Doppler effect

The Doppler effect (also Doppler shift) is the change in the frequency of a wave in relation to an
observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave.[1][2][3] The Doppler effect is named after the
physicist Christian Doppler, who described the phenomenon in 1842. A common example of Doppler
shift is the change of pitch heard when a vehicle sounding a horn approaches and recedes from an
observer. Compared to the emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach,
identical at the instant of passing by, and lower during the recession.[4] Change of wavelength caused by motion of the
source
When the source of the sound wave is moving towards the observer, each successive cycle of the wave
is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous cycle.[4][5] Hence, from the
observer's perspective, the time between cycles is reduced, meaning the frequency is increased.
Conversely, if the source of the sound wave is moving away from the observer, each cycle of the wave
is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous cycle, so the arrival time between
successive cycles is increased, thus reducing the frequency. An animation illustrating how the Doppler effect
causes a car engine or siren to sound higher in
For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the pitch when it is approaching than when it is
source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted.[3] The total Doppler effect in receding. The red circles represent sound waves.

such cases may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, motion of the Passing car horn
medium, or any combination thereof. For waves propagating in vacuum, as is possible for 0:00 / 0:00
electromagnetic waves or gravitational waves, only the difference in velocity between the observer and
the source needs to be considered.

History
Doppler first proposed this effect in 1842 in his treatise "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger
anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the
heavens).[6] The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by Buys Ballot in 1845.[p 1] He confirmed that the
sound's pitch was higher than the emitted frequency when the sound source approached him, and lower than
the emitted frequency when the sound source receded from him. Hippolyte Fizeau independently discovered
the same phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in 1848. In France, the effect is sometimes called "effet
Doppler-Fizeau" but that name was not adopted by the rest of the world as Fizeau's discovery was six years
after Doppler's proposal.[p 2][7] In Britain, John Scott Russell made an experimental study of the Doppler effect
(1848).[p 3]
Experiment by Buys Ballot (1845)
depicted on a wall in Utrecht (2019)
General
For relative speeds much less than the speed of light, the effects of special relativity can be neglected. Then the relationship between observed frequency
and emitting frequency of a wave propagating through a medium is given by:[8]

where

is the propagation speed of the wave in the medium;

is the speed of the wave receiver relative to the medium. In the formula, is added to if the receiver is moving towards the source,
subtracted if the receiver is moving away from the source;
is the speed of the wave source relative to the medium. is subtracted from if the source is moving towards the receiver, added if
the source is moving away from the receiver.
, , and here are not vectors as velocities, but their magnitudes as speeds. This relationship predicts that the observed frequency by the receiver will
decrease if the distance between the source and receiver is increasing. Note that the speed of the wave is determined by the medium, not by the speed of
the source.

If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a constant speed), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than the object's
emitted frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through equality when it is coming
from a direction perpendicular to the relative motion (and was emitted at the point of closest approach; but when the wave is received, the source and
observer will no longer be at their closest), and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the observer. When the observer is very close to the path
of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt. When the observer is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low
frequency is gradual.
 Stationary sound source produces The same sound source is radiating Now the source is moving at the
sound waves at a constant sound waves at a constant speed of sound in the medium
frequency f, and the wave-fronts frequency in the same medium. (υs = c). The wave fronts in front of
propagate symmetrically away from However, now the sound source is the source are now all bunched up at
the source at a constant speed c. moving with a speed υs = 0.7 c. the same point. As a result, an
The distance between wave-fronts is Since the source is moving, the observer in front of the source will
the wavelength. All observers will center of each new wavefront is now detect nothing until the source
hear the same frequency, which will slightly displaced to the right. As a arrives and an observer behind the
be equal to the actual frequency of result, the wave-fronts begin to source will hear a lower frequency
the source where f = f0. bunch up on the right side (in front c–0
f = ⁠c + c f0 = 0.5 f0.
of) and spread further apart on the
left side (behind) of the source. An
observer in front of the source will
hear a higher frequency
c+0
f = ⁠c – 0.7c ⁠f0 = 3.33 f0 and an
observer behind the source will hear
a lower frequency
c−0
f = ⁠c + 0.7c ⁠f0 = 0.59 f0.

The sound source has now

surpassed the speed of sound in the
medium, and is traveling at 1.4 c.
Since the source is moving faster
than the sound waves it creates, it
actually leads the advancing
wavefront. The sound source will
pass by a stationary observer before
the observer hears the sound. As a
result, an observer in front of the
source will detect nothing and an
observer behind the source will hear
a lower frequency
c–0
f = ⁠c + 1.4c ⁠f0 = 0.42 f0.

In the frame of reference fixing to the wave source, is zero so the doppler shift formula becomes the following.

