Chapter 7

Classification and Characterization of

Feedstuffs

5/5/2025 241
 Learning objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe advantages of feedstuff classification
Identify feedstuff categories and characteristics
Identify the nutritive characteristics in various feedstuffs

5/5/2025 242
 Feedstuff Classification
 Advantages of feedstuff classification are
– Feeds with similar nutritive characteristics are grouped
together
– Such grouping helps in the selection of feedstuffs for
formulation of rations
– This also helps in the substitution of one feed with an other
feed from the same group
 Feedstuffs can be classified based on different criteria like
based up on use and nutritional characteristics
For example based on the crude fiber (CF) content as the
nutritional characteristics; feedstuffs can be grouped in to
roughage and concentrate
• Concentrate feeds contain <18% CF
5/5/2025 • Roughage feeds contain >18% CF 243
 Feedstuff classification
 The National Research Council of USA groups
feedstuffs with similarity of nutritional characteristics
 Feedstuffs within a group generally have similar
nutritive values
 According to this classification feedstuffs can be
grouped in to 8 feed classes
1. Dry forage and Roughages
2. Succulent forage
3. Silage
4. Protein supplement
5. Energy feeds
6. Mineral supplements
7. Vitamin supplements
8.
5/5/2025 Feed additives 244
 Forages and roughages
• Certain authors used forage and roughage
interchangeably
• But mostly forage is used to refer fresh plant
materials strictly speaking to grazing and
browsing or
• Forages are plants grown to be used specifically
for feeding animals that includes grasses and
legumes whereas
• Roughage is meant to imply either dry or fresh
plant material used for animal feeding which
contains more than 18% crude fiber
5/5/2025 245
 Roughage feeds are characterized by
• Being low in nutritional value: - as roughages
are feedstuffs that contain greater than 18% CF,
these feeds are less nutritious and as a result
they are more appropriate to the feeding of
ruminants as compared to monogastric animals
• But for ruminants they play a physiological role
besides supplying nutrients.
• Contain low energy and crude protein content
generally speaking

5/5/2025 246
 Cont’d
• roughages are generally bulky feeds, their intake is
limited.
• The intake of roughages by ruminants depends on
two factors
– Body weight of the animal
– Quality of the roughage
• If quality of roughage is good to excellent intake is
about 2.5% to 3% of the body weight of the animal
respectively.
• For average quality roughage intake is 2% of the
body weight and
• For poor quality roughage intake is about 1.5% of
the body weight of the animal
5/5/2025 247
Roughage sources available to livestock
A. PASTURE
• These are the most important feed sources for
grazing animals.
• Pasture may be natural pasture or cultivated
pasture
• Natural pasture are grasslands where establishment
of grazing has happened naturally, without the
influence of man
• Cultivated grasslands are grasslands established or
cultivated by humans. It may be permanent or
temporary
5/5/2025 248
 Cont’d
• Good pasture supplies the most economic feed
for livestock
• The usefulness of roughages from pasture
depends up on modifying factors.
• These factors that will affect the nutritional value
of roughages from pasture include
– Species composition
– stage of maturity
– Soil fertility and fertilizer treatment and
– grazing management
5/5/2025 249
 Crop Residue
• are other roughage sources for livestock feeding
especially in places where crop livestock mixed
farming is practiced
• there is a relation between crop and animal
production
• Crop residues include Straws, stems and leaves of
crops (wheat, barley, oat), Stover
• This is obtained after the plant is totally matured.
Therefore, their nutritional value is very low
• The nutritive value of crop residues improved
through Supplementation and treatment (Chemical,
physical and biological)
5/5/2025 250
 Succulent forage
• Feeds in this category includes Pasture, Range
Plants, and Green Forages
• Many of these feeds could be harvested as dry
feeds that would be classed in the previous
category
• The moisture content is usually between 50-85%
but can be quite variable
• Nutritive quality can be varied as well.
– Young, well-fertilized wheat pasture can have high
crude protein and be very digestible
5/5/2025 251
 Silage
The process of ensiling plant materials under
anaerobic conditions produces silage which is a
common storage method for livestock feed.
The plant material undergoes a controlled
fermentation that produces acids that then kill off
bacteria, molds, and other destructive organisms.
One common misconception is that ensiling
improves the nutrient content of a feed.
• Fermentation uses nutrients and thus reduces
nutrient content of the original forage material .
5/5/2025 252
 Cont’d
• Steps to produce silage
– Preparation of silo (silo is a container in which fermentation
takes place)
– Harvesting forage
– Wilting forage (optional depending on the moisture content
of the forage)
– Chopping the forage
– Filling and compacting
– Sealing
• The quality of silage produced depends on
– The amount of air allowed to enter in to the silo
– The level of compaction
– The forage material to be ensiled

