CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review involves analyzing prior studies done on a topic. It critically assesses central

findings, theories, and methods used. It positions the current study in the surrounding academic

framework by what has been studied and what has been missed. It consolidates the studies by

explaining the research problem and indicates what research needs to be done.

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is rapidly reshaping educational practice worldwide by

enabling adaptive learning, automated assessment, and data-driven instructional support. While

global studies highlight AI’s potential to personalize learning, enhance teacher productivity, and

provide real-time feedback (Chounta et al., 2022; Luckin & Holmes, 2016; Daskalaki et al.,

2024), they also warn of risks related to equity, ethics, and the readiness of educators to

implement these tools effectively (Walsh et al., 2023; Ghimire, Prather & Edwards, 2024).

In Pakistan, policy initiatives and pilot programmes (e.g. Digital Nation / teacher training pilots)

indicate growing interest in AI for education; yet empirical studies signal persistent barriers —

limited infrastructure, uneven digital literacy, and lack of sustained professional development —

that constrain meaningful AI adoption in schools (Qureshi et al., 2025; Ahmad, Awan, Rafiq &

Nawaz, 2025; Iqbal, Akhtar & Naz, 2025). These contextual gaps mean that global promises do

not automatically translate into classroom realities in developing contexts.

Given teachers’ central role as implementers and mediators of classroom technology, the present

review focuses on four interlinked dimensions:

(1) Teachers’ Perceptions of AI (Positive and Negative),

(2) Practical Challenges to Implementation,

(3) Teachers’ Readiness and Competencies for AI Integration, And

(4) Proposed Solutions and Implications for Practice.

Synthesizing both international and Pakistan-focused evidence allows this review to identify

where the literature converges, where gaps remain, and how the current study can address

outstanding empirical and policy questions.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming educational paradigms and pedagogical practices

across the globe. More and more investigators have started studying the ways AI assists

educators in instructional design, individualized learning, formative assessment, and even

general teaching activities (Işık, Çakır, & Korkmaz, 2024; Smith & Lee, 2023). Concomitantly,

worries about privacy, the possible displacement of teachers, and the increased surveillance and

data collection from students have emerged (Johnson, 2022; García & Ahmed, 2023). This

review therefore analyzes the literature by focusing on teachers’ positive and negative

perceptions of AI, the obstacles to its classroom implementation, proposed remedies to these

challenges, and the broader implications for educational practice. By synthesizing both global

and Pakistan-specific evidence, the review not only identifies convergences in the literature but

also highlights critical gaps that the present study aims to address.

Teachers’ Positive Perceptions

 Teaching professionals in many educational settings are beginning to regard artificial

intelligence (AI) with favor, considering it to be a resource for enhancing classroom practice. A

significant proportion of teachers assess AI technologies positively, regarding them as viable

instruments to assist them in their daily tasks and enhance the teaching–learning process (Cruz,

Duque, & Carvalho, 2024). According to other experts, AI will support human teachers by

reducing their workload and offering individualized learning assistance (Oh & Ahn, 2024). Even

in underdeveloped countries, educators see AI as a productivity tool that reduces their workload

and allows children to learn independently (Qureshi et al., 2025). All things considered, this

indicates that educators are ready to embrace AI as a powerful tool that improves training,

reduces teaching workload, and fosters personalized learning.

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in education has been seen favorably by educators

in a variety of circumstances. AI is thought by many to increase student learning outcomes and

the quality of instruction. Research highlights that educators are aware of AI's potential to

improve teaching methods, speed the teaching process, and give students more engaging learning

experiences (Gârdan et al., 2025). Qualitative studies also show that teachers are frequently

excited about AI's potential to personalize training, pointing out that adaptive systems can offer

specialized assistance and boost overall efficacy in the classroom (Nisar et al., 2013). Since

"teachers mentioned that AI saved them time by helping in preparing lesson plans, grading, and

other administrative duties that previously consumed most of their working hours, AI was also

seen as helpful in lessening the administrative burden on instructors. Beyond efficiency, teachers

recognized its role in personalized learning, as the respondents highlighted that AI tools are

reshaping higher education learning environments by providing fast access to information,

adaptive platforms, and support for collaborative problem-solving (Ahmed et al., 2024).
Additionally, participants recognized the potential of AI in tailoring feedback according to the

learner's needs, thus promoting more personalized and independent learning (Asghar et al., 2025)

Enhanced Teaching and Learning Practices

Artificial Intelligence is usually seen by educators as a helpful tool that can improve

student results and teaching quality. For example, the majority of educators concurred that AI

technology may improve the process of teaching and learning and be a useful tool for developing

individualized lesson plans (Cruz, Duque, & Carvalho, 2024). Instructors also see AI as having

the ability to support human educators, particularly in automating activities and facilitating

individualized instruction according on the needs of each student (Oh & Ahn, 2024). Positive

perceptions and preparedness to implement AI in the classroom are strongly correlated, as

teachers in developing nations saw AI as a tool that made their jobs easier, improved student

learning, and let students advance at their own speed (Qureshi et al., 2025).

