EXPERIMENT-1

L-C-R CIRCUIT

AIM: To study resonance effect in LCR series circuit and to calculate the quality factor.

APPARATUS: A signal generator, inductor, capacitor, ammeter, resistors, AC milli

voltmeter.

THEORY:
An LCR circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a
capacitor (C), connected in series or in parallel. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for
current, and resonates in a similar way as an LC circuit. Introducing the resistor increases the
decay of these oscillations, which is also known as damping.

Series L-C-R:
When the resistor R, inductor L and the capacitor C are connected in series with a source of
emf E, the circuit is called as the series resonant or series turned circuit, shown in Figure 1
This is an acceptor circuit that means it allows maximum current to flow through it at a
particular frequency (resonant frequency) and at all other frequencies it allows less current. In
A.C circuits the voltage and the current are usually out of phase. Across the inductor, the
current lags behind the voltage is given by 90º, where as across the capacitor, the current
leads the voltage by 90º. But across the resistor the voltage and the current both are in phase.
Under certain conditions, the voltage and current are in phase, even though the circuit
consists of L, C, and R and the circuit behaves as a pure resistor. This phenomenon is called
resonance. This occurs at a single frequency known as resonance frequency. At this
frequency the capacitance (XC=1/ωC) and the inductive reactance (X L=ωL) are equal and
opposite in direction. So they get cancelled each other and only resistance acts.
The impedance of the circuit is given by Z = R + j (ωL – 1/ωC)
At resonance the reactive term disappears i.e. ωL – 1/ωC = 0
The impedance is minimum i.e Z = R
The current is maximum so ωL = 1/ωC
ω0 = ω = 2πfr = 1/√LC
At this frequency the current is maximum and is called resonance frequency. The circuit has
selective properties. To compare selectively or sharpness of resonance, the band of
frequencies is chosen at which the current falls to 1/√2 times (half power points) of its
maximum value i.e Io/√2 or 0.707 Io. The difference 𝑓2 −𝑓1 between the half power points is
called band width(∆f)

Bandwidth:
The bandwidth is measured between the frequencies at which the power passed through the
circuit has fallen to half the value passed at resonance. There are two of these half-power
frequencies, one f= f2 -f1 , where f2, is upper half power half power frequency , f1 is lower half
power frequency and f is the bandwidth
Q-factor: The Q-factor is a widespread measure used to characterize resonators. It is defined
as the peak energy stored in the circuit divided by the average energy dissipated in it per radian
at resonance. Low Q circuits are therefore damped and lossy and high Q circuits are
underdamped. Q is related to bandwidth; low Q circuits are wide band and high Q circuits are
narrow band. Q= fr/f
For a LCR circuit Q = (1/R)*√ (L/C).

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram(Figure 1)

2. Apply input signal using signal generator. The output should be 10V only.

3. Take the output across the resistor and feed it to Ammeter input sockets.

4. Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records a sharp rise and fall, adjust the signal such
that the Ammeter deflection is the maximum possible. This is the resonant frequency of the
connected combination of the circuit.

5. Adjust the signal generator amplitude such that to get full-scale deflection. In Ammeter
now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls considerably. Then increase the frequency in
regular intervals & note down the Ammeter readings.

6. Plot a graph between the meter deflection divisions and frequency.

7. Repeat the procedure using different combinations of L, C & R and study how Q is
affected. Also study how Resonant Frequency depends upon different combination of L.C.R.

L C

+
SIGNAL
GENERATOR -

Figure 1. LCR series circuit

 OBSERVATION TABLE 1: L-C-R Series

L = _______ mH C = _______µF. R= ________Ω

[Link] Frequency (Hz) Current(mA)

FORMULA:
1) Resonant frequency
1
fr  Where L = inductance of the coil, C = Capacitance of
2 LC
the capacitor
2) Quality factor

fr
Q =_______ Where Bandwidth ∆f = f1 – f2 (Hz)
∆f

fr = resonant frequency of the series resonant circuit.

A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency corresponding to maximum
current is noted and it is the resonant frequency fr. The frequencies f1and f2 corresponding to
half power points is noted and from it the band width, (f1 -f2) is noted. From the values of fr, f1
and f2 the quality factor, Q is calculated.

MODEL GRAPH

ESULT
.
For a Series resonance circuit:
1)The resonant frequency fr = ___________Hz

2) The Bandwidth ∆f = _______ (Hz)

3) Quality factor Q = __________.

 EXPERIMENT-2

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

AIM:
To determine the Work function and Planck’s Constant using photoelectric effect
.

APPRATUS:
1. Photo sensitive device: Vacuum photo tube.
2. Light source: External light source which is 110 LED’S with remote sensor.
3. DC Regulated Power Supply with 3 ½ Digit Digital Display.
4. Current detecting unit: Digital micro ammeter 0- 20µA.

THEORY

Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon in which electrons are knocked off a metal surface when light is
incident on it. Electron emission increases with the intensity of the radiation falling on the metal surface, since
more energy is available to release electrons. But characteristic frequency dependence is also observed. For
each substance there is a minimum frequency ν0 of light and for light of frequency less than ν0, photoelectrons
are not produced, however intense the incident light may be. The minimum frequency ν0 is called threshold
frequency.
Einstein successfully explained the photoelectric effect by treating the incident light as a steam of photons. In
a beam of monochromatic light of frequency, ν, all photons have the same energy ℎν. When the photons
encounter electrons in a metal, they give up their energy to the electrons. However, the electrons are held
within the metal by a potential barrier at the surface. In order to escape from the metal, an electron should have
enough energy to overcome the potential barrier at the surface. It requires an input energy that is equal to the
work function, 𝑊0. This work function is specific for the metal. When an electron absorbs a photon, the energy
gained by it is equal to ℎν. If ℎν ≥ 𝑊0, the electron will escape from the metal. Thus, out of the total energy
ℎν, a small portion, 𝑊0, is spent on surmounting the potential barrier and the balance energy (ℎν − 𝑊0 ) is
given to the electron as kinetic energy.
According to Einstein, the photoelectric equation is given as

ℎ𝑊0 +½ mv2
ℎ𝑊0 + K …………….(1) where K = ½ mv2,
The work function can be expressed
W0 = ℎ ……………(2)

Where h is the Planck's constant in J-Sec , ν is the frequency of incident light in Hz and K is the kinetic
energy in Joules.