5/5/2025 253
 Protein supplements
• Roughages will not be enough to supply all the
nutrients needed for production
• So one should consider supplementation with other
nutrient sources such as; energy concentrates,
protein concentrates, minerals and vitamins
• Under normal situations grains do not contain
enough crude protein so that different protein
supplements should be included in the diet of the
animal
• The protein supplements can be of animal origin,
plant origin or unconventional protein supplements
5/5/2025 254
Animal origin protein supplements

Meat meal
– protein supplement for both ruminants and
monogastrics

– It contains 60-70% CP.

– The protein quality varies depending on the

proportion of the particular by-products in meat
meal
5/5/2025 255
 Meat meal Cont’d
• Meat meal could be cooked at high temperature and pressure
to decrease the fat level
• It contains less than 4.4% phosphorous. If it contains greater
than 4.4% phosphorous, it should be called meat and bone meal
• It should not be included at greater than 5% of the concentrate
portion of the ration (ruminant , swine)
• Can be included up to 10% in poultry ration
• It is good source of B complex vitamins and lysine but poor in
methionine and tryptophan contents so better to be given with
other protein supplements
5/5/2025 256
 Fish meal
• Contains good amino acids assortment

• CP content, it is highly variable ranging from 35 to 70%

• If it is prepared from the whole fish, it will have higher CP

• If it is prepared from unpalatable portions (head and fins) it

will have a lower CP

• It is rich in lysine, methionine, tryptophan which makes it a

valuable supplement to cereal based diets

• It is highly palatable but is expensive

5/5/2025 257
 Cont’d
• It is also best source of B vitamins and has a high
mineral content like calcium, phosphorous and
trace elements
• So it is mainly used in poultry and young animal
feeding.
• Because of its low degradation rate in the rumen,
fish meal is a very effective source of bypass
protein for ruminants
• Fish meal should not be fed to swine and poultry
in the immediate period before slaughter, as the
flesh may develop a fishy flavor
5/5/2025 258
 Blood Meal
 obtained by drying blood of slaughtered animals
 Blood meal contains about 80% CP and is important
nutritionally as a source of protein alone.
 is one of the richest sources of lysine, arginine,
methionine, cystine, and leucine
 It is unpalatable and is added in limited amount
 beyond certain limit (about 10%), it tends to cause scour
 The meal is best regarded for boosting the dietary lysine
level.
5/5/2025 259
 Plant origin protein supplements
• Basically come as a by-product of oil seeds during
the extraction of oils
• There are two major extraction methods of oil from
oil seeds
– Expeller method
– Solvent extraction methods

5/5/2025 260
 Cont’d

Expeller extraction method Solvent extraction method

• Utilizes high temperature • organic solvents are
(104-115 0C) and high used to extract oils
pressure (40MN/m2) to • hexane is most
extract the oil commonly used
• It is less effective in • The by-product may
extraction than the solvent contain about 2-3% of
extraction method oil
• The by-product may
contain about 12-13% of
oil
5/5/2025 261
 Cottonseed meal (CSM)

• Cotton is grown primarily for its fiber. The oil is the

major by-product and the oil seed meal is a
secondary by-product
• CSM contains about 41% CP and 12% CF
• This feed is less palatable for monogastrics but, well
accepted by ruminants as it contains a relatively
high fiber level.