The learning experience is made much more stimulating and interactive through the use

of certain AI platforms. Real-time feedback is provided by intelligent tutoring systems which, in

the view of teachers, aids in fostering critical and creative thinking as well as student

engagement (Gârdan et al., 2025). Moreover, teachers using pedagogical AIs are able to adopt

more individualized approaches, permitting students to learn at their own pace in a motivated

and active learning environment (Nisar et al., 2023).

In educational contexts, there's been a growing tendency to use artificial intelligence (AI)

technologies for their potential to greatly transform the teaching and educational learning. AI

has the potential to improve traditional methods of education by focusing on effectiveness,

individualized instruction, intelligent tutoring, student engagement, and analytics (Delello,

Bronson, Hebert, Sung, Mokhtari, & De Giuseppe, 2025). Most of the participants reported daily

use of ChatGPT (76%), while Google Gemini (51%) and Meta AI (43%) were also popular tools

among educators, reshaping their teaching practices by providing quick answers and teaching

resources (Ahmed et al., 2024).

Pre-service teachers acknowledged that AI-assisted tools like Grammarly and ChatGPT

enhanced efficiency and improved the quality of their written tasks (Asghar et al., 2025).

Teachers believed AI could be effective in enhancing teaching practices, particularly in

delivering subject knowledge and supporting differentiated instruction (Oh & Ahn, 2024).

Faculty respondents generally expressed positive attitudes toward the potential of AI tools to

enhance teaching and learning when used responsibly.” (Ghimire et al., 2024). “Most teachers

agreed that AI can improve the overall teaching and learning process by engaging students more

actively in the classroom (Daskalaki et al., 2024).

Numerous scientists argue that the introduction of AI is a big opportunity to educate

students in a more individual manner, monitor their progress successfully, and address the duties

of teachers in the classroom (Qureshi, Qureshi, Bandeali, & Akbar, 2023). Teachers generally

have a positive outlook on AI, particularly in their ability to enhance instruction, foster creativity

and innovation, and improve problem-solving skills in the classroom (Mujahidah et al., 2025).

Overall, teachers’ perception of the ease of use and usefulness of AI educational learning tools

are positive… teachers perceived that the usefulness of AI educational tools lied in their

enhancement of teaching efficiency and effectiveness, such as through time-saving, workload

reduction, and providing valuable alternative tools in their teaching practice (Yim & Wegerif,

2024).
Support in Administrative Tasks

Teachers also recognize AI’s usefulness in reducing their workload by managing non-

teaching responsibilities. Teachers anticipate AI’s potential to complement human educators

primarily through the automation of administrative tasks (Oh & Ahn, 2024). Their findings

further showed that administrative affairs ranked as the highest priority for AI integration,

reflecting teachers’ strong belief in AI’s ability to ease routine duties such as record-keeping and

policy administration, thus enabling teachers to devote more time to instructional practices.

Another positive perception among teachers relates to AI’s potential to reduce administrative

workload. Research highlights that AI applications are considered effective in handling repetitive

and time-consuming tasks, such as grading, record-keeping, and data management, thereby

allowing teachers to dedicate more time to direct student interaction and instructional innovation

(Gârdan et al., 2025). Similarly, the use of intelligent instructional management systems has been

shown to assist teachers in monitoring student progress while simplifying day-to-day classroom

operations (Tan et al., 2025).

Survey responses from 353 educators across various levels and countries revealed that

92% of respondents are familiar with AI, utilizing it to enhance teaching efficiency and

streamline administrative tasks.” (Delello, Sung, Mokhtari, Hebert, Bronson, & De Giuseppe,

2025)

Teachers mentioned that AI saved them time by helping in preparing lesson plans,

grading, and other administrative duties that earlier consumed most of their working hours

(Ahmed et al., 2024)

AI was perceived as most useful in reducing teachers’ administrative workload, such as

preparing documents, policy administration, and test scoring.” (Oh & Ahn, 2024). Many

instructors noted that AI could be helpful in reducing routine tasks such as grading, assignment

design, and drafting rubrics, thereby saving time (Ghimire et al., 2024). Teachers accepted that

‘AI tools can lighten the burden of grading and preparation, thus allowing more time for teaching

materials (Daskalaki et al, 2024). AI can help teachers with administrative tasks like grading,

taking attendance, or scheduling classes, which helps the teachers to spend more time on

teaching (Qureshi, Qureshi, Bandeali, & Akbar, 2023). Teachers reported that the administrative

and managerial activities could largely be automated with tools of artificial intelligence. Grading,

scheduling, or even sending messages… could be done through AI (artificial intelligence), so

that teachers can spend more time doing teaching activities (Mujahidah et al., 2025).

