Sub: Concept of Mechanical Engineering

Module 1

Engineering Materials.:

• Engineering materials is a branch of mechanical engineering in which we study

different types of materials, their properties, and applications.

• Engineering materials are the backbone of all engineering applications, providing the
necessary properties for creating safe, efficient, and reliable products and structures.

• Engineering materials are the building blocks of engineering. They are the raw
materials that engineers use to make machines, bridges, vehicles, and other valuable
things.

• Steel, aluminum, plastic, glass, concrete, wood, etc, are examples of engineering
materials.

Classification of Engineering Materials

Metals
Metals are defined as polycrystalline bodies made of many fine crystals. Most metals are solid
at room temperature, except for a few like mercury, which is liquid. Metals have high thermal
and electrical conductivity and a positive temperature coefficient of resistance, meaning their
resistance increases with temperature. Examples of metals include silver, copper, gold,
aluminum, iron, zinc, lead, and tin.

Metals can be further divided into two groups-

Ferrous Metals –
All ferrous metals have iron as a common element. All ferrous materials have very high
permeability, which makes these materials suitable for the construction of the core of electrical
machines. Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring
Steel, etc.
Non-Ferrous Metals –

All non-ferrous metals have very low permeability. Example: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum,
etc

Non-Metal

Non-metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exist in amorphic or mesomorphic

forms. These are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal temperatures.

Usually, all non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity.

Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos, etc.

As these non-metals have very high resistivity, they are suitable for insulation purposes in
electrical machines.

Alloys

Alloys are composed of two or more metals or metals and non-metals. Alloys have good
mechanical strength and a low temperature coefficient of resistance.

Example: Steels, Brass, Bronze, Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys, etc.

Steel:

Steel is a metallic alloy primarily composed of iron (Fe) and carbon (C), with the carbon
content typically ranging between 0.02% and 2%.

1. Carbon steel,

2. Stainless Steel
3. Alloy Steel
4. Tool Steel

Carbon Steel

Low-carbon steel grades, or mild steel grades, contain up to 0.3% carbon. They are
renowned for their excellent ductility, weldability, and malleability, making them ideal for a
wide range of structural applications and everyday products.

Medium carbon steel grades, with 0.3–0.6% carbon. They strike a balance between strength
and flexibility and are often used in automotive components and machinery parts.

High carbon steel grades exceed 0.6%-2% carbon. They are significantly stiffer and
stronger, but less ductile, and are commonly utilized in cutting tools and high-strength wires.

Cast Iron:

Cast Iron is a group of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2% (usually 2–
4% C, along with 1–3% silicon, manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur in small amounts)

1. Gray Cast:

Properties: Good machinability, high damping capacity, brittle in tension but strong in
compression.

Uses: Engine blocks, machine tool bodies, pipes, brake discs

2. White Cast Iron

Carbon is present as iron carbide (cementite), not graphite. Has a white crystalline fracture
surface.

Properties: Tough and brittle, high wear resistance, and difficult to machine.

Uses: Wear-resistant surfaces, liners, and grinding balls.

3. Malleable Cast Iron

Made by heat-treating white cast iron to convert cementite into tempered carbon.
Properties: Stronger and more ductile than gray/white cast iron, good toughness.
Uses: Pipe fittings, brackets, agricultural equipment, railway parts

4. Ductile Cast Iron

Properties: High strength, ductility, shock resistance, and machinability.

Uses: Crankshafts, gears, heavy-duty machinery, automotive parts.

IRON – IRON CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

The iron-carbon phase diagram is used to understand the different phases of steel and cast
iron. Both steel and cast iron are a mix of iron and carbon.
This iron-carbon phase diagram is plotted with the carbon concentrations by weight on the X-
axis and the temperature scale on the Y-axis.

Types of Ferrous Alloys on the Phase Diagram

• The weight percentage of carbon is from 0% to 6.67%.

• Up to 0.008% of Carbon, it is pure iron.
 • It exists in the α-ferrite form at room temperature.