5/5/2025 262
 CSM cont’d
• The protein in this meal is good quality but, low content of
cystine, methionine and lysine
• So supplementation with animal protein sources if fed to
monogastrics is essential
• CSM contains gossypol (natural pesticide for the plant) which
is toxic for animals
• The general symptom of gossypol toxicity include
– Has inhibitory effect on digestive enzymes
– Cause depress appetite and constipation
5/5/2025 263
 Cont’d
– Loss of weight or reduced growth
– Death resulting from cardiac failure, by affecting the
heart, liver and lungs
– Because gossypol reacts with iron, it causes anemia by
binding up iron and rendering it unavailable.
• The susceptibility of animals to gossypol toxicity
depends on species and age
• Ruminant animals are very tolerant to gossypol
than monogastric animals
• Amongst monogastric, swine is more susceptible
than poultry
• With respect to age, younger animals are more
susceptible than older animals
5/5/2025 264
 CSM cont’d
• Gossypol even at very low levels will create olive-green (light-
green) discoloration of the egg yolk

• The quantity of gossypol can be decreased by;

– Breeding –having minimal quantity of gossypol through selection
and breeding.

– Treatment with ferrous sulfate (iron salt). It is only the free

gossypol, which is biologically active and toxic

– Therefore, addition of iron will tie the free gossypol (change it into
physiologically inactive form) and its side effect will be minimized
5/5/2025 265
 Sunflower meal
 The well dehauled product contains 40-45% CP and 11-13% CF.

 The outer covering of the seed is very fibrous,

 therefore the CP and CF content of this meal depends on the

degree of decortications and the method of extraction

 contains minimal lysine

 contains some phenolic compounds that have an adverse effect

on palatability and may reduce protein digestibility

 It has short shelf life so that should be used immediately

5/5/2025 266
 Rapeseed meal (Canola meal)

• This is a product produced from oil seed varieties Brassica

napus and Brassica campestris

• It contains 36-40% CP and 13-14% CF and contains a high

level of fatty acids called erucic acid, which is toxic

• It contains another group of toxic compound called

glucosinolates (glucosides)

• This inhibits the metabolism of the thyroid gland and may

induce
5/5/2025
goiter 267
 Cont’d
• Canadian researchers have developed rapeseed
varieties that are low in both erucic acid and
glucosinolates
• These double zero varieties have been named as
canola to distinguish them from the toxic rapeseed
• Therefore canola meal is a protein supplement
derived from low glucosinolate and erucic acid
rapeseed.
• This is the principal rapeseed product used as feed

5/5/2025 268
 Linseed meal or flaxseed meal
• Linseed meal is a residue remaining after the extraction of
linseed oil from flax (Linum usitatissum)
• It contains a fairly low protein content of approximately 35%
• It is severely deficient in lysine and methionine, which limit its
use for monogastric animals
• It is unique amongst the oilseed residues in that it contains 30 to
100 g/kg of mucilage that absorb large amounts of water
– The lubricating character of the mucilage protects the gut
wall against mechanical damage
– preventing constipation.
5/5/2025 269
 LSM cont’d
• Linseed meal contains two types of anti-
nutritional or toxic factors
• Linatine
– It is a Di peptide composed of glutamic acid and 1-
amino-D-proline which is an antagonist of
pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
• Cynogenic glucosides or linamarine
– whole seed or linseed meal produced at a low
temperature contains compounds called linamarine
5/5/2025 270
 LSM cont’d
• along with linamarine, LSM contains enzymes
called linase which is capable of hydrolyzing it
with the evolution of hydrogen cynide or prussic
acid which is toxic to the animal.