Opportunities for Personalized Learning

The capacity of AI to promote individualized learning is another favorable opinion that is

frequently voiced. AI tools contribute to the development of customized instructional materials,

which enhances student experiences and individualized education (Cruz, Duque, & Carvalho,

2024). Teachers in developing countries commended AI for allowing pupils to advance at their

own speed, indicating that it can promote student independence and integration in a number of

educational settings (Qureshi et al., 2025).

Personalization emerges as a central theme in positive teacher perceptions. Educators

appreciate how AI can adapt content and assessments to students’ individual needs, adjusting the

pace and complexity of tasks according to learners’ strengths and weaknesses (Gârdan et al.,

2025). In teacher education contexts, AI has been observed to support adaptive pedagogies,
enabling tailored learning environments that boost student engagement and foster equity (Nisar

et al., 2023). Teachers regard these opportunities as evidence of AI’s potential to transform

classrooms into inclusive spaces where diverse learning preferences are effectively

accommodated.

Teacher education programs provide an appropriate pedagogical potential that AI feed-

back systems can offer. To start with, they are able to offer personalized assistance to pre-service

educators that include those who are not confident of their writing or feedback-giving skills

(Asghar, Imran, & Mithani, 2025)

“The respondents highlighted that AI tools are reshaping higher education learning environments

by providing fast access to information, adaptive platforms, and support for collaborative

problem-solving (Ahmed et al., 2024). Participants recognized the potential of AI in tailoring

feedback according to the learner’s needs, thus promoting more personalized and independent

learning (Asghar et al., 2025)

Respondents also discussed that AI could facilitate more personalized instruction by providing

students with instant feedback and adaptive resources (Ghimire et al., 2024). A recurring theme

across responses was the belief that AI can support differentiated instruction and personalize

learning paths for students, particularly those with varying needs (Daskalaki et al., 2024). In the

traditional teaching method, they cannot deliver education in an individualistic manner as (AI). It

can make any student to learn at his/her own pace and course of learning.” (Qureshi, Qureshi,

Bandeali, & Akbar, 2023). Teachers’ perception of the usefulness of AI educational learning

tools was that they could enhance students’ learning outcomes in terms of acquiring AI

knowledge, constructing new knowledge with AI, and correcting misconceptions (Yim &

Wegerif, 2024).
Global and Regional Perspectives

Beyond Pakistan, regional studies also demonstrate similar optimism. In Bangladesh, teachers

describe AI tools such as Grammarly and Turnitin as “efficient auxiliary tools for improving

writing, vocabulary, grammar, designing materials, and detecting plagiarism” (Munni & Rafique,

2025). In Malaysia, Ting and Norman (2024) found strong agreement among teachers regarding

the benefits and usability of AI tools, with social influence playing a key role in acceptance.

Likewise, Oman-based studies highlight foundation-level teachers’ favorable views of AI for

language instruction (Khattak, Ghorbanpoor, & Mathew, 2025).

Synthesis of Positive Perceptions

The literature suggests that educators from various settings view the prospects of AI

positively, especially with regard to its ability to improve teaching effectiveness, lighten

administrative burdens, and facilitate individualized learning. Nevertheless, while the excitement

is uniform, the extent of adoption is dependent on professional growth opportunities, digital

resources, and organizational assistance (Qureshi et al. 2025; Ting & Norman 2024; Munni &

Rafique 2025). This synthesis highlights the importance of the positive perceptions of AI. There

is a corresponding lack of investment, skills, and structural encouragement needed to achieve the

positive outcomes AI promises for education.

Teachers’ Negative Perceptions of AI in Education

 Regardless of the advantages of AI in teaching, negative notions still plague the mindset

of some educators. Here, focus is given to why teachers had difficulties with the content,

knowledge, and expertise of teaching AI. Such concerns included questions related to the

technical aspects of schooling infrastructures, the inability to teach, and the emotional challenges

the students were likely to go through (Yim & Wegerif, 2024). Alarm bells were also raised with

the notion that AI couldn’t interpret the subtleties of how students were expressing themselves,

and how that could compromise students in terms of interpersonal Guidance and relations to the

teachers (Oh & Ahn, 2024). More often than not, teachers in developing countries have been

observed to suffer from ‘low readiness syndrome’ when it comes to the adoption of AI tools,

because the majority have not been equipped with the infrastructure, strong systems of

professional development, or even institutional support (Qureshi et al., 2025). Such overriding

issues corroborate the view held by teachers that the promises of AI, their acceptance is lacking,

‘gaps’ in emotional content, and system proved barriers’ are far from absent.

