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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Description:
Chapter 1 provides a discussion of some of the preliminary aspects of structural analysis.
The phases of activity necessary to produce a structure are presented first, followed by
an introduction to the basic types of structures, their components, and supports, followed
by a brief explanation of the various types of loads that must be considered for an
appropriate analysis and design. Finally the criteria for structural stability are discussed.
Objectives:
After completing the module, the students are expected to:
1. Understand the preliminary aspects of structural analysis
2. Become familiar with the common structural elements that comprise typical
buildings and bridges.
3. Become familiar with loads that engineers must consider in the design of
buildings.
4. Classify determinate and indeterminate structures, and determine the degree of
indeterminacy for the latter; determine if a structure is stable or unstable.
Contents:
I. Introduction to Structural Analysis
1.1. Historical Background
1.2. Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
1.3. Classification of Structures
1.4. Loads on Structures
1.5. Fundamental Relationships for Structural Analysis
1.6. Connections
1.7. Supports on Structures
1.8. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability
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Discussion:
I. INTRODUCTION
Structural Analysis. The application of loads to structures causes these structures to deform.
As a result, various stresses are produced in the structures. The calculation of these stresses
(axial forces, shear forces and bending moments) and deformations as well as support
reactions is referred to as structural analysis.
Theory of Structures or structural analysis deals with the prediction of the performance
of a given structure under prescribed loads and/or other external effects such as
movements and temperature changes. The performance characteristics commonly of
interest in the design of structures are (1) stresses or stress resultants, such as axial forces,
shear forces, and bending moments; (2) deflections; and (3) support reactions. Thus, the
analysis of a structure usually involves determination of these quantities as caused by a given
loading condition.
Structural Analysis (ST 314) is concerned with (a) the analysis of structures that are
statically determinate and (b) the analysis of structures that are statically indeterminate.
A structure is statically determinate if all support reactions can be determined using the
equations of equilibrium. While for statically indeterminate structures the equations of
equilibrium are not enough to determine all the support reactions and additional
conditions are needed to analyze the structure.
Structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load; composed of one
or more solid elements so arranged that the whole structure as well as their components
are capable of holding themselves without appreciable geometric change during loading
and unloading.
Civil Engineering Structures. The principal structures of concern to civil engineers are
bridges, buildings, walls, dams, towers, and shell structures.
1.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Galileo Galilei - originator of the theory of structures (1564-1642)
Robert Hooke - developed the law of linear relationships bet. force and deformation of
materials - Hooke’s Law (1635 -1703)
Isaac Newton - formulated the laws of motion and developed calculus (1642-1727)
John Bernoulli - formulated the principle of virtual work (1667-1748)
Leonhard Euler -developed the theory of buckling of columns (1707-1783)
C. de Coulomb - presented the analysis of bending of elastic beams (1736-1806)
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L. M. Navier - published a treatise on elastic behavior of structures, which is considered
as 1st textbook on modern theory of strength of materials. (1785-1836)
B.P. Clapeyron - formulated the three-moment equation for analysis of continuous beams
James C. Maxwell - method of consistent deformations and law of reciprocal deflections
Otto Mohr - conjugate beam method for calculations of deflections and Mohr’s circles of
stress and strain
Alberto Castigliano - theorem of least work
C. E. Greene - moment-area method
H. Muller-Breslau- principle for constructing influence lines
Goerge A. Maney - slope deflection method (precursor of matrix stiffness method)
Hardy Cross - moment distribution method
Computer -oriented Methods: J.H. Argyris, R.W. Clough, S. Kelsey, R.K. Livesly, H.C.
Martin, M.T. Turner, E.L. Wilson, O.C. Zienkiewicz
1.2. ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PROJECTS
Structural engineering . The science and art of planning, designing and constructing safe
and economical structures that serve their intended purposes. Structural analysis is an
integral part of any structural engineering projects, its functions being the prediction of
the performance of the proposed structures.
The design of structures involves many considerations among which are four objectives
that must be satisfied:
a. The structure must meet the performance requirement (utility).
b. The structure must carry the loads safely (safety).
c. The structure should be economical in material, construction and cost
(economy).
d. The structure should have a good appearance (aesthetics).
Steps in the Structural Design of an engineering project :
1. Planning Phase
The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements of
the proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration
of the possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible and the
types of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete). This phase
may also involve consideration of nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics, environmental
impact of the structure, and so on. The outcome of this phase is usually a structural
system that meets the functional requirements and is expected to be the most
economical. This phase is perhaps the most crucial one of the entire project and requires
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experience and knowledge of construction practices in addition to a thorough
understanding of the behavior of structures.