• But this linase can be destroyed easily by heat

5/5/2025 271
 Soybean meal (SBM)
• Soybean meal is the major protein supplement
used for non ruminant animals in most areas of
the world with intensive livestock and poultry
production
• Swine and poultry are fed corn-soy diets with
corn as an energy source and soybean meal as
protein supplement
• Soybean meal is highly palatable and has a high
digestibility
• It has a high protein content about 44-50 % CP
• The protein has a good amino acid balance
5/5/2025 272
 Cont’d
• Soybean meal is low in vitamin B12
• So if this product is included in swine and poultry
diets correction for the vitamin has to be made
• Soybean meal contains approximately 5-6%
oligosaccharides
• Non ruminants specially poultry is unable to digest
the oligosaccharide fraction efficiently
• Row soybeans are toxic to most animals
• They contain a variety of toxins including protease
inhibitors, lectins, phytoestrogens, saponins,
goiterogens, and several others
• Fortunately the nutritional significance of toxins are
readily destroyed by heat treatment
5/5/2025 273
Non conventional protein supplements
• Non conventional feeds are feeds that were not
used as feed previously but currently being used
because of
– their nutritional significance and
– shortage of conventional feeds
• Some of the non conventional protein sources
include
– Poultry manure (30% CP)
– Hydrolyzed feather meal (greater than 91% CP)
– Hydrolyzed leather meal ( 75% CP, but poor quality)
– Hatchery by-products
• CP and calcium is variable depending up on which type of
material is found in the meal.
5/5/2025 274
 Summary of the lesson
• Summarize what you have learned (10 min)

5/5/2025 275
 Energy supplement feeds
Grain and grain byproducts
• The most common feedstuffs used to supply energy

• Grains as sources of energy are characterized by;

– are high in DM content (80 – 90% DM)

– contain a high energy in terms of total digestible nutrient (TDN)

– contain low fiber, so can be used for both ruminants and

monogastric animals

– 82% of the seed is starch

– Protein level in such feeds is generally low ( 8-12% CP) 276

 Cont’d
• One of the problem of using grains as animal feed is the
competition between human and animals
• Therefore, grain by-products or grain milling by-products are
mostly utilized
• Wheat milling byproducts are common in Ethiopia
Wheat bran (‘Furshika’)
Wheat seed comprised of seed coat, endosperm and germ
• coarsest by-product of wheat milling is called wheat bran
• Contain the outermost layer of the seed with some flour 277
 Cont’d
• Contain a high level of fiber on average about 10%

• protein is concentrated in the germ and seed coat

• Since wheat bran is fibrous type of feed, it is more suitable

for the feeding of ruminants

• Bran is one of richest source of phosphorous but low in

calcium

5/5/2025 278
 Wheat shorts (‘Furshikelo’)

• Other product obtained from milling of wheat

• a mixture of certain portion of the endosperm and fine bran

• Contains lower fiber content mostly less than 8.5%

• contains around 77% TDN

• Since it has the germ, the product is expected to have higher

CP content (greater than 18% CP)

• more appropriate in monogastric animals (poultry) feeding

because
5/5/2025
of low fiber, high energy and protein content. 279
 Wheat middling

• It is in between wheat bran and wheat shorts

• Contains a higher fiber and lower protein content
compared to wheat shorts
• Compared to wheat bran, wheat middling contains a
lower fiber and higher flour content (high in TDN)
• The minimum CP content is 10-14% and maximum
CF content is 9.5% for this by-product

5/5/2025 280
 II. Sugar cane by-products
• Normally only about 10% of the total weight of sugar cane
on average is sugar, the rest is a by-product

• Sugarcane tops (30% the sugar can plant at harvesting)

• It is a by-product which if provided as fresh to fattening

animals without any supplement can support for
maintenance requirement

• For the purpose of production we need to have other

supplemental feeds
5/5/2025 281
 Bagasse
• It is a very fibrous by-product left out after squeezing out
the juice from the stem
• It is divided into fine bagasse (30%) and coarse bagasse
(70%)
• It is also very high in lignin content and contains about
20% lignin (very high)
• alkali treatment can solublize lignin and increase
digestibility
• Palatability could be improved up to 55% by adding
molasses
• It is low in CP