Some of the pre-service teachers revealed that they had not listened to instructor feedback

at all because they thought the AI one was somehow superior.” (Asghar, Imran, & Mithani,

2025). There was also discussion of ethical concerns like plagiarism, information protection and

the transparency of AI-generated text (Asghar, Imran, & Mithani, 2025)

Research has found that teachers often feel unprepared to navigate these ethical complexities,

particularly regarding student data protection and algorithmic transparency (Tripathi, Sharma,

Singh, Bhargava, & Raj, 2025)

Alongside concerns about bias and equity, the rise of AI in education raises significant privacy

and data security issues (Delello, Sung, Mokhtari, Hebert, Bronson, & De Giuseppe, 2025)

Despite its benefits, the implementation of AI in education raises several ethical and safety
concerns… including issues related to student privacy, ethics, inaccuracies, plagiarism, over-

reliance on technology tools, and the need to maintain human interaction in educational settings

(Delello, Sung, Mokhtari, Hebert, Bronson, & De Giuseppe, 2025)

Despite the advantages of AI, teachers also expressed several concerns regarding its use

in education. One key fear is the possible replacement of teachers, as Older teachers expressed

discomfort and resistance towards adopting AI-based tools, indicating the need for more age-

sensitive training programs. Each of these concerns also touches on the ethical bases and issues

of privacy. Teachers were concerned about plagiarism and the inappropriate uses of AI

technologies by students for data and privacy (Ahmed et al., 2024). Pre-service teachers also

expressed uneasiness robotic comments were too formulaic and ignored the rhetorical situation,

causing them to distrust fully automated systems (Asghar et al., 2025).

Teachers were also concerned about the possible consequences of AI on teaching and the

use of professional AI judgements. As teacher educators expressed, AI is a tool for increased

productivity, however, dependence on AI raises the possibility of critical feedback amnesia, and

deterioration of a teacher's role as an assessor (Asghar et al., 2024). These views indicate that AI

could be beneficial, however, teachers are still tentative because of the ethical AI use,

unanticipated consequences, and displacement of professional teacher.

Fear of Teacher Replacement

Although teachers acknowledge AI’s usefulness, some also fear that increasing reliance

on AI might undermine their professional roles. While teachers expect AI to complement human

educators, the automation of administrative and instructional tasks raises concerns that AI could
gradually diminish the value of teacher–student interaction. Its inability to interpret nuanced

communication further reinforces skepticism, as many teachers feel that such limitations

highlight the irreplaceable socio-emotional role of human educators (Oh & Ahn, 2024).

Teachers often express concern that AI could diminish their professional role, particularly

in instructional delivery and human interaction. Some pre-service educators relied more on AI

feedback than instructor guidance, while older teachers showed resistance to AI adoption,

highlighting the need for training that considers experience and professional context (Asghar et

al., 2025; Ahmed et al., 2024; Gârdan et al., 2025; Tan et al., 2025).

Several studies highlight teachers’ fear that AI could diminish their professional role, with

concerns ranging from partial replacement in instructional delivery to loss of value in human

interaction (Oh & Ahn, 2024; Ghimire et al., 2024; Daskalaki et al., 2024). According to Sahari

(2024), negative or uncertain attitudes toward AI are common among teachers in developing

regions, largely shaped by limited familiarity, fear of professional displacement, and inadequate

training opportunities (Qureshi, Qureshi, Bandeali, & Akbar, 2023).

Ethical and Privacy Concerns

The main factors influencing teachers' unfavorable opinions about AI are privacy and

ethical issues. They frequently voice concerns about unfair biases created by some AI

techniques, plagiarism, and student abuse of these tools. Lack of organizational AI policies,

inadequate professional development, and the low levels of technology innovation typical of

many underdeveloped nations frequently make these issues worse. Teachers' worries regarding

the security of AI technology in the classroom are heightened by this situation. (Asghar et al.,
2025; Tripathi et al., 2025; Delello et al., 2025; Ahmed et al., 2024b; Ghimire et al., 2024;

Daskalaki et al., 2024; Oh & Ahn, 2024; Qureshi et al., 2025).

There are issues surrounding AI’s accountability and lack of transparency that teachers

are equally concerned with. Many educators question the dependability and equity of AI-

Assisted evaluation. This skepticism stems from the lack of transparency of how AI algorithms

function and the ‘black box’ nature of algorithms usually coupled with the AI’s automated

feedback. Various scholars suggest that a lack of ‘readying’ teachers for the AI ecosystem can

result in an unconstructive perception of pedagogical integrity and the privacy of students’ data.

(Asghar et al. 2025; Tripathi, 2025; Ghimire et al, 2024).