Now, if we increase the reverse potential, the photocurrent gradually decreases and becomes zero at a particular
reverse potential. This minimum applied reverse potential is called stopping potential V0. Hence the maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons can be written as, K= e V0
1
 K  ℎ W0……. (3)
y = mx + c ………… (4)

On Comparing the above two equations, the work function is equal to the ’c’. When we
plot the graph (Hz) on x- axis and K.E (joules) on y- axis, the slope of straight line yields ‘h’ and
the intercept of extrapolated point can gives the work function ‘𝑊0’.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as per Circuit Diagram.
2. Light source is arranged and light is allowed to fall on the tube which is enclosed in a box the
distance between photo cell and Light source adjusted for the flow of current.
3. Apply the Colour filters of known wave length 1, 2 and etc., is placed in path of light.
4. A reading is observed in Micro ammeter. This reading corresponds to zero anode potential with
that particular filter.
5. A small negative potential is applied is gradually increase in step and each time reading in voltmeter
and ammeter is noted till the micro ammeter reading comes to zero. This is stopping potential V1
corresponding to filter with wave length 1.
6. The experiment is repeated another filter of known wave length and corresponding stopping
potential and are noted.
7. A graph is plotted by taking negative anode stopping potential or Kinetic Energy on X-Axis Vs
Frequency of particular filter on Y-Axis. The slope of the straight line yields Planck’s Constant h and
the intercept of extrapolated point gives the Work function W0
8. Standard values of e, c and wavelength of standard filters are given below:
Charge of electron e = 1.6x 10-19 Coulombs, Velocity of light c = 3x108 m/s.

Wave length of Standard filters

Red filter 640 nm
Orange filter 570 nm
Green filter 500 nm
2
 Blue filter 450 nm

Frequency = c/ = 3x 108 / 640 x10-9 = 4.687 x1014Hz

OBSERVATIONS

Color filter Frequency (Hz) Current Stopping

[Link] Potential
(µA)
V0 (Volts)

1 Blue

2 Green

3 Orange

4 Red

MODEL GRAPH

Stopping
Potential

CALCULATIONS

Planck’s Constant h = Slope x e where Charge of electron(e) = 1.61 x 10-19 C

RESULT: The work function of the given metal is found to be ________eV or ___________Joules
The Planck’s Constant h = _____________________Joule Second

3
4
 EXPERIMENT-3

ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM: To determine the energy gap of a given semiconductor.

APPARATUS:- Germanium diode, Thermometer, Copper Vessel, Micro ammeter, Heater and
connecting wires.

THEORY: In atom electrons occupy distinct energy levels. When atoms join to make a solid,
the allowed energy levels are grouped into bands. The bands are separated by regions of energy
levels that the electrons are forbidden to be in. These regions are called forbidden Energy gaps
or bandgaps. Energy bands and the forbidden energy gap is illustrated in figure 1. The electrons
of the outermost shell of an atom are the valence electrons. These occupy the valence band.
Any electrons in the conduction band are not attached to any single atom, but are free to move
through the material when driven by an external electric field.

In a metal such as copper, the valence and conduction bands overlap as illustrated in figure 2a.
There is no forbidden energy gap and electrons in the topmost levels are free to absorb energy
and move to higher energy levels within the conduction band. Thus the electrons are free to
move under the influence of an electric field and conduction is possible. Theses materials are
referred to as conductors.

1
 In an insulator such as silicon dioxide (SiO2), the conduction band is separated from
the valence band by a large energy gap of 9.0 eV. All energy levels in the valance band are
occupied and all the energy levels in the conduction band are empty. It would take 9.0 eV to
move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band and small electric fields would
not be sufficient to provide the energy, so SiO2 does not conduct electrons and is called an
insulator. Notice the large energy gap shown infigure(2b).
Semiconductors are similiar to the insulators insofar as they do have an energy gap only the
energy gap for a semiconductor is much smaller ex. Silicon's energy gap is 1.1 eV and
Germanium's energy gap is 0.7 eV at 300 °K. These are pure intrinsic semiconductors. Observe
the energy gap in figure2c.

For finite temperatures, a probability exists that electrons from the top of the valence
band in an intrinsic semiconductor will be thermally excited across the energy gap into the
conduction band. The vacant spaces left by the electrons which have left the valence band are
called holes which also contribute to the conduction because electrons can easily move into the
vacancies. If an electric field is applied, the electrons flow in one direction and the holes move
in the opposite direction. The holes act as a positive charge (deficiency of negative charge) so
the direction of current (effective positive charge) is in the same direction. For pure silicon at
300 °K, the number of electrons residing in the conduction band as a result of thermal excitement
from the valence band is 1,4x1010/cm3.

2
Semiconductors have a conduction band and a valance band separated by a forbidden region
called the energy gap. If the lowest energy in the conduction band is designated, Ec , and the
highest energy level of the valance band is called, Ev, then the energy gap between them would
be: Eg = Ec - Ev . The conductivity of a material is directly proportional to the concentration of
election in the conduction band, hence the resistivity, , of a material would be inversely
proportional to the concentration of electrons in the conduction band. The concentration of
electrons increases with temperature. The resistivity decreases with temperature according to the
following equation:

Resistivity = Co T-3/2 exp(Eg/ 2kT) where Co is a constant and T is temperature in degrees

Kelvin, Eg is the energy gap, and k is the Boltzman's constant. Since Eg is small for a
semiconductor on the order of 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules , k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/mole °K and T is
about 350 °K, the resistivity,r , varies almost linearly with (1/k T).

