LECTURE NOTES

R23
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

LECTURE NOTES

[Link] & I-SEM

Prepared by:
Sayantan Kar, Asistant Professor

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada,
Accredited by NBA, NAAC with ―A Grade
Recognized by UGC 2(f) and 12(b) under UGC act, 1956
1-378, ADB Road, Surampalem,Near Peddapuram, [Link], A.P.–533 437

Environmental Science 1
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE: SURAMPALEM
(Autonomous) (Autonomous)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering R23

II Year I Semester
Environmental Science
(Common to all branches)
Course Category BASIC SCIENCES Course Code 23BC301T

L-T-P-C 2 -0-0--0
Internal Assessment 30
Course Type prerequisites Theory
Semester End Examination 70
Total Marks 100

[Link]. Course Objectives

1 To make the students to get awareness on environment
2 To understand the importance of protecting natural resources, ecosystems for
future generations and pollution causes due to the day-to-day activities of human life
3 To save earth from the inventions by the engineers.

Cognitive
COURSE OUTCOMES
Level
Upon successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
Grasp multi disciplinary nature of environmental studies and various renewable
CO1 K2
and non-renewable resources.
CO2 Understand flow and bio-geo- chemical cycles and ecological pyramids. K2
Understand various causes of pollution and solid waste management and related
CO3 K2
preventive measures.
Understand the rainwater harvesting, watershed management, ozone layer
CO4 depletion and waste land reclamation. K2

Illustrate the casus of population explosion, value education and welfare

CO5 K3
programmes.

Contribution of Course Outcomes towards achievement of Program

Outcomes (1 – Low, 2 - Medium, 3 – High)
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 1 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0
CO2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
CO3 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
CO4 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 0
CO5 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE: SURAMPALEM
(Autonomous) (Autonomous)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering R23

COURSE CONTENT

UNIT – I
Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies: – Definition, Scope and Importance – Need for
Public Awareness.
Natural Resources : Natural resources and associated problems – Forest resources – Use and over –
exploitation, deforestation, case studies – Timber extraction – Mining, dams and other effects on forest
and tribal people – Water resources – Use and over utilization of surface and ground water – Floods,
drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems – Mineral resources: Use and exploitation,
environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies – Food resources: World
food problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-
pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies, Energy resources- Renewable and non-
renewable resources (Biomass).

UNIT – II
Ecosystems: Concept of an ecosystem. – Structure and function of an ecosystem – Producers,
consumers and decomposers – Energy flow in the ecosystem – Ecological succession – Food chains,
food webs and ecological pyramids – Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function
of the following ecosystem:
a)Forest ecosystem, b)Grassland ecosystem, c)Desert ecosystem, e)Aquatic ecosystems (ponds,
streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)(Primary Treatment)
Biodiversity and Its Conservation : Introduction and Definition: genetic, species and ecosystem
diversity – Bio-geographical classification of India – Value of biodiversity: consumptive use,
Productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values – Biodiversity at global, National and local
levels – India as a mega-diversity nation – Hotspots of biodiversity – Threats to biodiversity: habitat
loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts – Endangered and endemic species of India –
Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.

UNIT – III
Environmental Pollution: Definition, Cause, effects and control measures of: a)Air Pollution, b)Water
pollution, c)Soil pollution, d)Marine pollution, e)Noise pollution, f)Thermal pollution, g)Nuclear
hazards (Primarytreatment)

Solid Waste Management: Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial wastes – Role
of an individual in prevention of pollution – Pollution case studies – Disaster management: floods,
earthquake, cyclone and landslides.

UNIT – IV
Social Issues and the Environment: From Unsustainable to Sustainable development – Urban problems
related to energy – Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management – Resettlement
and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns. Case studies – Environmental ethics (Issues
and possible solutions) –Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, nuclear
accidents and holocaust. Case Studies – Wasteland reclamation. – Consumerism and waste products. –
Environment Protection Act. – Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. – Water (Prevention and
control of Pollution) Act – Wildlife Protection Act – Forest Conservation Act – Issues involved in
enforcement of environmental legislation – Public awareness.
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE: SURAMPALEM
(Autonomous) (Autonomous)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering R23

UNIT – V
Human Population and The Environment: Population growth, variation among nations. Population
explosion – Family Welfare Programmes. – Environment and human health – Human Rights – Value
Education – HIV/AIDS – Viral infections -Women and Child Welfare – Role of information
Technology in Environment and human health – Case studies.
Field Work: Visit to a local area to document environmental assets River/forest grassland/hill/mountain
– Visit to a local polluted site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural Study of common plants, insects,
and birds – river, hill slopes, etc.

Textbooks:
1. Erach Bharucha,Text book of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses, Universities
Press (India) Private Limited, 2019.
2. Palaniswamy, Environmental Studies, 2/e, Pearson education, 2014.
3. [Link] Unnisa, Environmental Studies, Academic Publishing Company, 2021.
4. [Link] Nambiar, “Text book of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses as per
UGC model syllabus”, SciTech Publications (India), Pvt. Ltd, 2010.

Reference Books:
1. Deeksha Dave and [Link] Baba Reddy, Textbook of Environmental Science, 2/e, Cengage
Publications, 2012.
2. [Link] Reddy, “Textbook of Environmental Sciences and Technology”, BS Publication, 2014.
3. J.P. Sharma, Comprehensive Environmental studies, Laxmi publications, 2006.
4. J. Glynn Henry and Gary W. Heinke, Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Prentice Hall of
India Private limited, 1988.
5. G.R. Chatwal, A Text Book of Environmental Studies, Himalaya Publishing House, 2018.
6. Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science,
1/e, Prentice Hall of India Private limited, 1991.

Online Learning Resources:

• [Link]
• [Link]
part-3-pollution-and-resources?index=product&objectID=course-3a6da9f2-d84c-4773-8388-
1b2f8f6a75f2&webview=false&campaign=AP%C2%AE+Environmental+Science++Part+3%3A+Poll
ution+and+Resources&source=edX&product_category=course&placement_url=https%3A%2F%2Fw
[Link]%2Flearn%2Fenvironmental-science
• [Link]
I/Data%20Files/pdf/[Link]
• [Link]
LECTURE NOTES

Unit-1
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIESAND NATURAL
RESOURCES

Definition – Scope and importance – Need for public awareness

NATURAL RESOURCES
Renewable and Non-renewable resources- Natural resources and Associated problems- Forest
resources:-Use and over – Exploitation – Deforestation – Case studies – Timber extraction – Mining –
Dams and their ground water – Floods – Drought – Conflicts over water – Dams – Benefits and Problems
– Mineral Resources:- Use Effects on Forests and Tribal People – Water Resources:- Use and Over-
Utilization of Surface and Exploitation, Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using Mineral Resources,
Case Studies – Food Resources: World Food Problems, Changes caused by Agriculture and
Overgrazing, Effects of Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer- Pesticide Problems, Water Logging, salinity, Case
Studies
– Energy Resources:- Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources, Use of
Alternate Energy Sources, Case Studies

1.1 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
 The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to ‘encircle or
surround’.

 Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and

Physical conditions that surround, affect and influence the
survival, growth and development of people, animals and
plants”
 This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment as well as the cultural
and social contexts that shape human lives.
 It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or population at any point in
the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a particular occurrence and all the things that surrounds
us.

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1.1.2 SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with theenvironment.
1.1.3 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises variousbranches of studies
like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc.
 It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the sources, reactions,
transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air, water, soil and the effect of from
human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments like natural,
constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter disciplinary in nature including the
study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies, law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to
understand the humanity’s effects on the natural world.
 This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues and citizens and
experts in many fields.
 By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the interdisciplinary and
methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that enables them to facilitate the definition and
solution of environmental problems.
1.1.4 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number ofareas and
aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
 Natural resources- their conservation and management
 Ecology and Biodiversity
 Environmental pollution and control
 Human population and environment
 Social issues in relation to development and environment

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These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every
section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly categorized as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining variousenvironmental
problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for developing cleaner technologies
and promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to environment, need
for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the cases related to water,
air, forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis on
marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO 14000
certification. Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great demand in
the coming years.
(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like television,
radio, newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which environmentally educated
persons are required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are engaging
environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related problems.