Despite recognizing the potential of AI to enhance learning outcomes and streamline

instructional processes, educators emphasize that ethical implications must be addressed

concurrently. Concerns include safeguarding student data, preventing academic dishonesty, and

ensuring that AI does not inadvertently exacerbate existing inequities or diminish human

oversight. Illustratively, some pre-service teachers have relied more on AI feedback than on

instructor guidance, highlighting the importance of balancing technological assistance with

teacher supervision to maintain ethical standards in education (Asghar et al., 2025). Collectively,

these findings suggest that without clear policies, transparent algorithms, and professional

development, teachers remain cautious, potentially limiting the effective integration of AI in

classrooms.

Uncertainty about Long-term Effects

Some educators are worried about the bad effects of AI on teaching, learning, and the

classroom environment in general. Many agree that AI can help and speed up educational
processes but fails to give situation-based understanding and feedback during sensitive

interactions. Such weaknesses in AI may block students’ critical thinking, creativity, and social

skills (Yim & Wegerif, 2024; Oh & Ahn, 2024; Ghimire et al., 2024). These worries are made

worse by fears of too much dependence on AI, which may reduce teachers’ duties in assessing

students and lower students’ ability to give or receive meaningful feedback (Asghar et al., 2025;

Tan et al., 2025).

The long-term impact of AI in education depends on support from institutions and

ongoing teacher training. Many developing countries face problems with access to digital

resources and lack continuous support (Daskalaki et al., 2025, 2024; Qureshi et al., 2025;

Qureshi et al., 2023). Teachers in such contexts often look for extra training to feel confident in

using AI, but training programs are not well organized. Without a proper system to guide them,

teachers may not feel ready to use AI tools in their lessons, and as a result, student learning

outcomes may not improve. Teaching methods themselves may also fail to bring the best results

if training and support are missing.

Education systems invest a lot of effort and money in AI tools and automation, but there

are concerns about how users interact with these systems. Many believe that interaction with AI

tools is very limited and tightly controlled. Without AI literacy, digital-age teaching can become

“AI first,” where teachers depend too much on automated systems (Yim & Wegerif, 2024;

Asghar et al., 2025). In such cases, education may not reach equal success for all learners. The

success of AI is not always central to good outcomes; rather, effective teaching depends on how

carefully AI is used to support pedagogy.

Synthesis and Research Gap

 In summary, teachers and experts show mixed concerns regarding AI and teaching,

especially about teaching ethics and professionalism. While teachers accept that AI may help

make learning and teaching easier, big worries remain about teacher replacement, ethical issues,

privacy, and the more serious risks to critical thinking and student development. This makes the

whole situation worrying (Oh & Ahn, 2024; Asghar et al., 2025; Yim & Wegerif, 2024; Ahmed

et al., 2024; Ghimire et al., 2024). These issues are stronger in contexts where there is not

enough funding for teacher training, little organizational support, and weak technology systems.

This shows that the challenges of using AI in teaching are not only about technology but are also

deeply ethical and teaching-related.

In Pakistan, and even in the wider region, there is still a big shortage of practical research

about the use of AI in teaching. Very few studies exist that have looked at training, policies, and

technical limits that fit the local context. Such local evidence could help teachers solve the

problem of freely using AI while still keeping control to ensure fair use in classrooms. Therefore,

research to fill this gap is very important so that teacher support for AI can turn into long-term

and strong practices in classrooms, and so that the quality of teaching is protected as AI becomes

part of classroom practices.

Challenges in Implementing AI

While teachers increasingly recognize the potential of AI to enhance instructional

practices and learning outcomes, they simultaneously face a range of challenges that impede its

effective adoption. These challenges can be broadly categorized into technological, pedagogical,

and psychological dimensions, each influencing AI integration in unique ways (Nisar et al.,
2023; Gârdan et al., 2025; Tan et al., 2025). Understanding these barriers is critical to designing

interventions that facilitate sustainable and impactful AI adoption in educational settings.

Technological Challenges

Technological limitations remain one of the foremost barriers to AI adoption in

classrooms. Teachers frequently cite inadequate infrastructure, limited access to reliable devices,

and budgetary constraints as major obstacles (Asghar et al., 2025; Oh & Ahn, 2024; Ghimire et

al., 2024). In many schools, particularly in developing regions, insufficient classroom

technology, low-speed internet, and lack of digital resources constrain the practical use of AI

tools (Daskalaki et al., 2024; Qureshi et al., 2023, 2025). Furthermore, teachers often report a

mismatch between the training provided and the practical demands of classroom integration,

highlighting the need for context-specific professional development (Tan et al., 2025; Mujahidah

et al., 2025).