So the resistivity can be described for small temperature range as:

r = C1(T) exp(Eg/ 2kT) where C1 is a slowly varying function of temperature.
The resistance of a sample of material would thus be:
R(T) = C2(T) exp(Eg/ 2kT) at temperature, T.
At an initial temperature, To, it would be:
R(To) = C2(To) exp(Eg/ 2kTo) where C2(T) = C2(To).
Dividing the two equations and taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields:

ln (RT/Ro) = (Eg/2) (1/kT) - (Eg/2) (1/kTo) where Eg/2 is the slope of the linear
equation and (Eg/2) (1/k To) is the y-intercept.

By plotting ln (RT/Ro) vs. (1/k T) , the value of Eg can be found from the slope.

FORMULA: The energy gap of the semiconductor diode is

slope of line
Eg = ____________ eV
5.036

3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: The sample of germanium diode should be connected in the circuit as shown in
the diagram. Initial measurements of the room temperature, should be made before the power
supply has been turned on.

 Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

 Pour some oil in the copper vessel. Fix the diode to the bakelite lid and it is fixed to the
copper vessel, a hole is provided on the lid such that it is reversed biased and a
thermometer is inserted into the vessel.
 With the help of heater, heat the copper vessel till temperature reaches upto 80 oC.

 Note the current reading at 80oC apply suitable voltage say 1.5v (which is kept constant)
& note the corresponding current with every 5 oC fall of temperature, till the temperature
reaches the room temperature.

The current through the sample should be read and recorded for every 5oC fall of temperature.
The values should be recorded in Table.

4
OBSERVATIONS:

Initial measurements:
Temperature:

[Link]. Temp ( Co) T= t + 273 1/T Current ( I ) Log(I)

(K) (K-1) µA

MODEL GRAPH

A graph is plotted between l /T (K) on X-axis and Log(I) on Y-axis which is a straight line . The
slope of the straight line is found.

5
CALCULATIONS

Energy gap Eg= Slope/5.036 eV

RESULT: The energy gap of semiconductor is (Eg) = ……………….eV

6
 EXPERIMENT-4

QUBIT AND COIN FLIP GAME

Aim: To measure a qubit and record the state of a flipped coin using basic quantum gates.

Apparatus/Platform: IBM Quantum Composer (Online).

REPRESENTATION OF QUBIT

Theory: Similar to a bit (0 & 1) in classical computing, a qubit is a basic building block of
Quantum Computers. It represents the superposition of states 0 and 1. What we mean by
superposition is that the given state is in a linear combination of state 0 and state 1.
In Quantum mechanics any system can exist in a superposition of states. In general, the state
of a quantum bit (or qubit for short) is described by: α|0> + β|1> where, α and β are complex
numbers, satisfying
|α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
 
A qubit is represented as a complex vector of size 2. Generally represented as:  
 
Where α, β are amplitudes of states 0 and 1 respectively or we can say the probability to be in
state 0 and 1 respectively. This vector is normalized i.e. |α|2 + |β|2 = 1
1  0 
State 0 is represented as:   ;State 1 is represented as:  
0  1 
Quantum states |0> and |1> form orthogonal basis also called computational basis.

Vectors
Formally, the state of a qubit is a unit vector in C2—the 2-dimensional complex vector space.
  1  0 
The vector   can be written as α|0> + β|1>, Where, |0> =   and |1> =  
  0  1 
A qubit may be visualized as a unit vector on the plane. In general, however, α and β are
complex numbers.
α|0> + β|1> and α|0> − β|1> have the same probabilities for their measurement.

However, they are distinct states which behave differently in terms of how they evolve.

Any two-level quantum system can form a qubit—for example, polarized photons, spin-1/2
particles, excited atoms, and atoms in ground state.

A convenient choice of basis is {|0,|1〉}—this is called the computational basis.

The general pure state of a qubit in this basis is |ψ〉=α|0> + β|1>.
 
In general, |    cos | 0   ei sin |1  , with 0≤θ≤π & 0≤ϕ≤2π.
2 2

Measuring a qubit

A measurement corresponds to the informal idea of “looking” at a qubit, which immediately

1  0 
collapses the quantum state to one of the two classical states   OR   .
0  1 

 
When a qubit given by the quantum state vector   is measured, we obtain the outcome 0 with
 
probability |α| and the outcome 1 with probability |β|2.
2

1  0 
On outcome 0, the qubit's new state is   ; on outcome 1 its state is   .
0  1 

Note that these probabilities sum up to 1 because of the normalization condition |α|2+|β|2=1.
A final important property of measurement is that it does not necessarily damage all quantum
1 
state vectors. If we start with a qubit in the state   , which corresponds to the classical state 0,
0 
measuring this state will always yield the outcome 0 and leave the quantum state unchanged.

Quantum NOT gate(Pauli’s X Gate)

The quantum operator NOT, which can also be called with its most appropriate name Pauli-
X gate acts on a single qubit and its purpose is to invert the past qubit with respect to the
canonical base (an operation that corresponds to a rotation with respect to the X-axis on Bloch
sphere).

 a0   a1 
Quantum NOT gate:     
 a1   a0 

0 1 
The Matrix which does this transformation is: X=  
1 0 

 0 1   a0   a1 
      
1 0   a1   a0 

Matrix representation for Quantum NOT (X gate)

 a0   a1 
X    
 a1   a0 

Pauli-Y gate

The Pauli-Y gate acts on a single qubit. It equates to a rotation around the Y-axis of the Bloch
Sphere by π radians. It maps | 0  to i |1  and |1  to - i | 0  .

Pauli-Z gate

The Pauli-Z gate acts on a single qubit. It equates to a rotation around the Z-axis of the Bloch
Sphere by π radians. Thus, it is a special case of a phase shift gate with θ=π.