• From 0.008% up to 2% carbon, it is called steel. Within this range, there are different
grades of steel, including low-carbon steel (also known as mild steel), medium-carbon
steel, and high-carbon steel.

• As the carbon content increases beyond 2%, it is cast iron

Eutectic Point

• For the iron-carbon alloy diagram, the eutectic point is where the lines A1, A3, and
ACM meet.

• At these points, the liquid phase freezes into a mixture of two solid phases.

• The alloys formed at this point are known as eutectic alloys. On the left and right
sides of this point, alloys are known as hypoeutectic and hypereutectic alloys,
respectively.

• Hypo eutectoid steel – 0.008 to 0.8% of carbon

• Hypereutectoid steel – 0.8 to 2% of Carbon

Different Phases

α-ferrite (α-iron)

• This phase is stable at room temperature and is magnetic below 768°C.

• It has a maximum carbon content of 0.022 % and it will transform to γ-austenite at

912°C.

γ-austenite (γ-iron)

• On further heating, it is converted into BCC δ-ferrite at 1395°C.

• This phase is non-magnetic.

δ-ferrite

• The phase can be spotted at the top left corner of the graph.

• It has a melting point of 1538°C.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

• Elasticity: The property of a substance by which it regains its original shape and size
when the deforming force is removed.
 • Plasticity: The property of a substance by which it does not regain its original shape
and size when the deforming force is removed

• Strength: A material’s ability to resist deformation or disintegration in the face of

loads or external forces is known as this attribute. The materials we choose for our
engineering goods must be sufficiently strong mechanically to withstand a variety of
mechanical forces or loads. Compressive Strength and Tensile Strength

• Ductility: It is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation before rupturing.

The materials that show this property are known as ductile materials. A good ductile
material is capable of being drawn into wires. Aluminum, Copper, etc.

• Hardness: It is the capacity of a substance to withstand long-term shape change

brought on by external stress. Scratch Hardness, Indentation Hardness, and Rebound
Hardness are three different measures of hardness.

• Brittleness: A material’s brittleness refers to how easily it fractures under the influence
of a force or load. When brittle material is stressed, it experiences very little energy and
cracks without undergoing significant strain. The opposite of a material’s ductility is
brittleness. Material brittleness is temperature-dependent. At low temperatures, some
metals that are ductile at room temperature become brittle.

• Malleability: The ability of a material to be rolled or hammered into a thin sheet is a

common way to classify malleability. This mechanical quality is a component of the
material’s plasticity. Temperature affects a material’s malleability. The malleability of
material rises with the rise in temperature

Stress Strain
Stress:
Stress is defined as a force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied
forces.

The following formula gives stress:

Stress (σ)= F/A

where σ is the stress applied, F is the force applied, and A is the area of the force application.
The unit of stress is N/m2.

Strain
Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied,
divided by the initial dimensions of the body.
The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of the length of a solid:

Strain (ε)= δl/ L

where ε is the strain due to the stress applied, δl is the change in length, and L is the original
length of the material.

The strain is a dimensionless quantity, as it just defines the relative change in shape.

Hook’s Law

Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within
the elastic limit of that material.

Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:

F = –k.x

Where F is the force, x is the extension in length, and k is the constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant in N/m.

Stress-Strain Curve
(i) Proportional Limit

It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-strain
ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the
graph represents the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point on the graph at which the material returns to its original position when the load
acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its
original position, and plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After
the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points:
(i) upper yield point, (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress (Breaking Stress)
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure.
Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.

What Is Material Hardness?

Hardness is the measure of a material’s resistance to localized permanent deformation.

Permanent deformation is also called plastic deformation. While elastic deformation means
that a material changes its shape only during the application of force, a resulting plastic
deformation means that the material will not return to its original shape.