1.1.5 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmentaldegradation can be
reversed if people of educated communities are organized, empowered and experts are involved in
sustainable development.
 Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.

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 At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and complexity day by day,
threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues are studied besides giving effective suggestions
in the environment studies.
 The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our natural
resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:

It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain,
marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and
hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:

Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems,
Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The
North, to cleanse their own environment has,fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories to South.
When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its
activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows
that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India. Evidently with 16
per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure
on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems
like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.

4. Need for An Alternative Solution:

It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to analternative goal. We
need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentallysound and
sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

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(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over- consuming wasteful
societies of the “developed” world.

5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:

It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our activities cause
destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.

6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:

Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have
all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions should be
planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

1.1.6 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at
2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable
pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest
challenge before us is to limit the population growth. Although population control does
automatically lead to development, yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth
rates.
2. Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation are mixed with one another. The vast majority ofour people are directly dependent on the
nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our
people are still below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor w ho depend upon the resources of their
immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge of environment degradation
are two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to
sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High yielding
varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like
community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical

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fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the groundwater.
It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water bodies. Suitable strategies
for conservation of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean should
be developed.
6. Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan
to harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge
forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi
and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate. Forests in India have been shrinking
for several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green,
stand today as waste lands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animals give them sustenance. We must
recognize the role of these people in restoring and conservingforests. The modern knowledge and skills
of the forest department should be integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local
communities. The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.
7. Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any potential for
production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffers from varying degrees of soil
degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha,40 are completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is
classified as forest land, of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of
livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land,
most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying
degrees. Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation is to be
avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas. Urbanization and
industrialization has given birth to a great number of environmental problems. Over 30 percent of urban
Indians live in slums. Out of

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India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence,
coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
pollution causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their
wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified as the worst in terms
of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The
reason is their implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will.
Again the peopleare to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement
these rules.

1.1.7 INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT

Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local, national, regional
and global. Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection and
conservation, a few well-known organization include government organizations like the BSI and ZSI, and
NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.
 The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
 World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi
 Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi
 C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras
 Centre for Environment Education (CEE)
 Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education &Research, Pune

 The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)
 Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun
 Zoological survey of India (ZSI)
 The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
 Botanical Survey of India (BSI)

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1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided bynature which are
necessary for our day-to-day lives’.
 Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals,climate and solar energy
(non- living or abiotic part).
 They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and culturalneeds at the
individual and community levels.
1.2.2 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
They are of two types of resources namely Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources.
1. Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are known
as renewable resource. These resources are able to increase their abundance through reproduction
and utilization of simple substances.
Ex: Plants, (crops and forests) and animals.
 Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but can be recycled.
Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers (e.g. Cotton,
jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.
 In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable resources.
 Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a renewable resource in
as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human scale.
2. Non renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through natural processes are
known as non-renewable resources. These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be
increased. These resources include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver,
lead, zinc etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates etc.).Once a non-renewable
resource is consumed, it is gone forever.

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 Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.

A) Recyclable and
B) Non-recyclable

A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected after they are used
and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral resources, which occur in the
earth’s crust (Ex: Ores of aluminum, copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g.
Phosphate sockand potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica etc.)
B) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be recycled in any way.
Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements
1.2.3 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:
 The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.
 A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The ‘developing nations’ also
over use many resources because of their greater human population. However, the consumption of
resources per capita (per individual) of the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most
developing countries.
 Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse gases.
 Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much greater quantities in developed countries. Their per
capita consumption of food too is much greater as well as their waste.

1.2.4 FOREST RESOURCES

A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other woody vegetation
usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means ‘outside’. India’s Forest Cover is
6,76,000 [Link] (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists estimate that India should ideally have 33% of
its land under forests. Today we only have

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about 12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase ourforest cover.
[Link] FUNCTIONS OF FOREST
1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.
2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
3. They recycle rain water.
4. They remove pollutant from air.
5. They control water quality.
6. They moderate temperature and weather.
7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.

[Link] USES OF FOREST

1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses

1. Commercial uses:
i. Wood – used as a fuel
ii. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furnituretimber etc.
iii. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
iv. Many plants – Medicines
v. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
vi. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.
2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.
i. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen which is essential for life.
ii. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house gas. It is absorbed by
plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of global warming caused by CO2 is reduced.
iii. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil erosion. They also act as
wind breaks.
iv. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant
sponges and slowly release the water for recharge of spring.

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v. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises andhelp in preventing air
and noise pollution.
vi. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.

12.4.3 REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about 33% of total
area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest material occurs.

[Link] OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an increased demand for
medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence exploitation of forest materials is going on increasing.

Cause of over exploitation:

1. Increasing agricultural production.
2. Increasing agricultural activities.
3. Increase in demand of wood resources.

[Link] DEFORESTATION: It is process of removal of forest resources due to naturalor manmade activities
(i.e.) destruction of forests.

Causes of deforestation:
1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation throughtwo ways.
 Through submergence of forest area.
 Destruction of forest area.
Ex: big dams, hydro electric projects, road construction etc.
2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese andlime stone.
3. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for variouspurposes.
Ex: Making boxes, furniture and paper etc.
4. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.

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5. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono specifictree plantation. Ex:
Teak
6. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.
7. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land

Consequences of deforestation (or) impacts of deforestation:

1. Economic loss

2. Loss of biodiversity
3. Destructs the habitats of various species

4. Reduction in stream flow

5. Increases the rate of global warming

6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate

7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.

8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / land slides.

9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude / [Link]
the water cycle
[Link] the nutrient cycle

[Link] PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR)

METHODS OF CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace thetrees cut down for
timber
2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes
4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
5. Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of peopleinto the islands
from mainland.
7. Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.
8. Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.
Case study:

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Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and plantation of
monoculture like Eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor; therefore soil losing their fertility, hence,
Himalayan area facing the serious problem of desertification.

[Link] MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS

[Link].1 TIMBER EXTRACTION
Wood used for engineering purposes like building houses, making furniture is called timber. The
products derived from timber have been important to many civilizations, and thus it has acquired value
within these civilizations. Timber extraction results in deforestation and in the fragmentation of the last
remaining forests. It harms valuable species of trees, birds and wild animals. In spite of this, it is
sometimes necessary to extract timber, so as to meet the needs of a developing country. During the
extraction of timber, cutting, felling and handling should be done selectively, carefully and in a planned
manner, in order to save the remaining forests and biodiversity.
Effects of Timber Extraction
The major effects of timber extraction on forest and tribal people include:
1. Poor logging results in a degraded forest.
2. Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.
3. Loss of biodiversity.
4. Climatic changes such as less rains.
5. New logging roads permit shifting cultivators to gain access to logged areas and cut the remaining
trees.
6. It results in forest fragmentation which promotes loss of biodiversity because some species of
plants and animals require large continuous areas of similar habitat to survive.
7. Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
8. Soil erosion especially on slopes occurs extensively.
9. Sedimentation of irrigation systems, floods may be intensified by cutting oftrees on
upstream.
Case Study-Chipko Movement
The world famous Chipko Movement, pioneered by Dasohli Gram SwarajyaMandal in Gopeshwar
brought about a general awareness about conservation of forests.

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The first Chipko Movement dates back to 1731, when a village woman named Amrita Bai led the Bishnoi
women against the Maharajas men to prevent them from cutting trees. In this attempt to save the trees,
she sacrificed her life along with the lives of her husband, three daughters and 363 people. The
movement was given this name because the village women embraced or hugged the trees to stop them
from being cut. In 1972, in Uttar Pradesh, the Chipko Movement was led by Bachnoi Devi of Advani who
protected the hill forests from the contractors axe men.

[Link].2 DAMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development. Current
estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower, another
important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric power supply and
is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most populous countries – China and India –have built
around 57% of the world’s large dams.
Dams problems
Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much beneficial
purpose.
Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct vast area of
forest area. India has more than 1600 large dams.