It leaves the basis state | 0  unchanged and maps |1  to | 1  .

.
 HADAMARD gate

A quantum computer can simulate non-deterministic type of computation by using another

quantum gate, namely the Hadamard gate, which receives as an input the state 0 and produces
the state (0 + 1)/√2. Measuring this output state yields 0 or 1 with 50/50 probability, which can
be used to simulate a fair coin toss. The Hadamard gate acts on a single qubit.

| 0   |1  | 0   |1 
It maps the basis state | 0  to and |1  to and represents a rotation of π about
2 2
the x- and z-axes.

It is represented by the Hadamard matrix:

{Since the rows of the matrix are orthogonal, H is indeed a unitary matrix.}

Circuit representation of Hadamard gate:

Procedure:
Representation & Measurement of qubit by NOT gate(Pauli X gate).
1: Verify manually the result of Pauli X gate(NOT GATE) on |0> and |1>.
2. Log into IBM quantum composer and create a new file with the Graphical Editor.
3. Select a single qubit and initiate it to |0>.
4. Connect a NOT gate to the single qubit.
5. Measure the qubit using operator.
6. Find the output state vector and the probability of |1>.
7. Compare the manual result with the output state vector.
8. Run the file using ibmq_qasm_simulator.
 Representation & Measurement of qubit Pauli Y gate.
1: Verify manually the result of Pauli Y gate on |0> and |1>.
2. Log into IBM quantum composer and create a new file with the Graphical Editor.
3. Select a single qubit and initiate it to |0>.
4. Connect the Pauli gate to the single qubit.
5. Measure the qubit using operator.
6. Find the output state vector and the probability of |1>.
7. Compare the manual result with the output state vector.
8. Run the file using ibmq_qasm_simulator.

Representation & Measurement of qubit Pauli Z gate.

1: Verify manually the result of Pauli Z gate on |0> and |1>.
2. Log into IBM quantum composer and create a new file with the Graphical Editor.
3. Select a single qubit and initiate it to |0>.
4. Connect the Pauli gate to the single qubit.
5. Measure the qubit using operator.
6. Find the output state vector and the probability of |1>.
7. Compare the manual result with the output state vector.
8. Run the file using ibmq_qasm_simulator.

Representation of qubit by HADAMARD gate.

1: Verify manually the result of Hadamard gate on |0> and |1>.
2. Log into IBM quantum composer and create a new file with the Graphical Editor.
3. Select a single qubit and initiate it to |0>.

4. Connect the Hadamard gate to the single qubit.

5. Measure the qubit using operator.
6. Find the output state vector and the probability of |1>.
7. Compare the manual result with the output state vector.
8. Run the file using ibmq_qasm_simulator.

COIN FLIP GAME

Theory: Game theory is the study of decision making of competing agents in some conflict
situation. With the recent interest in quantum computing and quantum information theory, there
has been an effort to recast classical game theory using quantum probability amplitudes, and
hence study the effect of quantum superposition, interference and entanglement on the agents’
optimal strategies. Apart from unsolved problems in quantum information theory, quantum
game theory may be useful in studying quantum communication since that can be considered
as a game where the objective is to maximize effective communication.
Game theory attempts to mathematically model a situation where agents interact. The agents
in the game are called players, their possible actions moves, and a prescription that specifies
the particular move to be made in all possible game situations a strategy. That is, a strategy
represents a plan of action that contains all the contingencies that can possibly arise within the
rules of the game. In response to some particular game situation, a pure strategy consists of
always playing a given move, while a strategy that utilizes a randomizing device to select
between different moves is known as a mixed strategy. The utility to a player of a game
outcome is a numerical measure of the desirability of that outcome for the player. A payoff
matrix gives numerical values to the players’ utility for all the game outcomes. It is assumed
that the players will seek to maximize their utility within the given rules of the game. Games
in which the choices of the players are known
as soon as they are made are called games of perfect information. These are the main ones that
are of interest to us here. A dominant strategy is one that does at least as well as any competing
strategy against any possible moves by the other player(s). The Nash equilibrium (NE) is the
most important of the possible equilibria in game theory. It is the combination of strategies
from which no player can improve his/her payoff by a unilateral change of strategy. A Pareto
optimal outcome is one from which no player can obtain a higher utility without reducing the
utility of another. Strategy A is evolutionary stable against B if, for all sufficiently small,
positive ǫ, A performs better than B against the mixed strategy (1 −ε) A+ ε B. An evolutionary
stable strategy (ESS) is one that is evolutionary stable against all other strategies. The set of all
strategies that are ESS is a subset of the NE of the game. A two player zero-sum game is one
where the interests of the players are diametrically opposed. That is, the sum of the payoffs for
any game result is zero. In such a game a saddle point is an entry in the payoff matrix for (say)
the row player that is both the minimum of its row and the maximum of its column.

A two state system, such as a coin, is one of the simplest gaming devices. If we have a player
that can utilize quantum moves we can demonstrate how the expanded space of possible
strategies can be turned to advantage. Meyer, in his seminal work on quantum game theory,
considered the simple game “COIN FLIP” that consists of the following: Alice prepares a coin
in the heads state, Bob, without knowing the state of the coin, can choose to either flip the coin
or leave its state unaltered, and Alice, without knowing Bob’s action, can do likewise. Finally,
Bob has a second turn at the coin. The coin is now examined and Bob wins if it shows heads.
A classical coin clearly gives both players an equal probability of success unless they utilize
knowledge of the other’s psychological bias, and such knowledge is beyond analysis by
standard game theory . To quantize this game, we replace the coin by a two state quantum
system such as a spin one-half particle. Now Bob is given the power to make quantum moves
while Alice is restricted to classical ones. Let |0> represent the “heads” state and |1>the “tails”
state. Alice initially prepares the system in the |0> state. Bob can proceed by first applying the
1 1 1
Hadamard operator, H=  - 1
putting the system into the equal superposition of the
2 1
two states: 1/ √ 2(|0>+ |1>). Now Alice can leave the “coin” alone or interchange the states |0>
and |1>, but if we suppose this is done without causing the system to decohere either action
will leave the system unaltered, a fact that can be exploited by Bob. In his second move he
applies the Hadamard operator again resulting in the pure state |0> thus winning the game. Bob
utilized a superposition of states and the increased latitude allowed him by the possibility of
quantum operators to make Alice’s strategy irrelevant, giving him a certainty of winning.