2. Preliminary Structural Design
In the preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of the various members of the
structural system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate
analysis, past experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are
used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.
3. Estimation of Load
Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can be expected to act on
the structure.
4. Structural Analysis
In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis of the
structure in order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the
deflections at various points of the structure.
5. Safety and Serviceability Checks
The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the structure satisfies
the safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes. If these requirements are
satisfied, then the design drawings and the construction specifications are prepared, and
the construction phase begins.
6. Revised Structural Design
If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised, and phases
3 through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied.
1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Commonly used structures can be classified into five basic categories, depending on the
type of primary stresses that may develop in their members under major design loads.
A. Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the action of
external loads. Because the tensile stress is distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional
areas of members, the material of such a structure is utilized in the most efficient manner.
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Tension structures composed of flexible steel cables are frequently employed to support
bridges and long-span roofs. Examples of tension structures are:
1. Suspension bridge. In a suspension bridge, the roadway is suspended from two
main cables by means of vertical hangers. The main cables pass over a pair of
towers and are anchored into solid rock or a concrete foundation at their ends.
2. Vertical rods used as hangers (for example, to support balconies or tanks) and
3. Membrane structures such as tents
Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing
struts. Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often
chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels.
B. Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action of external
loads. Two common examples of such structures are:
1. Columns. Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads.
When a straight member is subjected to lateral loads and/or moments in addition
to axial loads, it is called a beam-column.
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2. An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable.
Such structures are frequently used to support bridges and long-span roofs.
C. Trusses
Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged
connections to form a stable configuration. When the loads are applied to a truss only at
the joints, its members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss
are always either in tension or in compression.
D. Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls are used in multistory buildings
to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations. Shear
structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the
action of external loads.
E. Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external loads. In
some structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending moments may
also be significant and should be considered in their designs.
Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid frames, slabs, and
plates (surface structures), can be classified as bending structures.
1. A beam is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis,
such as joists, girders, rafters and purlins. The simplest type of beams are simply
supported and cantilever beams, more complicated are the fixed supported
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beams, propped beams and the continuous beams which has three or more
supports.
2. Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together either by
rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable
configurations. Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the external
loads on frames may be applied on the members as well as on the joints. The
members of a rigid frame are, in general, subjected to bending moment, shear,
and axial compression or tension under the action of external loads.
3. Slabs
4. Plates Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a material having a
very small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is
very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases
the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension. Surface
structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As such
they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and are
referred to as thin plates or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since
they support loads primarily in tension or compression, with very little bending. In
spite of this, plate or shell structures are generally very difficult to analyze, due to
the three-dimensional geometry of their surface.
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1.4. LOADS ON STRUCTURES
1. Dead Loads
Dead loads are gravity loads of a constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act
permanently on the structure. Dead loads include the weight of the structure itself,
weight of the footings, weight of the walls, beams, columns, flooring materials, ceiling,
electrical and mechanical installations and fixed construction equipment and fixtures.
2. Live Loads
Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
structure. The magnitude of the design live loads may change, so each member of the
structure must be designed for the position of loads that caused the maximum stress in
members. Live loads in building are usually specified as uniformly distributed surface
loads in pounds per square foot (lb/ft2) or kilopascals (kN/m2).
When live loads are applied rapidly to the structure, they cause large stress than those
that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The
dynamic effect of the load that caused this increase in stress in the structure is referred
to as impact.
Example are moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and
therefore they impart an impact to the deck.
For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for the impact factor
as
50
𝐼= ≤ 0.3
𝐿 + 125
In which L is the length in feet of the portion of the span loaded to cause the maximum
stress in the member under consideration.