Effects of dams on forest:

1. Thousands of hectares of forest will be cleared.
2. Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.
3. Spreading of water borne diseases.
4. Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.
Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.
Effects of dam on tribal people
1. Construction of big dams lead to the displacement of tribal people.
2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and physically.
3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.
4. Tribal people are ill treated by the modern society.

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5. Many of the displaced people were not recognised and resettled or compensated.
6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they will beaffected by many
diseases.

Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

The World Bank’s withdrawal from the Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 was a result of the
demands of local people threatened with the loss of their livelihoods and homes in the submergence area.
This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced thousands of tribal folk, whose lives and livelihoods
were linked to the river, the forests and their agricultural lands. While they and the fishermen at the
estuary, have lost their homeland, rich farmers downstream will get water for agriculture. The question is
why should the local tribals be made homeless, displaced and relocated to benefit other people? Why
should the less fortunate be made to bear the costs of development for better off farmers? It is a question
of social and economic equity as well as the enormous environmental losses, including loss of the
biological diversity of the inundated forests in the Narmada valley.

[Link].3 MINING
The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal fromthe earth is called
as mining.

Types of mining
1. Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits
2. Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits
Steps involved in mining
1. Exploration
2. Development
3. Exploitation
4. Ore processing
5. Extraction and purification of minerals
The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining,which needs
enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

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Effects of mining
1. Pollute soil, water and air.
2. Destruction of natural habitat.
3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water islogged which
contaminates the ground water.
4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.
5. Produces noise pollution
6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.
7. Increased risk of landslides.
8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.

1.2.5 WATER RESOURCES

Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our countryis for irrigation.
Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic consumption.
[Link] USES
 Is essential for all forms of life.
 Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental
activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.
 No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by1% we feel thirst, if
it drops by 10% we face death.

[Link] HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

Water from various water bodies

Evaporated by solar energy Enters in

to the atmosphere as cloudsFalls again on

earth as rain or snow

Ultimately returns to the ocean.

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[Link] DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES

Fresh water resources

Surface water Underground water

Standing water bodies flowing water bodies

[Link].1 UNDERGROUND WATER

Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layerof sand and
gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Effects of over utilization of water
1. Decrease of ground water:
i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.
ii. Insufficient rain fall
iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.

2. Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate, then the sediments in the
aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface takes place.
Problems: a. Structural damages to the buildings

b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.

3. Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi aridregions for agriculture
disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.

Problem: a. Lowering of water table

b. Decrease the number of aquifers

c. Change the speed and direction of water.

4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to the intrusion of salt water
from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture.

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5. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.

6. Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases muchfaster than can be
regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.

7. Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases thereforewater containing
nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.

[Link].2 REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many more areas are
expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.
1. Population explosion: World population is > 6 billion and will continue to increase significantly during the next
few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater
withdrawals today are estimated at 3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World
Commission on Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of morewater than really needed
by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary to grow crops. Industries in order to
maximize short-term economic gains, does not bother its liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and
the sea.
3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes down the rivers and is lost.
Forest cover permits water to be held in the area permitting it to seep into the ground. This charges the
underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can be used in drought years if the stores have been
filled duringa good monsoon. This soil and water management and afforestation are long-term measures that
reduce the impact of droughts. The destruction of forests influences the regulation of natural water cycle. The
removal of dense and uniform cover over the hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in drainage basins.
Nations situated in tropical climates including India experience disastrous floods caused by the indiscriminate
deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.
4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which otherwise used for
human needs.
5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation

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6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in subsurface reservoirs. The
building construction activities are sealing the permeable zone, reducing the area for percolation of rainwater
into subsurface and increase in surface runoff.
7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating electricity, and for
consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by creating large dams. Dams support 30 to 40%
of this area.

[Link] FLOOD
It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds thecarrying capacity of
the channel within its bank.
[Link].1 CAUSES OF FLOOD
1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow and sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)
2. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
3. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level offlood raises.
[Link].2 EFFECT OF FLOOD
1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.
2. Cultivated land gets affected.
3. Extinction of civilization.
[Link].3 FLOOD MANAGEMENT
1. Floods can be controlled by dams.
2. Channel management control flood.
3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.
4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration throughappropriate
afforestation in the catchment area.

[Link] DROUGHT
Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to
1. Inadequate rain fall
2. Late arrival of rain fall
3. Excessive withdrawal of ground water.

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Lack of water for the needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population may betermed as a drought.
Drought causes serious damages to plants, animals and human life.
[Link].1 CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1. When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
2. High population.
3. Intensive cropping pattern
Ex: Maharashtra - There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30years due
to over exploitation of water by sugarcane crop.
[Link].2 EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changesthe quality of water.
2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food andadversely affects human
and live stock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.
4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time,hence industrial and
commercial growth decreases.
5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.
6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.

[Link].3 DROUGHT MANAGEMENT

1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.
2. Rain water harvesting system.
3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.
4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.
5. Afforestration activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.
6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of cropfailures in dry area.

[Link] DAMS
Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits derived from them
have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods andto help the drought prone areas,
with supply of water. But large dams have proved to

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cause severe environmental damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct smalldams. Multiple
small dams have less impact on the environment.
Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra
water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.
Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands and flood
plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal species, particularly
is the case with mega dams.
Some of the problems are mentioned below.
 Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest andland submergence
 Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reducesagricultural
productivity
 Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species andecosystems,
deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
 Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement oftribal people.
 Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
 Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property andlivelihood
 Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribalpeople
 Dislodging animal populations
 Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
 Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation
 Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological hazards due to large-scale
impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases, such as malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis.

[Link] SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

 Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects
 Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands

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 Soil management, micro-catchment development and afforestation permits recharging of underground

aquifer, thus reducing the need for large dams
 Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agricultural use.
 Preventing leakages form dams and canals and loss in municipal pipes
 Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments
 Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation, control of growing water intensive
cash crops ; control of water logging.
 Pricing water at its real value makes people use it more responsibility and efficiently and reduces wastage
 In deforested areas where land has been degraded, appropriate soil management practices, making bunds
along the hill-slopes and making nalla plugs can help retain moisture and make it possible to revegetate
degraded areas
 Use waste water for activities that does not need fresh water – Recycling
 Adopt mini water harvesting models for domestic usage.
 Protect existing tanks
 Develop systematic water management and adopt strict water auditing
 “Save water Campaigns” for public awareness on water scarcity
 Through rainwater harvesting, community based participatory initiatives and holistic watershed management.
 Responsible water usage can only be achieved by empowering local communities and creating local
accountability.
 The government should develop policies that protect water resources, promote sustainable watershed
management and invest in technologies that will increase efficiency in irrigation, industrial usage and improve
water harvesting techniques.

[Link] WATER CONFLICTS

1. Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and internationaldisputes.

National conflicts:
a. Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka and TamilNadu.
b. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh
c. Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala

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International conflicts:
Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA

1.2.6 MINERAL RESOURCES

Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition arecalled as
minerals.

[Link] USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS

1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu
2. Construction work – Fe, Al &Ni
3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments
5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt
7. Making alloys for various purposes
8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices
9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system

[Link] ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY

MINING ACTIVITIES
1. Devegetation:

 Topsoil and vegetation get removed

 Deforestation leads to several ecological losses
 Land scape gets badly affected
2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is convertedinto sulphuric acid
which enters into the soil.
3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect thesurface water, which
kills many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits airpollutants and
damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting ofbuildings and bending
of rail tracks.

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[Link] EFFECTS OF OVER EXPLOITATION OF

MINERALS
1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits
2. Wastage
3. Environmental pollution
4. Needs heavy energy requirements.

[Link] MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.
2. Modernization of mining industries
3. Search for new deposit
4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.
5. Environmental impacts can be minimized by adopting eco friendly mining
technology.

[Link] CASE STUDIES-MINING AND QUARRYING IN

UDAIPUR
200 open cast mining and quarrying in Udaipur. But 100 mines are illegal. 150 tons of explosives are
used per month. It pollutes air, soil and water. It affects irrigation and wildlife.

1.2.7 FOOD RESOURCES

Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates,fats,
proteins, minerals and vitamins.