5/5/2025 282
 Molasses
• It is black syrup sweet solution containing about 46% of
sugars (55% on DM basis)
• It is a source of energy for the feeding of animals
• 5% of molasses could be included in concentrate ration of
ruminant animals (about 10% dairy), but the level can go up
to 30% of the diet
• Molasses at high levels also result in scouring or dysentery
• Can be used as Sweetener
• Pellet binder 283
 Mineral and vitamin supplements

• Mineral supplements could be supplemented as pure

minerals like Ca, P, and Mg etc

• compounds like calcium carbonate, Dicalcium

phosphate, sodium phosphate

• Salt is the most commonly fed mineral supplement

• Urea molasses block (UMB) is a block made to

supply nitrogen(protein), energy, and calcium
5/5/2025 284
 Cont’d

• Vitamins are Organic compound essential for

health, normal growth and maintenance of
animal life but; only in trace amounts

• Purified vitamins can be given for confined

feeding practice otherwise enough amount can
be accessed from pasture
5/5/2025 285
 Feed additives (FA)

 Feed additives may be non-nutritive or nutritive substances

added to feeds to improve;

– the efficiency of feed utilization

– Feed acceptance

– Health or metabolism of the animal

 Feed additives are added in a ration in very minute

quantities
 proper mixing procedure should be followed
5/5/2025 286
 Classification of feed additives
Additives that influence feed stability, feed manufacturing and
properties of feeds
• Antifungal
• Antioxidants
• Pellet binders
Additives that modify animal growth and performance , feed
efficiency, and metabolism
• Feed flavors (Molasses, sucrose, glucose)
• Digestive modifiers (enzymes, buffers, probiotics)
• Metabolism modifiers
• Growth promoters
5/5/2025 287
 FA cont’d
Additives that modify animal health

• Drugs

• Immuno-modulators

Additives that modify consumers acceptance

• Xanthophyll

• Saponin (lowers blood cholesterol level)

5/5/2025 288
 Anti-nutritional Factors in Animal Feed
• Definition: ANFs are compounds naturally
present in feed ingredients that interfere with
nutrient digestion, absorption, or utilization, or
exert adverse effects on animal health and
performance when consumed above certain
levels.
• Primarily found in plant-based feedstuffs
(legumes, cereals, oilseeds).
• They often serve as defense mechanisms for
the plant against pests and pathogens
5/5/2025 289
 Cont’d
• Some ANFs might have beneficial effects at very
low concentrations, but typically pose challenges in
practical animal feeding
• They reduce the nutritional value of feed and can
negatively impact animal productivity and well-
being
• ANFs are inherent components of many feedstuffs
that can limit animal performance and health.
• Understanding their nature, action, and impacts
allows for
– effective management strategies
– maximizing feed utilization and
– ensuring animal welfare and productivity

5/5/2025 290
 Classification of Major ANF
1. Factors Affecting Protein Utilization
1. Protease Inhibitors (e.g., Trypsin & Chymotrypsin
Inhibitors): Found in soybeans, peas, beans. Inhibit
digestive enzymes, reducing protein breakdown.
2. Lectins (Hemagglutinins): Found in beans, soybeans.
Bind to intestinal lining, damaging cells and impairing
nutrient absorption. Can cause agglutination of red
blood cells
3. Tannins: Found in sorghum, legumes, tree leaves.
Bind dietary proteins and digestive enzymes, reducing
digestibility. Create an astringent taste, potentially
reducing intake
5/5/2025 291
 Cont’d
2. Factors Affecting Mineral Utilization
1. Phytates (Phytic Acid): Found in cereals, oilseeds,
legumes. Strong chelator of divalent cations (Ca, Zn,
Fe, Mg, Mn), making them unavailable for absorption.
Also binds proteins and starch.
2. Oxalates: Found in certain forages and plants (e.g.,
spinach, rhubarb leaves). Bind calcium, making it
unavailable and potentially forming kidney stones
3. Glucosinolates: Found in brassica crops (e.g.,
rapeseed/canola meal). Can interfere with thyroid
hormone synthesis (goitrogenic effect), impacting
iodine metabolism.