Minimum Floor Live load for Buildings
Live Load
Occupancy or Use
psf kPa
Hospital patient rooms, residential dwellings,
40 1.92
hotel guest rooms, school classrooms
Library reading rooms, hospital operating rooms
60 2.87
and laboratories
Dance halls and ballrooms, restaurants,
100 4.79
gymnasiums
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Light manufacturing, light storage warehouses,
125 6.00
wholesale stores
Heavy manufacturing, heavy storage warehouses 250 11.97
3. Environmental Loads
a. Wind Loads are produced by the flow of the wind around the structure. The magnitude
of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the
structure, obstruction in the surrounding terrain such as nearby buildings and the
geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
The estimation of wind loads can be obtained using Bernoullie’s principle:
1
𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉 2
2
Where: 𝑞 − 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝜌 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉 − 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)
𝑁
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 12.02 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑚3
𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 150 𝐶
1 12.02
𝑞= ( ) 𝑉 2 = 0.613𝑉 2 (1)
2 9.81
To account for the variation in wind speed with the height and the surroundings on which
the structure is located and to account for the consequences of the failure of structures,
ASCE 7 standard modifies (1) as
𝑞𝑠 = 0.613𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2 𝐼
Where: 𝑞𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑉 − 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝐼 − 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐾𝑧 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐾𝑧𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐾𝑑 − 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
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b. Snow/Sand Loads. The design snow or sand loads for a structure is based on the ground
snow or sand load for its geographical location which can be obtained from the building
codes.
c. Earthquake Loads. Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction
with the ground and its response characteristics. These loadings result from the
structure’s distortion caused by the ground’s motion and the lateral resistance of the
structure. Their magnitude depends on the amount and type of ground accelerations and
the mass and stiffness of the structure.
d. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure. When structures are used to retain water, soil, or
granular materials, the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important
criterion for their design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships,
bulkheads, and retaining walls.
e. Other Natural Loads. Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered
in the design of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of
blast, temperature changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors and differential
settlement of the foundation.
1.5. FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural analysis, in general, involves the use of three types of relationships:
⮚ Equilibrium equations,
⮚ Compatibility conditions, and
⮚ Constitutive relations
Equilibrium Equations
• A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at
rest when subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in
equilibrium, then all of its members and joints must also be in equilibrium.
• Recall from statics that for a plane (two-dimensional) structure lying in the XY
plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces and couples, the equations
of equilibrium for plane structures are:
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
• For a space (three-dimensional) structure subjected to a general three
dimensional system of forces and couples , the equations of equilibrium are
expressed as
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∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
∑Mx = 0 ∑My = 0 ∑Mz = 0
• For a structure subjected to static loading, the equilibrium equations must be
satisfied for the entire structure as well as for each of its members and joints.
• In structural analysis, equations of equilibrium are used to relate the forces
(including couples) acting on the structure or one of its members or joints.
Compatibility Conditions
• The compatibility conditions relate the deformations of a structure so that its
various parts (members, joints, and supports) fit together without any gaps or
overlaps. These conditions (also referred to as the continuity conditions)
ensure that the deformed shape of the structure is continuous (except at the
locations of any internal hinges or rollers), and is consistent with the support
conditions.
Compatibility conditions requires that the
deflected shapes of the members of a
structure be continuous and be consistent
with the displacements at the
corresponding ends of the members.
Constitutive Relations
The constitutive relations (also referred to as the stress-strain relations) describe
the relationships between the stresses and strains of a structure in accordance
with the stress-strain properties of the structural material. As discussed
previously, the equilibrium equations provide relationships between the forces,
whereas the compatibility conditions involve only deformations. The constitutive
relations provide the link between the equilibrium equations and compatibility
conditions that is necessary to establish the load-deformation relationships for a
structure or a member.
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In the analysis of framed structures, the basic stress-strain relations are first used,
along with the member equilibrium and compatibility equations, to establish
relationships between the forces and displacements at the ends of a member. The
member force-displacement relations thus obtained are then treated as the
constitutive relations for the entire structure, and are used to link the structure’s
equilibrium and compatibility equations, thereby yielding the load-deformation
relationships for the entire structure. These load-deformation relations can then
be solved to determine the deformations of the structure due to a given loading.
1.6. CONNECTIONS
Two types of connections used to join members of
structures:
• (1) rigid connections
• (2) flexible or hinged connections
1. Rigid connections
Rigid connection or fixed joint allows no relative rotation between the
connected members or it prevents relative translations and rotations of the
member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a rigid joint
have the same translation and rotation. Examples are welded connection in
metals and connections between members in concrete.
2. Flexible or hinged connections
Flexible or hinged connected joint allows some freedom for slight rotation.
For most timber structures, the members are assumed to be hinged or pin
connected, since bolting or nailing them will not sufficiently restrain them from
rotating with respect to each other.
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Note: A third type of connection, termed a semirigid connection, although
recognized by structural steel design codes, is not commonly used in practice.
1.7. SUPPORTS ON STRUCTURES
Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies, thereby resisting
their movements under the action of applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures
but supports prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces or reactions to
neutralize the effects of loads, thereby keeping the structures is equilibrium. The type of
reaction a support exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used
and the type of movement it prevents.