[Link] TYPES OF FOOD SUPPLY

1. Crop plants: Grains mostly constitute about 76% of the world’s [Link]: Rice, Wheat
and Maize
2. Range lands: Produces 17% of world’s food from trees and grazing animals.
Ex: Fruits, milk and meat
3. Ocean: Fisheries – 7% of world’s food

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LECTURE NOTES

[Link] WORLD FOOD PROBLEM

1. In the earth’s surface, 79% is water out of total area. 21% land (forest, desert, mountain and barren land)
. Less % cultivated land, at the same time population explosion is high therefore world food problem arises.
2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity
affects agricultural land.
3. Urbanization affects agricultural land. Hence production of rice, wheat, corn and other vegetable is
difficult.

[Link] TYPES OF NUTRITION

1. Nutritious nutrition: To maintain good health and disease resistance, we need large amount of carbohydrate,
proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals such as Fe, Ca and iodine. Food
and agricultural organization (FAO)of United Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake
on a global state is 2500 calories/day.
2. Under nutrition: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs suffer from under
nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietary calorie.
Effect of under nutrition: Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases.
3. Mal nutrition: Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals,vitamins, iron and
iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases. Effect of mal nutrition:
.No ciency of nutrients Effects
1 in th
2 ia
3 e r
4 in – A ess

India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished. World food
summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce thenumber of under nourished
and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.

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[Link] OVER GRAZING

It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.

[Link].1 EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

1. Land degradation
 Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation
 Exposed soil gets compacted
 Soil moisture reduces.
 Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.
 Land cannot be used for further cultivation.
2. Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets erodedby the action of wind
and rain fall.
3. Loss of useful species: OG affects the plant population and their regenerating
capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.

[Link] AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for human use. It
includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and raising livestock, dairying and
forestry.

[Link].1 TYPES OF AGRICULTURE

1. Traditional agriculture
2. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture

1. Traditional agriculture
Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute traditional
agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for their income.

2. Modern agriculture
Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides and water to
produce large amount of single crops.

[Link].2 EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE

1. Problems in using fertilizers

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LECTURE NOTES

a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and Haryana deficiency of
nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the soil.
b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer causes blue baby
syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit leads to death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by
runoff water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the lakes called
eutrophication. Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time ofthe species is less and
they decompose easily and pollute the water which affects the aquatic life.
2. Problems in using pesticides

1. Death of non target organism.

2. Producing new pest – super pest
3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep onconcentrating in
the food chain and it is harmful to human beings.
4. Risk of cancer:
a. It directly acts as carcinogen
b. It indirectly supports immune system.
3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.

Causes of water logging:

1. Excessive water supply
2. Heavy rain
3. Poor drainage

Remedy:
1. Preventing excessive irrigation
2. Subsurface drainage technology
3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus

[Link] CASE STUDY- PESTICIDES IN INDIA

In Delhi the accumulation of pesticide in the body of mother causes prematuredelivery and low
birth weight infant.

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Pesticides in Pepsi and Coca Cola India has reported that Pepsi and coca cola companies are
selling soft drinks with pesticide content 30-40 times higher than EU [Link] damages the nervous
system,.

1.2.8 ENERGY RESOURCES

[Link] ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
 Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s populationbut consume 25% of
the world’s available energy.
 Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal toenergy consumed by
a single person in a poor country for one year.
 Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poorcountry GNP and
energy consumption are less.

[Link] TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:

1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources
2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources

[Link].1 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy which can be regenerated.

Merits of renewable energy resources
1. Unlimited supply
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production.
Types of renewable energy resources
1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy. Several techniques are
available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.

a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell:

 Solar cell consists of p- type semi conductor (Si doped with B) and n-type semi conductor (Si doped
with P). P-type forms top layer and n-type forms bottom layer.
 Solar rays fall on the top layer, the electrons from valence band promoted to the conduction band
which crosses the p-n junction into n-type semi

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conductor. Potential difference between the two layers is created which causes flow of
electrons.

Uses: It is used in calculators, electronic watches, street light, water pumps etc.

b. Solar battery: Large number of solar cells connected in series is called solar battery. It is used in
remote areas where continuous power supply is a problem.
c. Solar water heater: It consists of insulated box painted with black paint with glass lid. Inside the
box black painted copper coil is present. Cold water is allowed to flow, it is heated up and flows
out into a storage tank from which water is supplied through pipes.
2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy
It’s speed is high.
a. Wind mills: When a blowing wind strikes the blade of the wind mill, it rotates continuously. And
rotational motion of the blade drives number of machines like water pump, flour mills and electric
generators.
b. Wind farms: When a large number of mills are installed and joined together in a definite pattern
– it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of electricity.
Condition: Minimum speed for wind generator is 15 Km/hr
Advantages:
1. It does not cause air pollution
2. Very cheap

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3. Ocean energy:
Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides are due to gravitational force of sun and moon which produce
enormous amount of energy. High tides – rise of water in the ocean. Low tides – fall of water in the ocean.
Tidal energy can be used by constructing a tidal barrage. During high tides sea water enters into the
reservoirs and rotates the turbine, produce electricity. During low tides water from reservoir enters into
the sea rotate the turbine produce electricity.
Ocean thermal energy:
Temperature difference between surface water and deeper level water in ocean generates electricity.
The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called ocean thermal energy.
Condition: Temperature difference should be 200C.

Process: Ammonia is converted into vapours on the surface of warm water, it increases the vapour
pressure which rotate the turbine and generates electricity. Deeper level cold water is pumped to cool
and condense the vapour in to liquid.
3. Geo thermal energy: Temperature of the earth increases at a of 20 –750C per/km when we move down the
earth. The energy utilised from the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal energy.
Natural geysers: Hot water or steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally

is called natural geysers.

Artificial geysers: Artificially a drill hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe intoit. The hot
water or steam is used to rotate the turbine and generate electricity.
4. Bio mass energy:
Bio mass: Organic matter produced by plants or animals used as source of energy Bio gas:
Mixture of methane, carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the majorconstituent. It is
obtained by anerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes inthe presence of water.

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Bio fuels: Fuels obtained by the fermentation of [Link]:

Ethanol, methanol
Ethanol: Produced from sugar cane. Calorific value is less.
Methanol: Obtained from ethanol Calorific value too less.
Gasohol: Mixture of ethanol and gasoline India trial is going on to use gasohol in cars andbuses.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen produced by pyrolysis, photolysis and electrolysis of water. Ithas high
calorific value. Non polluting one because the combustion product is water.

Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.
2. Safe handling is required.
3. Difficult to store and transport.

[Link].2 NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.
1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.
Disadvantages:
1. When coal is burnt large amount of CO2 is released which causes globalwarming.
2. S, N produces toxic gases during burning.
2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and small amount of
impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In the world level 25% of oil reserves are in
Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the world crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40
years.

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LECTURE NOTES

3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking can be easily converted into
liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and odorless gas, but during cylindering mercaptans are added
to detect leakage.
4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and other hydrocarbons. Calorific
value is high. There are two types. Dry gas and wet gas.
5. Nuclear energy: [Link] is a father of nuclear power development in India. 10nuclear reactors are
present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclearenergy can be produced by two types of
reactions. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier
nucleus split into lighternuclei on bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is
releasedthrough chain reaction.
Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three neutrons; in the
second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of propagation of the reaction by
multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together
at extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large amount of energy is
released.
Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.

[Link] CASE STUDY

Wind energy in India: India generating 1200 MW electricity using the wind energy. Largest wind farm
situated near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. It produces 380 MW electricity.
Hydrogen fuel car: General motor company of china discovered a experimental car ( fuelH2) can produce no emission only water
droplets and vapors come out of the exhaust pipe. This car will be commercially available by 2010.

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UNIT-II: ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Lecture notes

ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Concepts of an Ecosystem – Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers, Consumers
and Decomposers – Energy Flow in the Ecosystem – Ecological Succession – Food Chains, Food
Webs and Ecological Pyramids – Introduction, Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and
Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem
(B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds,
Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries)
BIODIVERSITY Introduction to Biodiversity – Definition: Genetic, Species and Ecosystem
Diversity – Biogeographical Classification of India – Value of Biodiversity: Consumptive Use,
Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and OptionValues – Biodiversity at Global, National and
Local Levels – India as a Mega- Diversity Nation – Hot-Spots of Biodiversity – Threats to
Biodiversity: Habitat Loss, Poaching of Wildlife, Man-Wildlife Conflicts – endangered and Endemic
Species of India – Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation of Biodiversity.
Field Study of Common Plants, Insects and Birds.