Digital literacy is another significant concern. Even when AI tools are available, many

educators feel ill-prepared to navigate complex algorithms or interpret AI-generated feedback

effectively (Asghar et al., 2025; Delello et al., 2025). Without proper training, AI tools cannot be

fully leveraged to enhance learning, potentially limiting their impact and creating inequities

between schools with varying technological readiness. Consequently, technological constraints

are not merely operational issues but also directly influence teachers’ confidence and willingness

to integrate AI into instruction.

Pedagogical Challenges

Beyond technological limitations, teachers face numerous pedagogical challenges in

aligning AI with curriculum and instructional practices. Integrating AI into lesson plans,

assessments, and classroom activities often requires substantial adjustments in teaching strategies

and pedagogical thinking (Asghar et al., 2025; Gârdan et al., 2025; Oh & Ahn, 2024). Many

educators report difficulty in balancing AI-driven interventions with critical human judgment,

particularly in activities requiring reflection, discussion, or creative problem-solving (Asghar et

al., 2025; Tripathi et al., 2025).

Teacher preparedness, in terms of content knowledge (CK) and technological

pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), also impacts successful integration (Yim & Wegerif,

2024; Lin et al., 2022). Limited familiarity with AI applications can hinder curriculum redesign

and constrain innovative instructional practices. Additionally, rigid traditional teaching methods

and lack of structured support for AI integration may prevent teachers from fully exploiting AI’s

potential to personalize learning or enhance student engagement (Nisar et al., 2023; Ghimire et

al., 2024; Daskalaki et al., 2024).

Psychological and Social Challenges

Teachers’ attitudes, emotions, and social perceptions further influence AI adoption.

Concerns about loss of authority, reduced control over classroom interactions, and diminished

student critical thinking are commonly reported (Oh & Ahn, 2024; Tripathi et al., 2025; Delello

et al., 2025). Anxiety and apprehension, especially among less experienced educators or those
unfamiliar with AI, can limit experimentation with AI-based strategies and contribute to

resistance against adoption (Ghimire et al., 2024; Qureshi et al., 2023).

Social factors such as institutional support, peer collaboration, and ongoing mentoring

also shape teachers’ readiness. In contexts where professional development is sparse and

guidance unclear, teachers often feel uncertain about best practices for AI integration,

exacerbating fears of student over-reliance or reduced engagement in human-centered learning

activities (Mujahidah et al., 2025; Qureshi et al., 2023). Moreover, ethical and privacy concerns,

including data protection and responsible use of AI, intersect with psychological challenges,

further complicating adoption efforts (Delello et al., 2025; Asghar et al., 2025).

Synthesis

Collectively, these technological, pedagogical, and psychological challenges illustrate

that successful AI implementation is contingent upon a holistic approach. Merely providing AI

tools is insufficient; effective adoption requires robust infrastructure, targeted professional

development, alignment with curricular goals, and strategies to address teacher attitudes and

ethical considerations. Addressing these interconnected barriers is essential to ensure that AI

enhances educational quality, supports teachers’ professional roles, and promotes equitable

learning opportunities across diverse educational contexts.

Teachers’ Readiness and Competencies for AI Integration

 Teachers’ readiness and competencies play a central role in the effective integration of

artificial intelligence (AI) in education. While educators globally recognize AI’s potential to

enhance teaching and learning, their preparedness to meaningfully embed AI into classroom

practice remains limited. In this context, readiness encompasses teachers’ conceptual

understanding of AI, their pedagogical and technological competencies, and the institutional

support available to them.

Conceptual Knowledge

Research suggests that many teachers possess only a superficial understanding of AI

concepts, which limits their confidence in applying AI to authentic learning environments. Pre-

service teachers, for instance, often acknowledge AI’s educational potential but lack the deeper

comprehension necessary for its meaningful application (Comparative Analysis, 2024).

Similarly, Chounta et al. (2022) observed that while teachers value AI, gaps in conceptual

knowledge impede readiness for effective adoption. This limited understanding not only affects

their ability to integrate AI but also undermines confidence in navigating complex AI-driven

learning scenarios.

Pedagogical Competence

Pedagogical preparedness constitutes another critical dimension of readiness. Teachers

frequently struggle to design AI-supported lesson plans or align AI tools with intended learning

outcomes. Limited conceptual knowledge naturally affects pedagogical application, making it

difficult to embed AI into curriculum objectives effectively (Comparative Analysis, 2024).

Globally, Luckin and Holmes (2016) emphasized that readiness extends beyond technical

knowledge, encompassing teacher confidence and motivation to redesign instructional practices

around AI. In Pakistan, Iqbal, Akhtar, and Naz (2025) reported that while teachers recognize

AI’s usefulness, uncertainties about the impact on their instructional roles highlight gaps in

pedagogical readiness.