A general prescription
Where a player has a choice of two moves they can be encoded by a single bit. To translate this
into the quantum realm we replace the bit by a quantum bit or qubit that can be in a linear
superposition of the two states. The basis states |0> and |1> correspond to the classical moves.
The players’ qubits are initially prepared in some state to be specified later. We suppose that
the players have a set of instruments that can manipulate their qubit to apply their strategy
without causing decoherence of the quantum state. That is, a pure quantum strategy is a unitary
operator acting on the player’s qubit. Unitary operations on the pair of qubits can be carried
out either before the players’ moves, for example to entangle the qubits, or afterwards, for
example, to disentangle them or to chose an appropriate basis for measurement. Finally, a
measurement in the computational basis {|0>, |1>} is made on the resulting state and the
payoffs are determined in accordance with the payoff matrix. Knowing the final state prior to
the measurement, the expectation values of the payoffs can be calculated. The identity operator
ˆI corresponds to retaining the initial choice while corresponds to a bit flip.
1 0
I= 
0 1
The resulting quantum game should contain the classical one as a subset. We can extend the
list of possible quantum actions to include any physically realizable action on a player’s qubit
that is permitted by quantum mechanics. Some of the actions that have been considered include
projective measurement and entanglement with ancillary bits or qubits. A quantum game of the
above form is easily realized as a quantum algorithm.

PROCEDURE:

Coin flip game by using quantum gates.

1. Log into IBM quantum composer and create a new file.

2. Select a single qubit and initiate it to |0>.

3. Connect a HADAMARD gate to the single qubit.

4. Connect an IDENTITY gate .

5. Connect another HADAMARD gate .
6. Measure the qubit using operator.

[Link] the file using ibmq_qasm_simulator.

OR
1. Log into IBM quantum composer and create a new file.

2. Select a single qubit and initiate it to |0>.

3. Connect a HADAMARD gate to the single qubit.

4. Connect a NOT gate

5. Connect another HADAMARD gate .

6. Measure the qubit using operator.

[Link] the file using ibmq_qasm_simulator.

Result:
1. For NOT gate, the output state vector is found to be:_________ and the probability of |1> is
found to be____ when the input is ______.
2. For Pauli Y gate, the output state vector is found to be:__________ and the probability of
|1> is found to be____ when the input is ______.
3. For Pauli Z gate, the output state vector is found to be: _________ and the probability of
|0> is found to be____ when the input is ______.
4. For HADAMARD gate the output state vector is found to be:________ and the probability
of |1> is ____ when the input is _____and that of |0> is found to be_____ when the input is
_____.
5. It is found that for 2 HADAMARD gate’s connected in a row the output is always same as
the input.
If the input is |0>, the output state vector is found to be ____________.
If the input is |1>, the output state vector is found to be ____________.

NOTE: The HEADS of the coin is indicated by |0> state and TAILS by |1> state.
 EXPERIMENT-5

LED AND SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study V-I Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED) and Solar cell

LED Characteristics
.

APPARATUS: Light emitting Diode Characteristics board comprising of:

1. Light emitting diode
2. 0-5V variable Supply for Light emitting diode
3. 20mW Digital Optical power meter to measure optical power of Light emitting diode
4. 20V Digital Voltmeter to measure voltage across Light emitting diode
5. 200mA DC Digital Ammeter to measure Light emitting diode Current

THEORY: - A p-n junction diode, which emits light on forward biasing, is known as light
emitting diode. The emitted light may be in the visible range or invisible range and the intensity
of light depends on the applied potential.

PRINCIPLE: - In a p-n junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons
cross from the n-layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side
while holes are in the valence band on the p-side. The conduction band has a higher energy
level compared to the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the
difference in energy is given out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium,
the energy dissipation is in the form of heat, whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium
phosphide, it is in the form of light. But this light is in the invisible region & so these material
cannot be used in the manufacture of LED. Hence gallium – arsenide phosphide which emits
light in the visible region is used to manufacture an LED.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CONSTRUCTION: An n-type layer is grown on a substance and a p-type layer is grown over
it by diffusion process. The P-layer is kept at the top because carrier recombination takes place
in it. The terminals anode and cathode are taken out of the n-layer and P-layer respectively.
The anode connections are made at the edge in order to provide more surface area for the
emission of light. A metal film is applied to the bottom of substance to reflect light to the
surface of the device and also to provide connection for the cathode terminal. Finally the
structure are provided with an encapsulated (cover) to protect them from destruction

ADVANTAGE: -
1. Works on low voltage and current and hence consumes less power.
2. Require no warm up time.
3. Can be switched ON and OFF at a faster rate.
4. Long lifetime.
5. Small size and less weight.

Procedure for V/I characteristics of a Light emitting diode:

1. Connect the Light emitting diode circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using coarse and fine knobs.
3. Note down current through the Light emitting diode at increasing values of Light
emitting diode voltage of 0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.5 V.
4. Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light emitting diode may get damaged.
5. Plot a graph of Light emitting diode voltage V/s Light emitting diode current .

OBSERVATION TABLE:

For V/I characteristics of LED

S. No. LED Voltage LED Current

V (volt) I (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
MODEL GRAPH:

V/I characteristics of LED

Solar Cell Characteristics

APPARATUS:
1. Solar Cell/Photovoltaic cell mounted on the wooden base.
2. Single directional mercury coated variable intensity source.
3. Voltmeter.
4. Ammeter.
5. Load resistance.