2.1 ECOSYSTEMS
2.1.1INTRODUCTION:

ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) – means “house” (or) place of
living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of. Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals
with the study of the pattern of relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist [Link] coined the term “eco system”.

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 The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological sphere (or) house (or) place
of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living organism does exist while “system” means “group
of organisms joined in regular and interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known asecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) iscalled as
“ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of theecosystems.

2.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:

 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:

 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:

 Dynamic (Not static)

 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:

 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM

 Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

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 The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow ofenergy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.

2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system

1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:

 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.

 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any majorinterference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:

 This ecosystem is related to land.

Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:

 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two typesbased on salt
content.

i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:

a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc

ii. Marine Ecosystem:

Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

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2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:

An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.

2.1.5 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem explains the
relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Biotic
Components

Eco System

Abiotic
Components

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Bioticcomponent”.

Examples: Plants (Producers)

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Animals (Consumers) and

Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on howthey get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

 Self food producing organisms are known as [Link]: All

green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hencethey are also
called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)

B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:

 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and dependdirectly (or)
indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Planteaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

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 They directly depend on the herbivores for their [Link]:

Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.

iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their [Link]:
humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.

iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)

 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called [Link]:
beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.

C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)

 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into
simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple products are called
decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:

 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”

 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in metabolic activities
and then return to the environment. The abiotic component of the ecosystems divided into three
portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Chemical Factors

Organic Substances Inorganic Substances

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2.1.6 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow ofenergy.

2.6.1 Types of functions:

 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:

1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselvesthrough
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make theirown food. They are
always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and decompose
them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:

 Anything which we eat to live is called food.

 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is called
as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus, a food chain is a
picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers) to series of
organisms in an environment, as shown in the following figure.

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Carnivores Omnivores
SUN Decomposer

Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy forplants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of the sunlight,
chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals and humans, cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals and plants and
release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are re-used by new plants, back to the
starting point of the food chain.

Types of food chain:

Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:

 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain (or)
detritus food chain through herbivores andcarnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food [Link]:
Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain

Grass land food chain

Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain

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Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion

b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial food chain. It is seen in
aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain

Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

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2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals) and
goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of solar energy, but they
depend on influx of dead organic matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food chain either
consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain
involves host parasite hyper parasites’ links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:

 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms are connected at
different tropic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level.
Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.

Bird(Eagle)
Snake Fish

Insect

Frog Grass

Grasshopper

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Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food chains are inter
connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a food web. The grazing food chains
are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:

 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist CharlesElton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in whichthe tropic levels
(i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

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Secondary Consumers
Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy

Producers

Base

Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in theecological
pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in theecological
pyramid.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow inorganist population.
Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

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1. Pyramid of numbers:

 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.

 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropiclevel to higher
tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”. Example: A grassland ecosystem and
a pond ecosystem show an uprightpyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size andlarge in numbers.
So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1st tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropiclevel. Since the
numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III tropic level. Since the
numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic level. The number
and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and carnivores are decreases
from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from lower tropic level
to higher tropic level as shown in figure.

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Apex

Large Tertiary Consumers

Fish
Distance in Number

Secondary Consumers
Small Fish

Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa

Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Base
Large Fish
Tertiary Consumers

Small Fish
Secondary Consumers

Zoo Plankton
Ex: Protozoa Primary Consumers

Phytoplankton (Algae) Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

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2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:

 A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
 In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these producers
occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the
number of birds, insects and other species are higher when compared to the trees, the size of
which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupythe third tropic
level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when compared to the birds, insects the size of
which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level. Since the
number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the fox and snakes the size of which is very
(or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence
it is called partially upright of number as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers

Tiger

Snakes, Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

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Lion, Tiger
Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects, Birds

Trees Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to highertropic level,
is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:

 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biologicalmaterial (or) organism)
present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.

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 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.

i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level to consumer
level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels (as shown in
figure)

Apex

10kgs
Distance in Number

Base

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Lion, Tiger
Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects, Birds

Producers
Trees

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumerlevel are called as
Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumerlevels as shown in
the following figure.

Tertiary Consumers

Small fish Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

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Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:

 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.

 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer [Link] each successive
tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at
each next higher level only 10% ofthe energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy
at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is
always upright as shown in figure.

5 Kcals
Decrease in Energy

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5 K Cals
Tertiary Consumers

50 K cals
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
500 k cals

Producers
5000 K cals

2.1.7 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

[Link] FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wildanimals

Types:
1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
2. Littoral and swamps
3. Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc

Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals

Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria

[Link] AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as freshwater and
marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.

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Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature – organisms: algae, aquatic plants,
insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing,
bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification, especially during summer is
a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zoneSecond layer
– enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone Third layer – very poor or
no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attachedto sediments eg.
Snails
Types of lakes : Many types

1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content

2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizercontamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcaniceruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and nutrient
content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in climatic conditions but
they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface
area of running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

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range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims ofindustrial pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved oxygen –
plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes that
require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains
and delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000 species – huge variety
of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di
oxide – regulate biochemical cycles.
 Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primaryproductivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions – very rich in
nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many species are endemic
– high food productivity – however to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, [Link]:
Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

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[Link] GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:

Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –overgrazing
leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate

a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in Africa.
Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry seasons – termite mounds produce
methane – leads to fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2
– global warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter andvery hot summer -
dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile – cleaned for
agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox,etc. – A thick layer of
ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout theyear – known as permafrost – summer
insects and birds appear.

Components:
Structural Components:

Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, [Link]:
grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

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2.2 BIODIVERSITY
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio -life or living organisms, diversity-
variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total number of races, varieties
and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers, consumers
and decomposers) in a system.
 Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic, topographic and soil
conditions and roughly comparable biological communities (Eg. Grassland, forest). The biomes shelter
an astounding variety of living organisms (from driest desert to dripping rain forest, from highest
mountain to deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of size, shape, colour and
inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the biodiversity, makes the world beautiful.
 There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, byresearch expeditions,
mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 3-50 million different species may be alive
today. Insects make up more than one half of all known species and may comprise more than 90% of
all species onearth.

2.2.2 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

 The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are
1. Ecosystem diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Genetic diversity
1. Community or Ecosystem diversity

 A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and abiotic components
(soil, air, water, etc) interacting with each other is known as an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological
community, including tropic levels, ecological processes (which capture energy), food webs
and material recycling.

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 The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystemdiversity.

Ex: River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and avariety of
plants that have adapted.
 Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in aregion.
 It explains the interaction between living organisms and physical
environment in an ecosystem.

2. Species diversity –

 A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.

 Species diversity is the diversity between different species.
 The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is knownas species diversity.
 Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within individual communities
or ecosystems.
 The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants, animals and
microorganisms which interact with each other and with the abiotic component of the
environment.
Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more than 2 million.
However, only around 1.5 million are found and assigned scientific names.
Plant species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc

Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,Deer etc

3. Genetic diversity –

 A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species or "genera".

 Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual species.
 Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different from one other. These
differences are due to differences in the combination of genes.

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 Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to the
other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa". However
there are thousands of rice varieties that show variation at the genetic level in the form
of different size, shape, colour and nutrient content.
(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available
are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.
2.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are
1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fibre, shelter,fuel and medicine.
2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air andoverall health of
biosphere.

2.2.4 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversityis classified
into:
1. Direct Value and
2. Indirect Value
1. Direct value of biodiversity: It is of two types
a. Consumptive use value and
b. Productive use value
a. Consumptive use value:

 The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are consumed directly,
without passing through a market. Some of them are firewood, food, and game meat.
 When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game viewing, the consumptive
value is the whole recreational experience. Consumptive value seldom appears in national income
accounts, but could be easily included in measures such as GDP. It is valued from the cost if resource
was sold at market value, rather than being consumed.
 High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:

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 Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries

 Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
 Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
 Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if harvested sustainably and
managed efficiently.

b. Productive use value:

 Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in a market).
 Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an inflated cost to the
finished product.
 Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in national income
accounts and may have a major impact on the national economy.
 Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal plants and game meat
sold in a market have productive use value.