Observed frequency Change in frequency

where

is the relative velocity of the wave receiver with respect to the wave source. It is positive when the source and the receiver are getting
closer while it is negative when they are being apart to each other.
Consequences
Assuming a stationary observer and a wave source moving towards the observer at (or exceeding) the speed of the wave, the Doppler equation predicts an
infinite (or negative) frequency as from the observer's perspective. Thus, the Doppler equation is inapplicable for such cases. If the wave is a sound wave
and the sound source is moving faster than the speed of sound, the resulting shock wave creates a sonic boom.

Lord Rayleigh predicted the following effect in his classic book on sound: if the observer were moving from the (stationary) source at twice the speed of
sound, a musical piece previously emitted by that source would be heard in correct tempo and pitch, but as if played backwards.[9]

Applications

Sirens
A siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes,
and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained
the effect thus:

The reason the siren slides is because it doesn't hit you. 0:00

In other words, if the siren approached the observer directly, the pitch would remain constant, at a higher than Sirens on passing emergency vehicles
stationary pitch, until the vehicle hit him, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch. Because the vehicle
passes by the observer, the radial speed does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle
between his line of sight and the siren's velocity:

where is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer.

Astronomy
The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of widespread use in astronomy to measure the speed at
which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us, resulting in so called blueshift or redshift, respectively.
This may be used to detect if an apparently single star is, in reality, a close binary, to measure the rotational speed of
stars and galaxies, or to detect exoplanets. This effect typically happens on a very small scale; there would not be a
noticeable difference in visible light to the unaided eye.[10] The use of the Doppler effect in astronomy depends on
knowledge of precise frequencies of discrete lines in the spectra of stars.

Among the nearby stars, the largest radial velocities with respect to the Sun are +308 km/s (BD-15°4041, also known as
LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and −260 km/s (Woolley 9722, also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years
away). Positive radial speed means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching.

The relationship between the expansion of the universe and the Doppler effect is not simply caused by the source
moving away from the observer.[11][12] In cosmology, the redshift of expansion is considered separate from redshifts due
to gravity or Doppler motion.[13]

Distant galaxies also exhibit peculiar motion distinct from their cosmological recession speeds. If redshifts are used to
determine distances in accordance with Hubble's law, then these peculiar motions give rise to redshift-space
distortions.[14] Redshift of spectral lines in the
optical spectrum of a
supercluster of distant galaxies
Radar (right), as compared to that of
the Sun (left)
The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a
moving target – e.g. a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists – as it approaches or recedes
from the radar source. Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected
and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases,
increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in
which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength. In either situation,
calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's speed. Moreover, the proximity fuze,
developed during World War II, relies upon Doppler radar to detonate explosives at the correct time, height,
distance, etc.

Bats use echolocation in a similar way to locate moths. Because the Doppler shift affects the wave incident U.S. Military Police using a radar gun, an
upon the target (moth) the reflected wave start back to the bat with a different frequency, which is again application of Doppler radar, to catch
shifted. The bat flying at towards a moth flying at will detect the reflected wave with a frequency:[8]: 502 speeding violators
Medical
An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce an accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the
velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect. One of the limitations is that the
ultrasound beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible. Velocity measurements allow assessment of cardiac
valve areas and function, abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, leaking of blood
through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the cardiac output. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound using
gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical
measurements.[15][16]

Although "Doppler" has become synonymous with "velocity measurement" in medical imaging, in many cases it is not
the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (when the received signal
arrives).[p 4]

Velocity measurements of blood flow are also used in other fields of medical ultrasonography, such as obstetric
ultrasonography and neurology. Velocity measurement of blood flow in arteries and veins based on Doppler effect is an
effective tool for diagnosis of vascular problems like stenosis.[17]
Colour flow ultrasonography
(Doppler) of a carotid artery –
Flow measurement scanner and screen
Instruments such as the laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), and acoustic
Doppler velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure velocities in a fluid flow. The LDV emits a light beam, and
the ADCP and ADV emits an ultrasonic acoustic burst, and measure the Doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow.
The actual flow is computed as a function of the water velocity and phase. This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and
high frequency.

Velocity profile measurement

Developed originally for velocity measurements in medical applications (blood flow), Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) can measure in real time
complete velocity profile in almost any liquids containing particles in suspension such as dust, gas bubbles, emulsions. Flows can be pulsating, oscillating,
laminar or turbulent, stationary or transient. This technique is fully non-invasive.

Satellites

Geometry for Doppler effects. Variables: is

Doppler effect on the mobile channel. Variables:
the velocity of the mobile station, is the
velocity of the satellite, is the relative is the carrier frequency,
Possible Doppler shifts in dependence of the
elevation angle (LEO: orbit altitude = 750 km). velocity of the satellite, is the elevation angle of is the maximum Doppler shift due to the mobile
Fixed ground station.[18] the satellite and is the driving direction with station moving (see Doppler Spread) and is
respect to the satellite. the additional Doppler shift due to the satellite
moving.