THEORY:
Sunlight consists of little particles of solar energy called photons. As the photovoltaic cell is
exposed to this sunlight, many of the photons are reflected, pass right through or absorbed by
the solar cell.

When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, electrons
are freed from the negative semiconductor material. Due to the manufacturing process of the
positive layer, these freed electrons naturally migrate to the positive layer creating a voltage
differential, similar to a household battery.

When the 2 layers are connected to an external load, the electrons flow through the circuit
creating electricity. Each individual solar energy cell produces only 1-2 watts. To increase
power output, cells are combined in a weather-tight package called a solar module. These
modules (from one to several thousand) are then wired up in serial and/or parallel with one
another, into what’s called a solar array, to create the desired voltage and amperage output
required.
Due to the natural abundance of silicon, the semi-conductor material that PV cells are
primarily made of, and the practically unlimited resource in the sun, solar power cells are
very environmentally friendly. They burn no fuel and have absolutely no moving parts which
makes them virtually maintenance free, clean, and silent.

The Fill Factor determines the maximum extracting power of a solar cell. The Fill factor is
defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.
The short circuit current Isc, is the maximum current from the solar cell and occurs when the
voltage across the solar cell is approximately zero. Voc is the open circuit voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram .
2. Place the solar cell at a particular distance say 1cm from the variable light source.
3. Vary intensity of the light source, note down the voltage and current in the tabular
column.
4. Next note the short circuit current Isc, when the voltage across the solar cell is zero &
open circuit voltage Vo by removing the load resistance across the solar cell.
5. Calculate power P=VI for each reading.
6. Plot the graph between the voltage Vs Current , mark the maximum power point,
7. Repeat the experiment by changing the distance between the solar cell & light source.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:

Maximum Power
Isc
point (MPP)
Imax
CURRENT mA

Open circuit
voltage Vo
Vmax

0
VOLTAGE IN mV

OBSERVATIONS:

[Link] DISTANCE BETWEEN VOLTAGE IN CURRENT IN P=VI

THE LIGHT SOURCE & mV mA
SOLAR CELL IN CMS

1. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT Isc is

2. OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE Voc is
3. MAXIMUM PEAK POINT(MPP) is
4. Fill Factor(FF) =MPP/ (Voc* Isc) =

RESULT:

V-I characteristics of LED and Solar cell has been studied.

The Fill Factor of Solar Cell is found to be__________.

 EXPERIMENT-6

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
AIM: To determine the Dielectric constant of given material.
APPARATUS:
1. Parallel Plate Capacitors, coupled two large brass disks & two small brass disks.
2. Inbuilt Fixed Frequency Signal Generator
3. Dielectric Materials: Glass, Acrylic, Teflon & PZT

THEORY:
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance to the permittivity of free
space. It is an expression of the extent to which a material concentrates electric flux, and is
the electrical equivalent of relative magnetic permeability.
As the dielectric constant increases, the electric flux density increases, if all other factors
remain unchanged. This enables objects of a given size, such as sets of metal plates, to hold
their electric charge for long periods of time, and/or to hold large quantities of charge.
Materials with high dielectric constants are useful in the manufacture of high-value
capacitors.
A high dielectric constant, in and of itself, is not necessarily desirable. Generally, substances
with high dielectric constants break down more easily when subjected to intense electric
fields, than do materials with low dielectric constants. For example, dry air has a low
dielectric constant, but it makes an excellent dielectric material for capacitors used in high-
power radio-frequency (RF) transmitters. Even if air does undergo dielectric breakdown (a
condition in which the dielectric suddenly begins to conduct current), the breakdown is not
permanent. When the excessive electric field is removed, air returns to its normal dielectric
state. Solid dielectric substances such as polyethylene or glass, however, can sustain
permanent damage.

DIELECTRIC MATERIAL

A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity, but an efficient

supporter of field’s. If the flow of current between opposite electric charge poles is kept to a
minimum while the electrostatic lines of flux are not impeded or interrupted, an electrostatic
field can store energy. This property is useful in capacitors especially at radio frequencies.
Dielectric materials are also used in the construction of radio-frequency transmission lines. In
practice, most dielectric materials are solid. Examples include porcelain (ceramic), mica,
glass, Plastics, Teflon and the oxides of various metals. Some liquids and gases can serve as
good dielectric materials. Dry air is an excellent dielectric, and is used in variable capacitors
and some types of transmission lines. Distilled water is a fair dielectric. A vacuum is an
exceptionally efficient dielectric.
An important property of a dielectric is its ability to support an electrostatic field while
dissipating minimal energy in the form of heat. The lower the dielectric loss (the proportion
of energy lost as heat), the more effective is a dielectric material. Another consideration is
the dielectric constant, the extent to which a substance concentrates the electrostatic lines of
flux. Substances with a low dielectric constant include a perfect vacuum, dry air, and most
pure, dry gases such as helium and nitrogen. Materials with moderate dielectric constants
include ceramics, distilled water, paper, mica, polyethylene, and glass. Metal oxides, in
general, have high dielectric constants.
The prime asset of high-dielectric-constant substances, such as aluminum oxide, is the fact
that they make possible the manufacture of high-value capacitors with small physical volume.
But these materials are generally not able to withstand electrostatic fields as intense as low
dielectric constant substances such as air. If the voltage across a dielectric material becomes
too great that is, if the electrostatic field becomes too intense the material will suddenly begin
to conduct current. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown. In components that use
gases or liquids as the dielectric medium, this condition reverses itself if the voltage
decreases below the critical point. But in components containing solid dielectrics, dielectric
breakdown usually results in permanent damage.