2. Indirect value of biodiversity

 Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not appear in GDP.
However, they are crucial to other natural products which influence the GDP.
 These values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any use. Ex: Ecological
Processes etc.
 Direct values are often derived from indirect values because plants and animals are supported by the
services provided by their environments.
 Many classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal communities.
Ex:
1. Ecological functions
2. Flood and storm protection
3. Waste assimilation
4. Microclimatic functions
5. Nutrient cycles

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6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores
8. Soil protection, etc.
Indirect value of biodiversity is of the following types:
1. Non-consumptive use value
2. Optional value
3. Existence or ethical value and
4. Information value

1. Non-consumptive use value:

 This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.

 It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for other species by
maintaining water cycle, regulating climate, production and protection of the soil,
absorption and breakdown of pollutants, recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific,
educational, spiritual and historic values of natural environments.
 Recreational value is important with regard to tourism and helps the national GDP.

2. Optional value:

 This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and needs to be explored.
 This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species thatmay prove to be
important in future and their usefulness needs to be studied with reference to a specific
problem currently plaguing the society.

Ex:
1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseaseslike cancer and
AIDS.
2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economicgrowth of our
country.

3. Existence value:
 This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also,this is the value
that people are willing to pay to keep a species /

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community /ecosystem from going extinct. Examples of this are highamounts being
spent for animals like pandas, whales, lions etc.
 Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers and
mountains. Examples being the Ganga river, trees like Banyan and Peepaland plants
like the Vambu, Tulsi and Vengai are worshipped.
4. Information value: This relates to the educational, scientific and aesthetic andtourism values of
biodiversity in an ecosystem
5. Aesthetic Values: Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect
biodiversity. The most important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.

Ex:
1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they can enjoy aesthetic
value of biodiversity. This is called eco-tourism.
2. The pleasant music of wild birds, beautifully coloured butterflies, colour of peacocks and colour of
flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.

2.2.5 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

 Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity.
 Waste generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoilsthe environment
and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.
 Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normalecological cycle.
 Causes for loss of biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
1. Habitat loss: The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss. Factors influencing
habitat loss are:
a. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests and grasslands
are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or settlement areas or developmental projects.
Forests and grasslands are natural home to thousands of species which disintegrate due to loss of
their natural habitat.

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b. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are

destroyed due to farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
c. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and
scattered patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leadsto the
disappearance of most wildlife
d. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as rawmaterials leading to
extinction of many wild plant species.
e. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for theproduction of drugs
leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
f. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitatloss
g. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupledwith the discharge of
industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
2. Poaching of wildlife: Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. Itcontributes to loss of
biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:
1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.
2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell theirproducts.

Factors influencing poaching:

1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to pressure on forest resources,
leading to degradation of wildlife habitats
2. Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally onthe trade of products
of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling of wildlife products. Since trading of such
products is highly profitable, poachers continue to hunt endangered animals and smuggle their
fur, skin and tusks to other countries. Wildlife products include furs, horns, tusks, live specimens
and herbal products. Richest source of biodiversity lies in developing nations in Asia, Africa and
Latin America. Advancedcountries like Europe, North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong
are the major importers of wildlife products.
3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense damage and
danger to man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the

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forest department officials to convince the affected villagers to gain the villagers supportfor wildlife
conservation.

Ex:
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation,the villagers killed
and injured several elephants.
2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damagedone by
elephants to their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals whichexplode when the
elephants enter the fields
4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay GandhiNational Park, Mumbai

Factors influencing man-animal conflicts

1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food
5. Villagers set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals(Elephants) who suffer
pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.

2.2.6 BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

 India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed asa mega diversity
country.
 India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the world.
 It is essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmentalinteraction of flora and
fauna of India.
 Bio-geographers have classified India into ten bio-geographic zones with each zonehaving characteristic
climate, soil and biodiversity.
 These zones are described below:
1. Trans-Himalayas: The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibeteanplateau. This region
harbors the high-altitude cold desert in ladakh (Jammu

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and Kashmir) and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). It accounts for 5.7% of the country's
landmass.
2. Himalayas: The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The entire
mountain chain is running from Kashmir in the North-west to Assam in the north-east. The
Himalayas comprise of a diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. The himalayas
cover 7.2% of the country's landmass
3. Desert: The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is comprising
both the salty desert of Gujarat and the sandy desert of Rajasthan. Deserts occupy around
6.9% of the country's land mass.
The kinds of deserts found in India are:
a. The desert of western Rajasthan
b. The desert ofGujarat
c. The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Indian
deserts have more diversified fauna.
4. Semi-arid: This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It
includes the Aravalli hill range. It overs approximately 15.6% of the country'slandmass.
5. Western Ghats: The western ghats are a mountain range that runs along the western cost of
India. They are a range extending north-south from southern tip of Gujarat in the north to
Kanyakumari in the [Link] mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq. km. This ghat section
covers an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. It covers about 5.8% of the
country's landmass.
6. Deccan plateau: It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada valley. Three sides of the
plateau are covered by mountains slopes towards east. Satpura mountains cover the north while
western ghats cover the west side and eastern ghats cover the eastern side of the plateau. It is
the one of largest zones covering the southern and south-central plateau with mostly deciduous
trees. It covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.
7. Gangetic plain: This plain covers the area between the south himalayas to the tropic of cancer.
These plains were formed by the Ganges river system and are relatively homogeneous. This
region experience 600 mm rainfall

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annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and it covers 11% of the country's
land mass.
8. North-east India These are pains and non-himalayan ranges of
northeastern India and have a wide variety of vegetation. It covers around 5.2% of the
country's land mass.
9. Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has almost 300 big and small
islands. Among these, only five islands are inhabited. Only tribes are found in the island of Nicobar.
These islands have a highly diverse set of biomes and occupy 0.03% of the country's biomass.
[Link] India has a large coastline distributed both to the east and west with distinct differences
between the two. The Lakshwadeep islands are included in this but the area of these islands is
negligible.

2.2.7 INDIA AS MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

 India's rich biological diversity - its immense range of ecosystems, species and genetic forms is by virtue
of its tropical location, climate and physical features.
 India's biogeographical composition is unique as it combines living forms from threemajor biogeographical
realms, namely - Eurasian, Agro-Tropical and Indo-Malayan.
 India's fabulous biodiversity is estimated to be over 45,000 plant species representing about seven percent
of the world's flora; and its bewildering variety of animal life represents 6.5 per cent of world's fauna.
15,000 species of flowering plants, 53,430 species of insects; 5050 species of molluscs, 6,500 species of
other invertebrates; 2,546 species of fishes; 1228 species of birds, 446 species of reptiles, 372 species of
mammals and 204 species of amphibians have been identified.
 In India about 1, 15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and described.
 India stands tenth in 25 most plant-rich countries of the world. Plant richness means greater uniqueness
of species present.
 India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich means of all living
organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater the multidiversity of species, greater is the
contribution to biodiversity. There are 25 clearly defined areas in the world called 'hot spots' which
support about 50,000

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endemic plant species, comprising 20 per cent of the world's total flora. India's defined location
of 'hot spots' is the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions.
 Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64
m. hectares or about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to satellite imaging.
Roughly 33 cent of this forest cover represents primary forest. Indian flora comprises about 15,000
flowering plants and bulk of our rich flora is to be found in the Northeast, Western Ghats, the
Northwest and Eastern Himalayas, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Likewise, Assam and
the Western Ghats are home to several species of mammal fauna, birds, and reptilian and
amphibian fauna.
 As one of the oldest and largest agriculture societies, India has also a striking
variety of at least 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops.
There is a vital, but often-neglected factor when we focus on biodiversity. It may be a matter of
she surprise for many to understand that the tribals who officially constitute 7.5 per cent of India's
population have preserved 90 per cent of the country's biocultural diversity. To a large extent, the
survival of our biodiversity depends on how best the tribals are looked after.
 To preserve our rich biodiversity, nine biosphere reserves are set up in specific biogeographic'' zones: the
biggest one is in the Deccan Peninsula in the Nilgiris covering Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Others are the Nanda Devi in Uttar khand in the Western Himalayas, the Nokrek in Meghalaya, Manas and
Dibru Saikhowa in Assam, the Sunderban's in the Gangetic plain in West Bengal, Similar in Orissa, the
Great Nicobar and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu.