Technological Competence

Technological competence varies widely across disciplines and regions. Teachers with

prior exposure to digital learning environments demonstrate greater confidence in adopting AI

tools, whereas those from non-technical backgrounds often encounter difficulties (Comparative

Analysis, 2024). Celik (2023) argued that incorporating the Technological Pedagogical Content

Knowledge (TPACK) framework into teacher education is essential to develop the integrated

skills required for AI adoption. In developing contexts, low access to infrastructure and limited

digital literacy significantly constrain teachers’ ability to leverage AI effectively (Ahmad, Awan,

Rafiq, & Nawaz, 2025). Consequently, technological competence is not merely a technical skill

but a determinant of meaningful classroom integration.

Professional Development Needs

A recurring theme across the literature is the importance of structured professional

development. Inadequate training opportunities are frequently cited as barriers to teacher

readiness, limiting both confidence and practical competence (Comparative Analysis, 2024;

Celik, 2023; Luckin & Holmes, 2016). Continuous workshops, mentoring, and confidence-

building initiatives are critical to bridging gaps in readiness and supporting sustainable AI

integration. In Pakistan, Ahmad et al. (2025) and Iqbal et al. (2025) emphasized that the absence

of consistent professional development structures leaves teachers underprepared, constraining

their ability to translate AI potential into effective classroom practice.

Synthesis

Overall, teachers’ readiness and competencies for AI integration are shaped by a

combination of conceptual understanding, pedagogical preparedness, technological competence,

and institutional support. While educators worldwide generally hold positive attitudes toward AI,

limited grounding in these domains restricts effective adoption (Chounta et al., 2022; Luckin &

Holmes, 2016). Pre-service teachers, for example, recognize AI’s potential but often lack the

competencies to design AI-based lessons or align them with curriculum outcomes (Comparative

Analysis, 2024). In developing contexts such as Pakistan, infrastructural limitations and

insufficient professional development further weaken readiness. Low access to digital

infrastructure, limited digital literacy, and uncertainties about AI’s long-term implications for

teaching roles collectively hinder effective integration (Ahmad et al., 2025; Iqbal et al., 2025).

These findings underscore that teacher readiness is not solely an attitudinal matter but is shaped

by structural conditions, targeted training, and confidence-building mechanisms that must be

addressed to ensure sustainable AI adoption.

Conclusion and Research Gap

While existing literature provides valuable insights into teachers’ readiness and

competencies for AI integration, several gaps remain. Most global studies have focused on pre-

service teachers and general attitudes toward AI rather than the in-depth competencies required

for sustained classroom adoption (Chounta et al., 2022; Luckin & Holmes, 2016). Similarly, in

Pakistan, research has primarily documented infrastructural limitations and low levels of

professional development (Ahmad, Awan, Rafiq, & Nawaz, 2025; Iqbal, Akhtar, & Naz, 2025),

but few empirical studies have explored how school teachers specifically develop the

pedagogical and technological competencies needed to integrate AI into daily teaching practices.

This gap underscores the importance of investigating not only teachers’ perceptions but also their

readiness and competencies within the Pakistani context, thereby contributing to both national

and global discussions on AI in education.

Proposed Solutions and Recommendations

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education requires more than favorable

teacher perceptions; it demands concrete strategies to overcome barriers and strengthen

readiness. Literature identifies several key solutions—capacity building, institutional and policy

support, infrastructure development, ethical frameworks, and pedagogical enhancement—that

collectively promote sustainable AI adoption.

Capacity Building and Training

 Professional development emerges as a cornerstone for effective AI integration. Teachers

must receive structured training that familiarizes them with AI concepts and equips them to

apply these tools pedagogically (Chounta et al., 2022). Embedding AI-focused modules into

teacher preparation programs can address gaps in conceptual understanding and lesson design

(Comparative Analysis, 2024). Innovative approaches such as project-based and game-based

learning have been recommended to make training more engaging (Bayley, 2018). In Pakistan,

teachers express a strong demand for long-term training initiatives that integrate technical,

pedagogical, and ethical competencies (Ahmad, Awan, Rafiq, & Nawaz, 2025; Iqbal, Akhtar, &

Naz, 2025). Such capacity-building programs are essential to equip educators with the

confidence and skills needed for meaningful AI adoption.

Institutional and Policy Support

Institutional and policy frameworks significantly influence teachers’ willingness to

integrate AI. Embedding frameworks such as TPACK into national curricula ensures systematic

support for AI adoption (Celik, 2023). Teachers prioritize policy measures that reduce workload

and provide administrative assistance, emphasizing that AI can be effective only when formally

incorporated into school processes (Oh & Ahn, 2024). Globally, governments play a key role in

developing strategies that ensure equitable access to AI tools across schools (Popal et al., 2024).