Satellite navigation
The Doppler shift can be exploited for satellite navigation such as in Transit and DORIS.

Satellite communication
Doppler also needs to be compensated in satellite communication. Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a
ground station. The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature. Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a
signal is changed progressively during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal.[19] After realizing that the Doppler shift
had not been considered before launch of the Huygens probe of the 2005 Cassini–Huygens mission, the probe trajectory was altered to approach Titan in
such a way that its transmissions traveled perpendicular to its direction of motion relative to Cassini, greatly reducing the Doppler shift.[20]

Doppler shift of the direct path can be estimated by the following formula:[21]

where is the speed of the mobile station, is the wavelength of the carrier, is the elevation angle of the satellite and is the driving direction with
respect to the satellite.

The additional Doppler shift due to the satellite moving can be described as:

where is the relative speed of the satellite.

Audio
The Leslie speaker, most commonly associated with and predominantly used with the famous Hammond organ, takes advantage of the Doppler effect by
using an electric motor to rotate an acoustic horn around a loudspeaker, sending its sound in a circle. This results at the listener's ear in rapidly fluctuating
frequencies of a keyboard note.

Vibration measurement
A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is a non-contact instrument for measuring vibration. The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of interest,
and the vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to the motion of the surface.

Robotics
Dynamic real-time path planning in robotics to aid the movement of robots in a sophisticated environment with moving obstacles often take help of
Doppler effect.[22] Such applications are specially used for competitive robotics where the environment is constantly changing, such as robosoccer.

Inverse Doppler effect

Since 1968 scientists such as Victor Veselago have speculated about the possibility of an inverse Doppler effect. The size of the Doppler shift depends on
the refractive index of the medium a wave is traveling through. Some materials are capable of negative refraction, which should lead to a Doppler shift that
works in a direction opposite that of a conventional Doppler shift.[23] The first experiment that detected this effect was conducted by Nigel Seddon and
Trevor Bearpark in Bristol, United Kingdom in 2003.[24] Later, the inverse Doppler effect was observed in some inhomogeneous materials, and predicted
inside a Vavilov–Cherenkov cone.[25]

See also
Bistatic Doppler shift Laser Doppler imaging
Differential Doppler effect Photoacoustic Doppler effect
Doppler cooling – Laser cooling technique Range rate
Dopplergraph Rayleigh fading – Radio signal statistical model
Fading – Term in wireless communications Redshift – Change of wavelength in photons during travel
Fizeau experiment – Experiment measuring the speed of light in Relativistic Doppler effect – Scientific phenomenon
moving water

Primary sources
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zur Theorie des Hrn. Prof. Doppler (in German)" ([Link] uk/~chris/[Link]). Report of the Eighteenth Meeting of the
rg/record/1423606). Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 142 (11): British Association for the Advancement of Science. 18 (7): 37–
321–351. Bibcode:1845AnP...142..321B ([Link] 38. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
[Link]/abs/1845AnP...142..321B). 4. Petrescu, Florian Ion T (2015). "Improving Medical Imaging and
doi:10.1002/andp.18451421102 ([Link] Blood Flow Measurement by using a New Doppler Effect
p.18451421102). Relationship" ([Link]
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de Paris, 29 December 1848. According to Becker(pg. 109), this 9). American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 8 (4):
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"Répertoire d'optique moderne" (in French), vol 3. pp 1165–1203 844%2Fajeassp.2015.582.588).
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des vibrations sonores et sur la longeur d'onde des rayons de
lumière"; [Paris, 1870]. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 19,
211–221.

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Note

Further reading
Doppler, C. (1842). Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels (About the coloured light of the
binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). Publisher: Abhandlungen der Königl. Böhm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (V.
Folge, Bd. 2, S. 465–482) [Proceedings of the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences (Part V, Vol 2)]; Prague: 1842 (Reissued 1903).
Some sources mention 1843 as year of publication because in that year the article was published in the Proceedings of the Bohemian
Society of Sciences. Doppler himself referred to the publication as "Prag 1842 bei Borrosch und André", because in 1842 he had a
preliminary edition printed that he distributed independently.
"Doppler and the Doppler effect", E. N. da C. Andrade, Endeavour Vol. XVIII No. 69, January 1959 (published by ICI London). Historical
account of Doppler's original paper and subsequent developments.
 David Nolte (2020). "The fall and rise of the Doppler effect. Physics Today, v. 73, pp. 31–35. DOI: 10.1063/PT.3.4429 ([Link]
[Link]/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4429)
Adrian, Eleni (24 June 1995). "Doppler Effect" ([Link]
[Link]). NCSA. Archived from the original ([Link] on 12 May 2009. Retrieved
2008-07-13.

External links
Media related to Doppler effect at Wikimedia Commons
The Doppler effect – The Feynman Lectures on Physics ([Link]
Doppler Effect ([Link] ScienceWorld

Retrieved from "[Link]