2.2.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

[Link] ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA: A plant, animal or microorganism that is in immediate risk of
biological extinction is called endangered species or threatened species. In India, 450 plant species have been
identified as endangered species. 100 mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be endangered. India's
biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Degradation and

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3. Over exploitation of resources

 The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals. It contains a list of
species of that are endangered but might become extinct in the near future if not protected.
 Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1. Asiatic cheetah
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Asiatic Wild Ass
4. Bengal Fox
5. Gaur
6. Indian Elephant
7. Indian Rhinocerous
8. Marbled Cat
9. Markhor
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.

Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a criticalnumber. Unless
it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction. Vulnerable species is one whose
population is facing continuous decline due to habitat destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still
abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive area. Such
species are not endangered or vulnerable. A few endangered pecies in the world are listed below:
1. West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)
2. Giant Panda (China)
3. Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
4. Siberian Tiger (Siberia)
5. Mountain Gorilla (Africa)
6. Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
7. Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
8. African Elephant (Africa) Other
important endangered species are:
1. Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)

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2. Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)

3. Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey
(Primates)
4. Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc

Factors affecting endangered species

1. Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting theair, land and water.
These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in living creatures resulting in death.
2. Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to their extinction.
3. Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the
atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot adjust
to the changing environmental conditions leading to their death and extinction.
 An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed by 160
countries.
1. CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimensor wildlife products
as they are in danger of extinction.
2. CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
Drawbacks of cites
1. This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators getaway by paying
only a small fine.
2. Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.

[Link] ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost 60% the endemic species
in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats. Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:

1. North-East India
2. North-West Himalayas
3. Western Ghats and
4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

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Examples of endemic Flora species are

1. Sapria Himalayana
2. Ovaria Lurida
3. Nepenthis khasiana etc

Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:

1. Lion tailed macaque
2. Nilgiri langur
3. Brown palm civet and
4. Nilgiri tahr

Factors affecting endemic species:

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also plays an important role.
Ex: Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants especially
pesticides.
3. Over-hunting and
4. Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators and competitors.
Disease producing organisms also play an important adversary in reducing populations of endemic
species.

2.2.9 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Due to
1. Habitat loss Deforestation activities (cutting trees for timber, removal ofmedicinal plants)
2. Production of hybrid seeds requires wild plants as raw material, farmers
prefer hybrid reeds, many plant species become extinct.
3. Increase in the production of pharmaceutical companies made severalnumber of medicinal
plants and species on the verge of extinction.
4. Removal of forest-cover for road laying and also due to soil erosion.
5. Illegal trade of wild life.
6. Population explosion, construction of dam, discharge of industrial effluentsuse of pesticides.

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Poaching of wild life

 Due to poaching, illegal trade and smuggling activities most of our valuable fauna are under threat
organised crime has moved into illegal wild life smuggling because of huge profit Eg. Tiger, Deer for hides,
Rhinoceros – for horns, Elephant – for ivorytusk, Sea Horse, Star turtle – sold to foreign market.
 (Extinction, the elimination of species, is a normal process of the natural world. Species die put and are
replaced by others as part of evolutionary change.
 Human caused reduction: The climate change caused by our release of green housegases in the atm. could
have catastrophic effects. Human disturbance of natural habitat is the largest single cause pf loss of
biological diversity. Woodlands and grasslands are converted now use about 10% of the world’s land
surface for crop production and about twice the amount for pasture and grasslands.)
 Hunting: Over harvesting is responsible for depletion or extinction of many species.
 Eg. The American passenger pigeon was the world’s most abundant bird. In spite ofthis vast population,
market hunting and habitat destruction caused the entire population to crashwith in 20 years.
Fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation reduces the biodiversity because many animals like bears and largecats require
large territories to subsist. Some forest birds reproduce only in deep forest or habitat far from human
settlement. A large island for example, can support more individuals of given species and therefore less
likely to suffer extinction due to genetic problems and natural catastrophes.
Commercial products:
Smuggling of fuels, hides, horns and folk medicines also affect the biodiversity in an abrupt manner.

2.2.10 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stoppedimmediately
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made ofanimal skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.

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4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started

5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenchesto prevent
animals from entering fields.
6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders
7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals withinforest zones.
8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be
stopped.
 Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The commercial, medical, genetic,
aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity emphasizes the need for its conservation.

Factors affecting biodiversity:

1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity
2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation ofhabitats affect
biodiversity.
3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents
4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also affectbiodiversity

Need for biodiversity

1. It provides recreation and tourism
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from plantsand animals
3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals
4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.
5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supportingsystems
6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration

Types of conservation
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation

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1. IN-SITU CONSERVATION

In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The natural habitats
or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".
a. Biosphere reserves
b. National parks
c. Wildlife sanctuaries
d. Gene sanctuaries
a. Biosphere reserves: They cover large areas (>5000 [Link].) They are normally usedto protect species for a
long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
i. Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem
ii. Protect endangered species
iii. Protect maximum number of species and communities
iv. Serve as site of recreation and tourism
v. May also be used for educational and research purposes
vi. Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed. No
tourism and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere reserves.
b. A national park: It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. It covers
an area ranging from 100 to 500 [Link]. One or more national parks may exist within a biosphere reserve. A
national park is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment. It is used to protect,
propagate and develop wildlife. Grazing domestic animals inside national parks is prohibited All private rights
and forestry activities are prohibited inside a national park

c. Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.
i. It protects animals only
ii. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest products, private ownership
rights and forestry operations, provided it does not affect animals adversely
d. Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.
Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project, Crocodile breeding project,
project elephant etc

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Advantages of in-situ conservation

i. It is cheap and convenient
ii. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.

Disadvantages of in-situ conservation

i. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity
ii. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution

2. EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats. This type of
conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild relatives of crops.
1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plantand animal species
under controlled conditions
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the endangered species.

Important centers of ex-situ conservation:

1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and uses the
Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops. Cryopreservation technique
involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli,
tobacco have been successfully preserved for years using this technique.
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal, Haryana and preserves the semen
of domesticated bovine animals.

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National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility, conservation of varieties of crop
plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility has been created within the NPBGR.

Advantages of Ex-situ conservation

1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter andsecurity thereby
have a longer life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chanceof survival in the
wild

Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation

1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment

Unit-III: Environmental Pollution

Lecture notes

3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
UNIT III ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Definition – Causes, Effects and Control Measures of:- (A) Air Pollution (B) Water Pollution
(C) Soil Pollution (D) Marine Pollution (E) Noise Pollution (F) Thermal Pollution (G) NuclearHazards – Solid Waste
Management:- Causes, Effects and Control Measures of Urban and Industrial Wastes – Role of an Individual in
Prevention of Pollution – Pollution Case Studies – disaster Management:- Floods, Earthquake, Cyclone and
Landslides.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
 Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics
of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life and other animals, living conditions, industrial
processes and cultural assets. Pollution can be natural or manmade.

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 The agents that pollute are called pollutants.

3.2 POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized below:
• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromineand iodine).
• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.
• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and cyanide
compounds.
• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
• Photochemical pollutants—Ozone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes,
ethylene, photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.
• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs ofthe nuclear test.

3.2.1 Classification of Pollutants

[Link] Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of twotypes:

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1. Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a veryslow pace by the natural
biological processes. These are inorganic compounds such as salts (chlorides), metallic oxides waste
producing materials and materials like, aluminum cans, mercuric salts and even DDT. These continue
to accumulate in the environment.
2. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily decomposes under natural
processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/artificial methods. These cause serious problems
when accumulated in large amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the pace of decomposition of
disposal.