In Pakistan, educators report that the absence of structured policies and leadership guidance

hinders responsible and effective AI integration (Iqbal et al., 2025).

Infrastructure Investment
 Adequate technological infrastructure is critical for meaningful AI adoption. Persistent

barriers include limited digital tools, unreliable internet connectivity, and constrained school

budgets (Yim & Wegerif, 2024; Qureshi et al., 2025). In developing countries, these challenges

can exacerbate educational inequities if unaddressed (Michel-Villarreal et al., 2023). In Pakistan,

targeted investments in digital infrastructure are necessary to ensure equitable access and support

AI-enabled teaching, particularly in resource-constrained schools (Ahmad et al., 2025).

Ethical and Responsible AI Usage

Ethical considerations underpin successful AI integration. Teachers’ trust depends on

transparent systems, accountability in AI decision-making, and protection of student data

(Luckin & Holmes, 2016). Integration of ethics education alongside AI training is essential to

promote responsible usage and prevent the reinforcement of biases (Daskalaki et al., 2024;

Walsh et al., 2023). In Pakistan, concerns about privacy, fairness, and weak institutional

safeguards highlight the need for clear guidelines and ethical frameworks to ensure responsible

AI adoption (Ahmad et al., 2025; Iqbal et al., 2025).

Curriculum and Pedagogical Enhancement

Curriculum reform and innovative pedagogical practices are vital for meaningful AI

integration. Project-based, collaborative, and arts-based learning approaches can enhance student

engagement and facilitate AI adoption (Bayley, 2018). AI-supported assessments and lesson

planning enable teachers to embed technology meaningfully into instruction (Yim & Su, 2024).
In Pakistan, improving teachers’ digital literacy is crucial to leveraging AI tools effectively

within curriculum design (Shezad et al., 2025).

Synthesis

The literature indicates that successful AI integration requires multidimensional solutions

addressing capacity building, institutional frameworks, infrastructure, ethical use, and pedagogy.

Professional development, clear policies, robust infrastructure, and ethical guidance are

interdependent factors that collectively enable teachers to adopt AI confidently and responsibly

(Chounta et al., 2022; Luckin & Holmes, 2016; Daskalaki et al., 2024). In Pakistan, however,

infrastructural limitations and weak policy frameworks create additional challenges, emphasizing

the need for systemic reforms alongside teacher training (Ahmad et al., 2025; Iqbal et al., 2025;

Shezad et al., 2025).

Conclusion and Research Gap

Although proposed solutions are well-established in theory, empirical evidence on their

implementation and long-term effectiveness remains limited. Global studies provide theoretical

guidance, yet few evaluate practical outcomes in school settings (Walsh et al., 2023). In

Pakistan, while training and infrastructural needs are recognized, little research has assessed how

these interventions function in real classrooms. This highlights a critical gap: context-specific

empirical studies are needed to test the feasibility, sustainability, and impact of AI integration
strategies, ensuring that recommendations translate into meaningful improvements in teaching

and learning.

Theoretical/Conceptual Frameworks

To examine teachers’ perceptions, readiness, and competencies toward AI integration,

this study is grounded in two widely recognized frameworks: Technological Pedagogical

Content Knowledge (TPACK) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), along with its

extended versions.

TPACK Framework

The TPACK framework emphasizes the intersection of technological knowledge (TK),

pedagogical knowledge (PK), and content knowledge (CK), underscoring that effective

integration of technology requires a balanced understanding of all three domains. In AI

education, TPACK provides a useful lens to assess teachers’ competencies in applying AI tools

for instructional design, classroom management, and personalized learning. Research has

highlighted that while teachers may demonstrate strong pedagogical or content knowledge,

significant gaps remain in their technological and AI-specific knowledge, thereby constraining

meaningful integration (Yue, Jong, & Ng, 2024).

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Extensions

The TAM framework explains technology adoption based on two central constructs:

perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU). Applied to AI in education, TAM
suggests that teachers are more likely to adopt AI tools when they find them both beneficial and

easy to implement. More recent studies extend TAM by incorporating additional internal factors

such as self-efficacy, motivation, and digital confidence, alongside external influences including

institutional support, credibility of information, and availability of infrastructure (Education &

Information Technologies, 2025). These extensions are especially valuable in resource-

constrained contexts, where external drivers significantly determine the pace and quality of AI

adoption.

Relevance to the Present Study

Taken together, TPACK and TAM provide a comprehensive lens for analyzing teachers’

readiness and competencies. TPACK captures the knowledge dimensions (what teachers need to

know and how to apply it), while TAM highlights the attitudinal and contextual factors (why

teachers choose to adopt AI and under what conditions). This study employs an integrated

perspective, acknowledging that teacher readiness for AI depends not only on knowledge and

skills but also on motivation, attitudes, and institutional support.