Types of Supports on Plane Structures
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1.8. DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY AND INSTABILITY OF BEAMS,TRUSSES AND
FRAMES
When all the reactions in a structure can be determined from the equilibrium equations,
the structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown
forces than available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate.
Internal Stability
A structure is considered to be internally stable or rigid, if it maintains its shape and
remains a rigid body when detached from the supports. (Fig. 3.7).
A structure is termed internally unstable (or non-rigid) if it cannot maintain its shape and
may undergo large displacements under small disturbances when not supported
externally. (Fig. 3.8).
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Equations of Condition (Internally Unstable Structures)
The presence of an internal hinge yields an additional equation that can be used with the
three equilibrium equations. The additional equation is based on the condition that an
internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the moments at the ends of the parts of
the structure connected to a hinged joint are zero. Such additional equation(s) are
commonly referred to as the equations of condition or construction.
For a structure connected by an internal roller, since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment or force in the direction parallel to the supporting surface, the internal
roller provides two equations of condition.
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A. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Beams
Internally Stable:
a. r< 3 the beam is statically unstable externally
b. r= 3 the beam is statically determinate externally*
c. r> 3 the beam is statically indeterminate externally*
The reactions in excess (called external redundants) is referred to as the degree of
external indeterminacy (DSI).
DSI = r – 3
Internally Unstable (internal supports):
a. r< 3 + c the beam is statically unstable externally
b. r= 3 + c the beam is statically determinate externally*
c. r> 3 + c the beam is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = r – (3 + c)
Alternative approach (internally unstable):
𝑟 + 𝑟𝑖 < 3𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝑟 + 𝑟𝑖 = 3𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
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𝑟 + 𝑟𝑖 > 3𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
DSI = ft – 3n ; 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑟 + 𝑟𝑖
B. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Plane Trusses
Internally Stable:
a. b + r < 2j the truss is statically unstable externally
b. b + r =2j the truss is statically determinate externally*
c. b + r > 2j the truss is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = (b + r) – 2j
Internally Unstable (internal supports):
a. b + r < 2j + c the truss is statically unstable externally
b. b + r =2j + c the truss is statically determinate externally *
c. b + r > 2j + c the truss is statically indeterminate externally *
DSI = (b + r) – (2j + c)
C. Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Plane Frames
Internally Stable:
a. 3b + r < 3j the truss is statically unstable externally
b. 3b + r = 3j the truss is statically determinate externally*
c. 3b + r > 3j the truss is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = (3b + r) – 3j
Internally Unstable (internal supports):
a. 3b + r < 3j + c the truss is statically unstable externally
b. 3b + r = 3j + c the truss is statically determinate externally*
c. 3b + r > 3j + c the truss is statically indeterminate externally*
DSI = (3b + r) – (3j + c)
where: b – no. of members
j – no. of joints
c – equations of condition
c = 1 for internal hinge or pin
c = 2 for internal roller
For a joint where more than two members meet at that joint:
c = (no. of members meeting at the joint – 1) for hinge or pin connection
c = 2(no. of members meeting at the joint – 1) for roller connection
* provided that no geometrical instability is involved
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For the two conditions, (b) and (c), the structure may still be unstable due to improper
arrangement of supports or some of the components form a collapsible mechanism.
Such structures are referred to as geometrically unstable externally.
Two types of reaction arrangements that cause geometric instability are:
a. all the member reactions are concurrent
b. all the reactions are parallel
If the structure is unstable, it does not matter if it is statically determinate or
indeterminate. In all cases such types of structures must be avoided in practice.
Problems:
Classify each of the structures as statically determinate or indeterminate, stable or
unstable. If the structure is stable and indeterminate, specify the degree of
indeterminacy.
A. Beams
1. 5.
2.
6.
hinge
3.
7.
4.
8.
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Trusses
1. 5.
2.
6.
3.
7.
4.
C. Frames
1.
3.
4.
2.
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5.
Reference Books
1. Hibbler, R.C., Structural Analysis, 8th Ed., Prentice Hall ; p. 3-55
2. Leet, Kenneth, Uang, Chia-Ming, Lanning, Joel and Gilbert, Anne M., FUNDAMENTALS
OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, FIFTH EDITION; McGraw-Hill Education, Copyright © 2018 ;
p. 3 - 113
3. Kassimali, Aslam; Understanding Structural Analysis; CENGAGE Learning; 2011; p. 12 -
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