Chapter 1

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Introduction

The Philippines has a total land area of about 30 million hectares, with nearly half or 14 M
ha used for agriculture. Soil provides vital services categorized as provisioning, regulating,
supportive, and cultural. These include food production, water purification, nutrient
cycling, and recreational opportunities. Soil functions include plant support, temperature
regulation, nutrient recycling, water supply and purification, atmospheric modification,
habitat provision, and structural support. This chapter introduces soil, defining it and
explaining its composition.

Definition

a) Soil- a dynamic natural body formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals,
composed of organic matter, mineral matter, soil air and soil water, and possess
distinct properties which in turn influence plant growth.
WHAT, TITLE
Concepts of soil:
the breaking down of rocks into pieces by rain, temperature wind and e
1. Soil is a natural body derived from the weathering of rocks and minerals (Brady
and Weil, 2015).
Organic- comes from living

things (plants, animals, something that has tiny holes or space that let air or liqud pass through.

or their remains). 2. It is a porous mixture of organic and inorganic matter, allowing for the exchange
of gases and containing water and air in its pore spaces.
ONCE ALIVE

3. Soil serves as a medium for plant growth, providing a practical way to cultivate
Inorganic- comes from crops.
non-living (rocks and minerals).

NEVER ALIVE
4. It possesses distinct composition and properties that influence plant growth, as it
contains essential nutrients necessary for plant development (Brady and Weil,
2015).

5. Soil is a dynamic system that undergoes constant changes and transformations.

Approaches in the study of soil:

Different point of views was used in the study of soil. These are:

1. Pedological Approach: Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment.

It looks at how soils form, how they're classified, and what their properties are.
Pedologists study soils to understand how they can best be used for things like
farming or building, and to protect them from damage.

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 2. Edaphological Approach: Edaphology is the practical study of how soil properties
influence plant growth, with the goal of improving food and fiber production.
Edaphologists use scientific methods to understand why soil productivity varies
and how to make it better.

Soil science- deals with the study of soil as natural resource on the surface of the earth
which includes soil formation, classification, and mapping, physical, chemical, biological
and fertility properties in relation to the management of the crop production.

The fields of study in Soil Science

o Soil Genesis and Classification (Pedology): Studies the origin, formation, and
classification of soils.

o Soil Physics: Focuses on the physical properties and processes within the soil, like
water movement and aeration.

o Soil Chemistry: Examines the chemical composition, properties, and reactions in the
soil, such as nutrient availability and pH.

o Soil Biology: Investigates the organisms living in the soil and their roles in nutrient
cycling and decomposition.

o Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management: Focuses on understanding and managing

soil fertility for optimal plant growth.

o Soil Conservation and Management: Addresses the challenges of soil erosion,

degradation, and pollution, and explores techniques for protecting soil health.

o Environmental Soil Science: Investigates the role of soil in environmental processes,

such as carbon sequestration and water purification.

o Soil Survey and Land Use Planning: Involves mapping and characterizing soil types
to guide land use decisions.

Soil components:

The composition of soil consists of four major components: mineral matter (inorganic
equal
matter), organic matter, soil air, and soil water. The proportion of these components
greatly influences the behavior and productivity of the soil (Brady and Weil, 2016).

Mineral matter, which makes up approximately 45% of the total soil volume, is derived
from the weathering of rocks and minerals. It can vary in size:

 Sand particles range from 0.02 to 2 mm, feeling gritty and not sticky.

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  Silt particles range from 0.002 to 0.02 mm, feeling smooth but not sticky when wet.

 Clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm, forming a sticky mass when wet and hard
clods when dry.

Organic matter constitutes around 5% of the soil and is derived from the decomposition
of plant and animal residues. It gradually decomposes over time, releasing CO 2 through
Fibric soil is the LEAST

decomposed type of organic

microbial respiration. Continuous addition of plant and/or animal residues is necessary to
soil. maintain organic matter in the soil.

The organic matter can be classified into two general groups:

Peat is a ty pe of soil that comes from dead plants piled up in ver y wet places. Because the water

slows down rotting, the plants dont fully break down and instead form a spongy, dark soil.

 Partially decomposed original tissue, such as peat, which can be further classified
based on the degree of decomposition sapric/muck (highly decomposed), hemic
(1/2 decomposed of the materials are decomposed) and fibric (1/3 decomposed of
the materials are decomposed). Sapric/muck is a

ROTTED
type of organic soil that comes from plants that are already very decomposed (almost fully ro

Hemic soil is in between peat and muck. Hemic soil is half rotted plant material-not as fresh as peat, not as fully rotted as much. HALF
 Humus, the most resistant product of decomposition, synthesized by
microorganisms. the DARK and SOFT part of the soil that forms when dead plants and animals rot and break down. It makes the soil rich, helps

hold water, and gives nutrients for plants to grow. FULLY ROTTED

Organic matter plays important roles in soil:

END PRODUCT is the final result after

a process is complete.
a) It promotes granulation of mineral particles, contributing to the loose and easily
BY RODUCT the side result that comes
managed conditions of productive soils.
out while making the main product.

b) It influences soil properties, which in turn affect plant growth.

c) It increases water holding capacity, ensuring a greater proportion of water is

available for plants.

d) It contains essential nutrients, serving as a primary source of nitrogen for many

plants.

e) It serves as a food source for soil microorganisms.

f) It enhances nutrient holding capacity.

Soil water, comprising 20-30% of the soil, acts as a solvent carrying dissolved ions and
nutrients to the roots for absorption. It replenishes and dilutes nutrient solutions,
facilitating plant uptake. Soil water also functions as a nutrient carrier and stabilizes
soil temperature.