Various substances have dielectric constants εr greater than 1. These substances are generally
called dielectric materials, or simply dielectrics. Commonly used dielectrics include glass,
paper, mica, various ceramics, polyethylene, and certain metal oxides. Dielectrics are used in
capacitors and transmission lines in alternating current (AC), audio frequency (AF), and radio
frequency (RF) applications.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR:

The most common capacitor consists of two parallel plates. The capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor depends on the area of the plates A and their separation d. According
to Gauss's law, the electric field between the two plates is:

Q
Since the capacitance is defined by V = C one can see that capacitance is:

Thus you get the most capacitance when the plates are large and close together. A large
capacitance means that the capacitor stores a large amount of charge.
If a dielectric material is inserted between the plates, the microscopic dipole moments of the
material will shield the charges on the plates and alter the relation. Materials have
a permeability e which is given by the relative permeability k, e=ke0. The capacitance is thus
given by:

All materials have a relative permeability, k greater than unity, so the capacitance can be
increased by inserting a dielectric. Sometimes is referred to as the dielectric constant of the
material. The electric field causes some fraction of the dipoles in the material to orient
themselves along the E-field as opposed to the usual random orientation. This effectively,
appears as if negative charge is lined up against the positive plate, and the positive charge
against the negative plate as shown in the Fig(1).
 Plate Area “A”
εA Kε0
C= d = A
++++++++++++++++++++++++++

d
____________________________

The capacitance of the flat, parallel metallic plates of area “A” separation “d” is given by the
expression above.

Where
ε0 = 8.854 x10-12 Farads/meter is permittivity of space
K= Relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the parallel plates (Dielectric
constant)
K=1 for free space, K>1 for all media & approximately 1 for air.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Fig (1) shows experimental set up. Brass discs of two different diameters are fixed on the
wooden base, Dielectric material is placed between the two brass discs.
Dielectric material Glass, Acrylic, Teflon & PZT are used in this experiment.

Main unit consists of Digital Voltmeter (AC) to read the voltage across the capacitor &
resistor, also consists of inbuilt Signal generator of 10khz fixed frequency.
 Fig(1)

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the dielectric material say glass in between the brass discs.
2. Make the necessary connections as per Fig (2).
3. Switch “ON” the unit.
4. Note the voltage across the Dielectric Sample using Digital Panel Meter.
5. Interchange the signal generator probes and check the voltage across the resistor using
Digital Panel Meter.
6. Now using the formula given below, calculate capacitance, Capacitive Reactance &
Dielectric Constant of the sample.
7. Calculate the dielectric constant of that particular material using the formula given below
in the calculation.
4. Repeat the steps 1 to 7 for other Dielectric material & calculate their respective Dielectric
constant.
5. For PZT use smaller disc set up & repeat the steps 1 to 7.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VR
Dielectric Sample

R
+
Sine
Wave
Generator
Fixed Frequency VC
& Amplitude
-

Fig (2)

OBSERVATIONS:
R = 100KΩ

Vc = ---------------Volts

VR = ---------------Volts

FORMULA:

VR
I=
----------- Amps
R

VC
XC =

---------- Ohm s
I

Capacitance(C) across the parallel plate capacitor with the dielectric material is.

1
C=
2πFXC
Where F = Frequency in kHz and XC = Capacitive Reactance
 Capacitance (C) X Separation (d)
Dielectric Constant (K) =
εo X Area (A)
Where

K= Dielectric Constant
C= Capacitance across the parallel plate capacitor with the dielectric material.
εo = 8.854 x10-12 Farads/meter is permittivity of space
K=1 for free space, K>1 for all media & approximately 1 for air.
d= Thickness of the sample
A= Area of the parallel plate capacitor = πr2
Radius of the parallel plate capacitor (Large) = 3.75cms
Radius of the parallel plate capacitor (Small) = 1.15cm

Thickness of the Dielectric Materials:

1) Glass – 3mm

2) Acrylic – 2mm

3) Teflon- 1mm

4) PZT – 5mm

RESULT
The Dielectric Constant of Glass =
The Dielectric Constant of PZT =
The Dielectric Constant of Acrylic =
 EXPERIMENT- 6

PN JNUCTION DIODE AND ZENER DIODE

CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
To study V-I Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode and Zener Diode

PN-JUNCTION DIODE

APPARATUS:

1. PN Junction diode (IN4007, IN 4148, OA79)

2. Variable power supply (0-2V) and (0-10v).
3. Dual range Digital Ammeter (0-20mA) and (0-200μA)
4. Dual range Digital Voltmeter(0-2V) and (0-20v).
5. Resistors 220Ω & 470 Ω
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY

A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows

the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or
reverse direction. When a p-type material is intimately joined to an n-type a PN junction is
formed. Actually, PN junction is fabricated by special techniques like growing, alloying, and
diffusion methods.

Forward Bias Characteristics

The PN junction is forward-biased when the P-type is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery and the N-type is connected to the negative terminal. In this condition, the applied
electric field and the built-in
electric field at the PN junction are in opposing directions.
When a diode is connected in a forward bias condition the current through the diode is small
for the low voltage. i.e. for first few tenths of volts. The external voltage applied reduces the
barrier potential at the junction, but the diode does not conduct well until the applied external
voltage overcomes the barrier potential.
When this happens, large number of electrons from n- side and holes from p-side start
crossing the junction.
Now, even small increase in applied voltage produces a sharp increase in [Link] voltage
beyond which the current increases rapidly is called Knee voltage or Threshold voltage.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

The PN junction is reverse biased when the P-type is connected to the negative terminal of
the battery and the N-type is connected to the positive terminal of battery.
Under Reverse bias condition, the conduction through the diode is almost [Link]
external voltage acts as forward bias to minority carriers, a very small current flows through
the diode due to minority carriers crossing the [Link] current remains constant for all
voltages less than the break down voltage Vz. This current is called reverse saturation
current. When the applied reverse bias voltage crosses the break down voltage Vz, the current
increases at a rapid rate with a small increase in reverse voltage.

