​ Reasons for use:
1.​ Practicality: Used when financial resources and time are limited.
2.​ Belief: Used based on the belief that people in different conditions or
backgrounds are not significantly different for the purposes of the study.
●​ Criticism: Lack of representativeness is a major criticism.

4. Self-selected Sampling

●​ Definition: Recruiting volunteers, typically by advertising in newspapers or via other

media.
●​ Strength: Quick and relatively easy way to recruit individuals, offering a wide
coverage.
●​ Weakness: The essential limitation is representativeness; volunteers may be more
motivated than the general population, or they may be seeking incentives, meaning
they are not typical of the population.

Experimental Designs
Experiments involve manipulating variables and measuring change. There are three basic
types of experimental designs:

1. Independent Measures Design (Between-subjects)

●​ Definition: Involves random allocation of participants into two or more groups, and a
comparison is made between these groups.
●​ Simplest Form: Participants are randomly allocated to the experimental group
(receives the IV manipulation) and the control group (does not receive the IV
manipulation or receives a baseline).
●​ Rationale for Random Allocation: It is crucial because all potential confounding
variables are assumed to cancel each other out (e.g., if you have 20 participants,
random allocation ensures that differences in baseline memory abilities are distributed
 equally across both groups by chance).
●​ Assumption: Random allocation ensures that groups are equivalent at the start of the
experiment. This allows researchers to assume that any difference observed at the end
must be due to the experimental manipulation of the IV.

2. Matched Pairs Design

●​ Definition: Similar to independent measures, but uses matching instead of complete

random allocation to form the groups.
●​ Process (Example: Sleep Deprivation):
○​ Identify a matching variable that is controlled (e.g., baseline memory abilities,
as this is a potential confounder).
○​ Test all participants on this variable and rank them (highest to lowest).
○​ Take the first two participants (the highest pair) and randomly allocate one to
the experimental group and the other to the control group.
○​ Repeat the procedure for the rest of the list.
●​ Result: The two resulting groups are equally equivalent in terms of the matching
variable and probably equivalent in all other characteristics (due to the random chance
allocation within the pair).
●​ Preference: Matched pairs designs are preferred when:
○​ The researcher specifically needs the groups to be equivalent on a particular
variable.
○​ The sample size is too small for random allocation alone to reliably ensure
group equivalence.

3. Repeated Measures Design (Within-subjects)

●​ Definition: The goal is to compare conditions rather than groups of participants. The
same group of participantsis exposed to two or more conditions, and the conditions
are compared.
●​ Example: Studying the effect of music on learning.
○​ Participants learn a list of words for 10 minutes in silence (Condition 1).
○​ The same participants learn a different list of words for 10 minutes with
classical music playing (Condition 2).
○​ Results are compared from the first and second trial.
●​ Problem: Order Effects: Results may be different depending on which condition
comes first (e.g., silence then music, or music then silence). These effects are due to:
○​ Practice: Performance improves from the first trial to the second.
○​ Fatigue: Performance decreases from the first trial to the second.
●​ Solution: Counterbalancing: Involves using other groups of participants where the
order of the conditions is reversed.
○​ Group 1: Sequence A → B (Silence → Music)
○​ Group 2: Sequence B → A (Music → Silence)
○​ The data from both groups (A and B, and B and A) are then collated to
compare Condition 1 vs. Condition 2, balancing out the order effects.