Soil air occupies the pore spaces not occupied by water, comprising 20-30% of the soil
volume. Soil air differs from atmospheric air:

a) Composition varies from place to place.

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 b) Higher moisture content compared to atmospheric air.

c) Higher content of CO2 compared to atmospheric air.

Overall, soil is composed of solid material (organic and mineral matter) occupying about
half of the volume, while the other half is occupied by pore spaces filled with air or water.
Mineral matter is derived from rock and mineral weathering, accounting for 45% of the
solid material, while organic matter from plant and animal residues constitutes 5% (Brady
SOLID and Weil, 2016).
MATERIAL

Terminologies:

 Mineral soil: Contains less than 20% organic matter and consists of minerals like
gibbsite (Al2O3) and silicates.

 Organic soil: Contains more than or equal 20% organic matter and consists of
minerals like boehmite (Al2FO3.3H2O) and goethite (Al2O3.H2O).

 "A soil" refers to any general type or instance of soil. It's non-specific and could
be talking about any soil sample or type e.g. A soil was taken in the garden.

 "The soil" refers to a particular, definite soil. It implies a specific soil sample or
type that has already been mentioned or is understood in the context e.g. The soil
in the Region is known for its high clay content.

Elemental Composition of Earth Crusts

The earth’s crust which extends approximately 16 km (or 10 miles) deep, serves as the
primary source of inorganic material and is considered the origin of soil parent material
(Clark & Washington, 1924). It is primarily composed of eight elements, as follows:

 Oxygen (O): The most abundant element, making up about 46.6% of the crust's
mass. It's found in many minerals, including silicates and oxides.

 Silicon (Si): The second most abundant, comprising roughly 27.7% of the crust. It's
a key component of silicate minerals, which form the majority of rocks.

 Aluminum (Al): Accounts for about 8.1% of the crust. It's found in various
minerals, notably feldspars and clays.

 Iron (Fe): Makes up around 5% of the crust. It's present in many minerals,
including oxides and sulfides.

 Calcium (Ca): Constitutes approximately 3.6% of the crust. It's a major component
of minerals like calcite and dolomite.

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  Sodium (Na): Comprises about 2.8% of the crust. It's commonly found in minerals
like halite and feldspar.

 Potassium (K): Makes up roughly 2.6% of the crust. It's present in minerals like
feldspar and mica.

 Magnesium (Mg): Accounts for about 2.1% of the crust. It's found in minerals like
olivine and pyroxene.

In terms of the mineral composition, the following mostly composed the earth’s crust:

Most abundant minerals:

 Feldspars: The most common mineral group in the crust, comprising about 41%
by weight. They include plagioclase and alkali feldspars.

 Quartz: A very common mineral, making up about 12% of the crust. It is a major
component of many igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

 Pyroxenes: A group of silicate minerals important in mafic and ultramafic igneous

rocks, contributing about 11% to the crust.

 Amphiboles: Another group of silicate minerals common in igneous and

metamorphic rocks, making up about 5% of the crust.

 Micas: Sheet silicate minerals found in various rock types, also representing about
5% of the crust.

 Clay Minerals: Formed by the weathering of other silicate minerals, they are
abundant in sedimentary rocks and soils, comprising around 5% of the crust.

Hence, the rocks composition is as follows: 1) igneous rock- 95%; 2) shale- 4%; 3)
sandstone- 0.75%, and 4) limestone- 0.25%. The most abundant minerals within the crust
are alumino-silicates and their oxides, primarily composed of elements such as Fe, Al, and
Si, with a significant presence of Al, O, and Si (Clark & Washington, 1924).

Table 1. The average composition of elements in the earth’s crust (Clark and
Washington, 1924)

Elements %(by weight) Oxides (%)

O 46.60
Si 27.72 SiO2 59.07
Al 8.13 Al2O3 15.22
Fe 5.00 Fe2O3 3.10
Ca 3.63 CaO 5.10

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 Na 2.83 Na2O 3.71
K 2.59 K2O 3.11
Mg 2.09 MgO 3.45
Ti 0.60 TiO 1.03
P 0.10 P2O5 0.30
Mn 0.09 MnO 0.11

Components Optimal Soil Clayey Soil Sandy Soil

Mineral matter apprx 45% apprx 45% apprx 45%
Organic matter apprx 5% apprx 5% apprx 5%
Soil water apprx 25% > 25% Air < 25% Air
Soil air apprx 25% < 25% water > 25% water

Fig 1. Volume composition of the mineral soil.

Study Questions

1. Differentiate the pedological and edaphological approaches in the study of soil.

2. What are the four major components of soil and their approximate proportions in a
typical mineral soil?
3. Explain the difference between "a soil" and "the soil" in technical usage.

4. What are the four categories of ecosystem services and provide an example of how
soil contributes to each category?

5. What are the key roles of organic matter in soil health and plant growth?

6. How does soil air differ from atmospheric air in terms of composition?

7. What is the distinction between mineral soil and organic soil based on their
composition?

8. What are the three main size classes of mineral particles in soil and their
characteristics?

9. What are the primary elements found in the Earth's crust and how do they relate to
soil formation?

10. Describe the different fields of study within Soil Science and their focus areas.

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References

 Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R. (2016). The nature and properties of soils (15th ed.).
Pearson.

 Clark, F. W., & Washington, H. S. (1924). The Chemical Composition of the

Earth's Crust. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 10(11), 383–387.
[Link]

 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2020). Soil and
Water. Retrieved from [Link]

 Lal, R. (2021). Soil and Human Security in the 21st Century. CRC Press.

 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being:

Synthesis. Island Press.

 Philippine Statistics Authority. (2021). Agricultural Indicators System. Retrieved

from [Link]