5/5/2025 292
 Cont’d
1. Other Important ANFs:
1. Non-Starch Polysaccharides (NSPs): (e.g., β-glucans,
arabinoxylans) Found in cereals (barley, oats, wheat, rye).
Increase viscosity of gut contents, trapping nutrients and
reducing digestion/absorption.
2. Cyanogens: Found in cassava, linseed. Release hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) upon hydrolysis, inhibiting cellular
respiration.
3. Saponins: Found in legumes (alfalfa, soy). Can damage gut
lining, reduce intake (bitter taste), and cause bloat in
ruminants.
4. Gossypol: Found in cottonseed meal. Toxic effects,
particularly on non-ruminants (heart, liver) and male
reproduction

5/5/2025 293
 General Mechanisms of Action
1. Inhibition of Digestive Enzymes: Directly block the
active sites of enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin,
amylase (e.g., Protease inhibitors, some tannins)
2. Binding to Nutrients: Form indigestible complexes
with proteins, minerals, or carbohydrates, preventing
their absorption (e.g., Phytates, tannins, oxalates)
3. Damage to Intestinal Mucosa: Bind to or irritate the
gut lining, reducing absorptive surface area and causing
inflammation (e.g., Lectins, saponins)
4. Increased Gut Viscosity: Soluble NSPs absorb water,
thickening digesta, slowing passage rate, and hindering
nutrient diffusion to the gut surface
5/5/2025 294
 Cont’d
5. Hormonal and Metabolic Interference: Affect
endocrine function (e.g., Glucosinolates and
thyroid) or cellular metabolism (e.g., Cyanogens).
6. Reduced Feed Palatability: Bitter or astringent
taste can decrease feed intake (e.g., Tannins,
saponins, glucosinolates)

5/5/2025 295
 Impacts of ANFs on Animals
• Consequences depend on the specific ANF, its
concentration, animal species, age, and diet
• Reduced Feed Intake: Due to poor palatability or
induced discomfort.
• Impaired Nutrient Digestion &
Absorption: Leading to lower availability of amino
acids, minerals, energy, and vitamins.
• Reduced Growth Rate & Feed Efficiency: Animals
don't get enough nutrients per unit of feed consumed.
• Physiological Stress & Organ Damage: Pancreatic
hypertrophy (trypsin inhibitors), liver damage (some
toxins), kidney damage (oxalates), thyroid
dysfunction (glucosinolates)

5/5/2025 296
 Cont’d
• Gut Health Issues: Intestinal damage, altered
microbiota, increased susceptibility to pathogens
• Specific Deficiency Syndromes: E.g., Zinc
deficiency exacerbated by high phytate levels
• Negative Effects on Reproduction: E.g., Gossypol
impacting male fertility
• Increased Environmental Pollution: Excretion of
undigested nutrients like phosphorus (bound to
phytate)

5/5/2025 297
 Management Strategies
• Mitigating the negative effects of ANFs is crucial
• Processing Methods:
• Heat Treatment: (Cooking, extrusion, autoclaving)
- Denatures heat-labile ANFs like protease inhibitors
and lectins.
• Soaking, Germination, Fermentation: Can reduce
levels of phytates, tannins, etc., through enzymatic
breakdown.
• Dehulling/Decortication: Removes outer layers
often rich in ANFs (e.g., tannins in sorghum bran).
5/5/2025 298
 Cont’d
• Plant Breeding: Developing crop varieties with
lower ANF content
• Enzyme Supplementation: Adding specific enzymes
to feed (e.g., phytase to break down phytate,
carbohydrases for NSPs, proteases)
• Feed Formulation: Limiting inclusion rates of high-
ANF ingredients, balancing diets carefully to
compensate for potential nutrient losses

5/5/2025 299