PROCEDURE

Forward Bias of PN Junction Diode

1. The circuit connections are made as shown in the diagram(Figure 1)

2. Switch on power supply note zero on meters.
3. Vary the power supply note down the readings of voltage and the correspondingly
current in milli amps.
4. Plot a graph between voltage and current.
5. Note the forward voltage at which a significant amount of current starts flowing
through the diode is the knee voltage of the diode.
6. Diodes IN4007& IN4148 are silicon diodes OA79 is Germanium diode.

R1=220Ω
+ mA -

+ +
V (0-2V)
(0-2V) -
- -

Figure 1: Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

OBSERVATION TABLE 1:

FORWARD BIAS

[Link] Forward Voltage (Volts) ForwardCurrent(mA)

MODEL GRAPH
Forward Current (mA)

0 VTH
Forward Voltage (Volts)

VTH FOR SILICON DIODE 0.5V- 0.7V

VTH FOR GERMANIUM DIODE 0.2V- 0.3V

Reverse Bias of PN Junction Diode

1. The circuit connections are made as shown in the diagram (Figure 2).
2. Switch on power supply, note zero on meters.
3. Vary the power supply & note down the voltage and its correspondingly current in
micro amps.
4. Plot a graph between voltage and current

MODEL GRAPH
Reverse Voltage
0
Reverse Current(µA)
OBSERVATION TABLE 2:
REVERSE BIAS

[Link] Reverse Voltage (Volts) Reverse Current(μA)

ZENER DIODE

APPARATUS:

1. Zener diode
2. Variable power supply (0-2V) and (0-10v).
3. Dual range Digital Ammeter (0-20mA) and (0-200μA)
4. Dual range Digital Voltmeter(0-2V) and (0-20v).
5. Resistors 220Ω & 470 Ω
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY
Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode. Due to heavily doped, its depletion layer is
very thin and is order of micrometer. The forward bias characteristic of Zener diode is same
as the normal PN junction diode but in reverse bias it has different characteristic. Initially, a
negligible constant current flow through the Zener diode in its reverse bias but at certain
voltage, the current becomes abruptly large. This voltage is called as Zener voltage. This
sudden and sharp increase in Zener current is called as Zener breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown:
This type of breakdown occurs in the presence of a high electric field. When we apply a high
electric field in a reverse biased condition, the electrons start gaining high kinetic energy.
These electrons start breaking other covalent bonds and start creating more hole-electron
pairs. These pairs start crossing the depletion region and contribute to a high reverse reverse
biased current. The breaking of bond is an irreversible process, and the p-n junction is
completely destroyed after an avalanche breakdown
PROCEDURE: -

Forward Bias of Zener Diode:

1. Connect the power supply, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in circuit diagram(Figure
3)& switch DPDT towards 1V & 30mA.
2. Keep the voltage control knobs of the power supply in minimum position.
 3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply.
4. By slowly increasing the voltage of power supply in steps, note down the I F and VF.
5. Plot the values of IF and VF on a graph sheet keeping IF on ‘Y-axis’ and VF on ‘X-
axis’

R1=220Ω
+ -
mA

+
+
(0-2V) V
-
-

Figure 3: Forward Bias Zener Diode

OBSERVATION TABLE:

FORWARD BIAS

[Link] Voltage VF (Volts) Current IF (mA)

Reverse Bias of Zener Diode:

1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter & ammeter as shown in Circuit diagram(Figure
4),Switch DPDT towards 10V & 300µA.
2. Repeat steps 4 to 6 of procedure – 1.
3. By slowly increasing the voltage of the power supply in steps, note down the IR and
VR.
4. Switch ‘OFF’ the supply.
5. Plot the values of IR and VR on a graph sheet keeping IR on ‘Y-axis’ and VR on ‘X-
axis’.
 R2=470Ω + -
mA

- +

V
(0-10V)
+ -

Figure 4: Reverse Bias Zener Diode

REVERSE BIAS

[Link] Voltage VR (Volts) Current IR (mA)

 IF

ZENNER BREAKDOWN

KNEE VOLTAGE

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

VR VF

IR

RESULT

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode and Zener Diode have been studied
 EXPERIMENT-8

NUMERICAL APERTURE & ACCEPTANCE ANGLE OF OPTICAL FIBERS

AIM: To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an

optical fiber.
APPARATUS: Optical fiber kit (Transmitter & Receiver), Na jig, optical fiber of different
lengths.
THEORY: Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light
can be collected by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the
incident medium andthe sine of the maximum ray angle.
NA= ni. sinθmax ni for air is 1

NA=Sinθmax
For a step index fiber, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by

=  n2cladding
n2core
NA

For very small difference in refractive indices the equation reduces to

NA= ncore
Where Δ is the fractional difference in refractive indices.
N.A. =sinα= D / (4L2 + D2)1/2
Where L=perpendicular distance between the
fiber end and the screen.D=diameter of the
light falling on the screen.

Acceptance angle: α=sin-1(N.A.)

 NA MEASUREMENT SCHEME OF DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:

1. One end of the optical fibre is connected to the power output of LED. And the other end of
the fibre is connected to NA Jig through the connector.
2. The AC main is switched on. The light emitted by LED passes through the optical fibre
cable to the other end. The set Po knob is adjusted such that, maximum intensity is observed
on the screen and it should not be further disturbed.

3. A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is moved along the length of the NA Jig
to observe the circular spreading of the light intensity on the screen.
4. The screen is adjusted such that, the first circle from the centre of the screen is completely
filled with the light. At this position, the distance (L) from this fibre end to the screen is noted
on the NA Jig.
5. The experiment is repeated for the subsequent circles by adjusting the length L along NA jig
and the readings are noted in table

OBSERVATIONS

[Link]. L (mm) D (mm) N.A. = D / [ D2 +4 L2 ]1/2 θ (degrees)

1

RESULT:

[Link] Numerical Aperture of the optical fiber is found to be :

[Link] acceptance angle of the optical fiber is found to be :