Mughal Period
ADVENT OF THE MUGHALS
Mughals were named after their Mongol ancestry and ruled as a single dynasty for about 250 years (except Sher
Shah Suri’s break).
Their empire mostly matched present-day India.
This era is called the early modern period because of major changes in trade, agriculture, and technology.
Growth of sea routes and currency use was supported by a stable centralized empire.
Political Conditions
Weak political conditions in the north-west helped Babur’s conquest.
Ibrahim Lodi (Sultan of Delhi & Punjab) faced revolts from Bihar, Punjab, Rajputs, and Afghan chiefs.
His enemies, including Daulat Khan (Governor of Punjab) and his own uncle, invited Babur (King of Kabul) to attack.
Babur
Full name: Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
Born 1483 CE in Farghana (Central Asia); descendant of Timur (father’s side) and Genghis Khan (mother’s side).
Became king of Farghana at 12, after father’s death.
Tried to conquer Samarkand, lost to warring tribes, turned eastwards.
Conquered Kabul in 1504 CE.
Invited to India by Daulat Khan (Governor of Punjab) and Ibrahim Lodi’s uncle.
Crossed into India, captured parts of Punjab, then turned against Daulat Khan himself.
Marched towards Delhi.
First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE)
Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi (Sultan of Delhi).
Lodi had ~80,000 cavalry + 500 war elephants (but undisciplined).
Babur had only ~12,000 soldiers, but well-trained.
Babur used artillery (cannons) (first time in Indian warfare) + Central Asian cavalry tactics
(surrounding/envelopment).
Result: Ibrahim Lodi killed → Babur captured Delhi and Agra.
Agra made capital; this battle laid the foundation of Mughal rule in India.
Babur as a Ruler
Brilliant general and skilled in strategy.
Introduced artillery in Indian battles.
Nature lover: created gardens in Kabul & India, planted fruit trees.
Loved music, poetry, polo; excellent horseman.
Wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) – autobiography in Turkish & Persian, giving details about his life, character,
and achievements.
Strong, bold personality – could carry a man under each arm while climbing a rampart.
Name “Babur” means lion, reflecting his courage.
Died 1530 CE (age 48) in Agra; later buried in Kabul.
Left a vast but unconsolidated empire for his son Humayun.
Humayun
Humayun was the son of Babur.
He became ruler in 1530 CE, but he was not very strong as a king.
He was kind to his brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari, but they did not support him.
He could not control revolts and enemies properly.
Wars and Revolts
When Humayun became king, Afghans and Rajputs were still enemies.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat wanted to make his empire bigger.
Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bihar, wanted to end Mughal rule and become ruler of Delhi.
The first revolt came from his brother Kamran.
Other revolts broke out in Bundelkhand and Bihar.
Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah at Mandasore, but when he went back to Delhi, Bahadur Shah again captured
Gujarat.
War against Sher Shah
Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah and then moved towards Bengal.
He captured the fort of Gaur, but Sher Shah cleverly avoided fighting directly and entered Bengal.
This gave Sher Shah an easy victory over Humayun.
Meanwhile, Humayun’s brothers were planning to overthrow him in Agra.
He rushed back, but Sher Shah attacked him at Chausa in 1539 CE.
Humayun was badly defeated and saved his life by jumping into a flooded river, where a water-carrier rescued him.
In 1540 CE, Sher Shah again attacked Humayun at Kanauj.
Humayun was defeated once more and fled for his life.
Sher Shah captured Delhi and became ruler.
Humayun wandered in Rajasthan and Sindh.
At Amarkot, he married Hamida Banu and their son Akbar was born.
He went to Persia for help, where Bairam Khan joined him and became his loyal supporter.
With Persian help, Humayun captured Kandahar and then Kabul from his brothers.
Sher Shah died in 1545 CE.
After 15 years in exile, Humayun finally regained Delhi and Agra in 1555 CE.
He re-established the Mughal Empire but died in 1556 CE after falling from the stairs of his library.
Character
Humayun was well educated in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy.
He was brave but not a strong general.
He lacked good judgement and was not an efficient ruler.
Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri’s original name was Farid Khan, son of a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
He worked under the ruler of Bihar and learned administration.
He once killed a tiger single-handedly and got the title “Sher Khan”.
After the ruler of Bihar died, he became regent and later took full control.
He defeated Humayun twice, at Chausa in 1539 CE and Kanauj in 1540 CE.
After victory at Kanauj, he crowned himself emperor at Delhi.
Sher Shah expanded his empire by annexing Punjab, Sind, Multan, Malwa, and a large part of Rajasthan.
His empire extended from Bengal in the east to the Indus River in the west.
He ruled only five years but was considered one of the greatest rulers in Indian history.
He died in 1545 CE due to an accidental gunpowder explosion.
Administration
Sher Shah was a brilliant general and far-sighted administrator.
He introduced many reforms for the welfare of both Hindus and Muslims.
The empire was divided into 47 sarkars. Each sarkar was divided into parganas, and parganas into villages.
Main officers:
Shiqdar-i-shiqdaran (law, order, army) - Munsif-i-munsifan (revenue collection) - Qazi (chief judge)
At village level: muqaddam, kotwal, patwari, and village panchayat. He also organised an efficient espionage
system.
Revenue System
Sher Shah introduced a sound revenue system.
All land was measured, and one-third of the produce was collected as tax (paid in cash or kind).
Peasants were given loans in times of natural calamities like droughts or floods.
Records of land revenue were carefully maintained.
This system later impressed Akbar, who adopted it with minor changes.
Public Welfare
Sher Shah built an excellent network of roads throughout his empire.
Sarais (rest houses) were built at intervals of 2 kos (about 8 km).
Separate rooms for Hindus and Muslims were provided in Sarais.
Sarais served as rest houses, trading centres, and dak chowkis (postal houses).
Horses were kept ready to deliver post from one sarai to the next.
Trade and Commerce
With peace and law, trade and commerce flourished. Customs were levied only at two points, entry and exit, to
encourage trade. He issued new silver coins called Rupiya.
Weights and measures were standardised.
He encouraged foreign trade with both east and west.
Military Administration
Sher Shah maintained a large, disciplined army.
It included cavalry, infantry, artillery, and war elephants.
He personally supervised the army.
Rank system was introduced, descriptive rolls (hulia) of soldiers were kept.
Soldiers were paid regular salaries in cash.
Cantonments were set up in different parts of the empire.
Religious Policy
He followed religious tolerance.
Hindus were appointed to high posts (e.g., Raja Todar Mal as revenue minister, Brahmajit Gaur as general).
Sher Shah as a Builder
Built his tomb at Sasaram (Bihar).
Rebuilt the city of Delhi and Purana Qila.
Purana Qila included Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid.
Decline after Sher Shah
Succeeded by weak rulers.
Administration fell into hands of his able minister Hemu.
Revolts broke out across the empire.
Taking advantage, Humayun returned in 1555 CE and recaptured Delhi & Agra.