Some materials are naturally hard. For example, tungsten is a rigid metal that finds use as an
alloying element in tool steel. This makes sure that this group of steels can resist wear even at
high temperatures during cutting operations.
Cemented carbide, which is widely used in milling cutters, also often contains tungsten. These
replaceable cutting tool bits significantly extend the lifetime of cutting tools
A Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine is used to measure the hardness of materials.
Hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation, penetration, or scratching.

Parts and Their Functions

1. Dial Face (Indicator Dial)

o Displays the hardness value directly on a calibrated scale after the test.

o The reading depends on the depth of penetration of the indenter into the
specimen.

2. Penetrator (Indenter)
o A hardened steel ball or a diamond cone, depending on the type of test.

o It presses into the specimen surface under load to measure hardness.

3. Specimen Goes on Anvil

o The anvil is the platform where the specimen (workpiece) is placed.

o Different shapes of anvils may be used depending on the sample size and
shape.

4. Wheel

o Used to raise or lower the anvil so that the specimen comes into contact with
the penetrator.
o Ensures proper positioning before applying the load.
 5. Crank to Release Major Load

o Engages and releases the major load on the penetrator.

o The Rockwell test involves first applying a minor load (to set the reference),
followed by a major load.

o After holding the major load for a set time, it is released, and the depth
difference is measured.

Working Principle of Rockwell Hardness Test

1. Place the specimen on the anvil and raise it with the wheel until it just touches the
penetrator.

2. Apply a minor load (usually 10 kgf) to seat the indenter in the specimen.

3. Apply the major load (additional load, depending on Rockwell scale type).
4. Hold the load for a specific time, then release it using the crank.

5. The dial indicator shows the Rockwell Hardness Number (HR), which depends on the
depth of penetration.

What is impact testing?

Impact testing is a critical evaluation process that determines a material or product’s toughness,
resilience, and durability when subjected to sudden forces or shocks.

This testing is essential in various industries to ensure the safety, performance, and reliability
of materials and products. Impact testing helps identify potential weaknesses and improve
material formulations and product designs by simulating real-world conditions
Impact Test Purpose
• To determine how materials behave under sudden shock or impact loading.

• Useful in assessing brittle vs. ductile behaviour.

• Important for materials used in structures, bridges, pressure vessels, aircraft, etc

Key Differences Between Izod and Charpy Tests

Feature Izod Test Charpy Test

Specimen Position Vertical (cantilever) Horizontal (supported)

Notch Position Facing striker Opposite to a striker

Point of Strike Above the notch Mid-span (behind the notch)

Support Type One end fixed Both ends supported

Common Usage Plastics, polymers Metals, alloys

Alloy Steels
Alloy steels are steels in which elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
vanadium, silicon, tungsten, cobalt, or titanium are added in controlled amounts.

Common Alloying Elements and Their Effects

 • Manganese (Mn): Increases hardness and toughness, improves hardenability.

• Nickel (Ni): Improves toughness, impact strength, and corrosion resistance.

• Chromium (Cr): Provides hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance.

• Molybdenum (Mo): Enhances strength at high temperatures, resists creep.

• Vanadium (V): Refines grain size, increases strength, and wear resistance.

• Tungsten (W): Improves hardness at elevated temperatures (used in tool steels).

• Silicon (Si): Increases strength and magnetic properties.

• Cobalt (Co): Improves hot hardness in cutting tools.

Properties of Alloy Steels

• Higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to carbon steels.

• Better toughness and ductility.

• Improved wear resistance and hardness.

• Resistance to oxidation and corrosion (especially stainless steels).

• Ability to retain strength at high temperatures (heat-resistant steels).

• Improved hardenability (depth to which steel can be hardened).

Applications
• Construction and structural steels (bridges, buildings).

• Automotive parts (gears, axles, crankshafts, bearings).

• Tool steels (cutting, drilling, machining tools).

• Aerospace industry (jet engines, turbines, landing gears).

• Power plants (boilers, turbines, pressure vessels).

• Stainless steels in chemical plants, food processing, and surgical instruments