[Link] Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their releaseinto the
environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitteddirectly from some
identifiable sources. This include-
a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation offuel.
b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid(HCl).
e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found suspended in air. The fine
particles below the diameter of 100u are more abundant and include particles of metals,
carbon, tar, pollen, fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the
combination of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.
Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between nitrogen oxides;
oxygen and waste hydrocarbons from gasoline that forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate
(PAN) and ozone (O3), both of them are toxic components of smog and cause
smarting eyes and lung damage.

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3.3 TYPES OF POLLUTION

3.3.1 AIR POLLUTION
[Link] Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of
indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can be termed as
pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult for
plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which are
harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients find their way in the air and these are
mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas.
[Link] Causes of Air pollution:
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum
and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes of air pollution. Pollutants emitting from
vehicles cause immense amount of pollution. Carbon Monoxide produced by improper or incomplete
combustion emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is produced
from both natural and manmade processes.
2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture
related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful chemicals into the air and cause
water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release
large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the
air thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various
other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large
equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air pollution.
5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.

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6. Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by itsacronym SPM, is

another cause of pollution.

[Link] Types of Air Pollutants

 Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary [Link] pollutants that are
a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant
would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories
 Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of primary
pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primarypollutants is known to be as secondary
pollutant.

[Link] Common air pollutants

1. Carbon Dioxide: CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last century. CO2 causes
nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may cause green house effect, rise in the
atmospheric temperature. This may melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans and
flooding of coastal regions.
2. Carbon Monoxide: It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incompletecombustion of fuel. If
inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces its oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to
laziness, reduced vision and death.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO2, which are released by automobiles and chemical
industries as waste gases and also by burningof materials. These are harmful and lower the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
4. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and petroleum and are harmful
to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis
(yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis, damage to mucous membrane and metabolic inhibition.
SO2 and SO3 reactwith water to form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate
as rain or snow producing acid rain or acid precipitation.

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5. Photochemical Oxidants: Formed by the photochemical reactions between primary pollutants,

viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight react
with un-burnt hydrocarbons to form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone, aldehydes and some
other complexorganic compounds in the air.
6. Hydrocarbons: These are un-burnt discharges from incomplete combustion of fuel in
automobiles. These forms PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is highly toxic.
7. Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid particles into the air.
Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust containing lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium,
zinc and mercury from metallurgical processes; cotton dust from textile mills; and pesticides
sprayed on crops are examples of particulate pollutants in the air. These are injurious to
respiratory tract.
8. Aerosols: Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapor form. These
include fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine) present in emissions from the
Jet aero planes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer. Thinning of ozone layer results in
more harmful ultraviolet rays reaching the earth, which are harmful to skin, and can
lead to skin cancer also.
9. Radioactive Substances: These are released by nuclear explosions and explosives. These are
extremely harmful for health.
10. Fluorides: Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an extremely toxic gas called
hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highlyinjurious to livestock and cattle.

[Link] Control measures

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling,
flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control of contaminants
at their source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or control technologies.
1. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are
1. Using unleaded petrol

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2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content

3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle asopposed to private
vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not locatedon busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxideand absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the citypreferably on the
downwind of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbonmonoxide and
hydrocarbons

2. Control measures in industrial centers:

1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each andevery industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carriedout to know the
emission levels.

[Link] Equipment used to control air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate temperature so that the
combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro- static precipitators in
manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates from the exhaust gases of electric
power and industrial plants are shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be
disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt with chemical
treatment.

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3.3.2 WATER POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction: Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”

[Link] Sources of water pollution

1. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locationsthrough pipes,
ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and
oil tankers.
2. Non point sources: These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of discharge. They are large land
areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow or deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock
feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking lots.

[Link] Types, effects and sources of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has aharmful
effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
[Link] Pollutants Human sources Health Effects
1 Infectious agents Human and animal Variety of diseases
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, wastes
Protozoa, and parasitic
worms.
2 Oxygen demanding wastes Sewage, Animal Degrade water quality by
(Dissolved oxygen) feedlots, paper mills depleting water of dissolved
Ex: Organic wastes such as and food processing oxygen. This causes fish and
animal manure and plant facilities other forms of oxygen-
debris consuming aquatic life to die.
3 Inorganic chemicals Surface runoff,  Make freshwater unusable
Ex: Water soluble inorganic industrial effluents for drinking and irrigation

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chemicals: and household  Cause skin cancer and

Acids, Compounds of toxic cleansers neck damage, Damage to
metals such as lead (Pb), nervous system, liver and
arsenic (As) and selenium kidneys
(Se) and Salts such as NaCl  Harm fish and other
in oceans and fluoride (F-) aquatic life
found in some soils.  Lower crop yields
 Accelerate corrosion of
metals exposed to such
water

4 Organic chemicals Industrial effluents,  Can threaten human

Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, household cleansers health by causing nervous
Pesticides, Cleaning and surface runoff system damage and some
solvents and Detergents. from farms. cancers.
 Harm fish and wildlife.
5 Plant nutrients Sewage, manure and  Can cause excessive
Ex: Water soluble runoff of agricultural growth of algae and other
compounds containing and urban fertilizers aquatic plants, which die,
nitrate, Phosphate and decay, deplete dissolved
Ammonium ions. oxygen in water thereby
killing fish
 Drinking water with
excessive levels of
nitrates lower the oxygen
carrying capacity of the
blood and can kill urban
children and infants.
6 Sediment Land erosion  Causes cloudy water
Ex: Soil, silt, etc. thereby reducing
photosynthetic activity
 Disruption of aquatic food
chain

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 Carries pesticides,
bacteria and other
harmful substances
 Settles and destroys
feeding and spawning
grounds of fish
 Clogs and fills lakes,
artificial reservoirs,
stream channels and
harbors
7 Radioactive materials: Nuclear power Genetic mutations, birth defects
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of: plants, mining and and certain cancers.
Iodine, Radon, Uranium, processing of
Cesium and Thorium. uranium and other
ores, nuclear
weapon production
and natural sources.
8 Heat (Thermal pollution) Water cooling of  Low dissolved oxygen
Ex: Excessive heat electric power plants levels thereby making
and some types of aquatic organisms more
industrial plants. vulnerable to disease,
parasites and toxic
chemicals.
 When a power plant starts
or shuts down for repair,
fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular
temperature range, can
be killed by an abrupt
temperature change
known as thermal shock.

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[Link] Control measures of water pollution

1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or centralgovernment
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchmentareas of rivers, ponds or
streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps preventdisposal of wastes into
natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hencemore trees should
be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into
any natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supplyschemes and
domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective control of water
pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using the media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws should be
modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

3.3.3 THERMAL POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water therebymaking it
harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause no significant departures from
or activities of aquatic communities.

[Link] Sources of Thermal Pollution

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.

1. Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage fromhospitals, research
institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions,

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discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio nuclides into
nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing installations are
also responsible for increasing the temperatures of water bodies. The operations of power
reactors and nuclear fuel processingunits constitute the major contributor of heat in the
aquatic environment. Heated effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher
than the receiving waters that affect the aquatic flora and fauna.
2. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major sourceof thermal pollution.
The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with waterfrom nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting
heated water is discharged into streams thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated
effluent decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in death of fish and other aquatic
organisms. The sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing aquatic life
that has become acclimatized to living in asteady temperature.
3. Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar manufacturing release huge
amounts of cooling water along with effluents into nearby natural water bodies. The waters
polluted by sudden and heavy organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen
leading to death of several aquatic organisms.
4. Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams with
minimal treatment or without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic temperature
and organic load. This leads to decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters
resulting in the set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in water.
Eventually, this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in rapid death of aquatic
organisms.
5. Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads to negative thermal
loading in water systems. Apart from electric power industries, various factories with cooling
requirement contribute to thermal loading.

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[Link] Thermal pollution in streams by human activities

 Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warmwater into a stream
 Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.
 Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
 Removal of stream side vegetation
 Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal pollution

[Link] Effects of Thermal pollution

1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) decreases with increase in
temperature.
2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison present in water. A 10C
increase in temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect of potassium cyanide, while 80C rise in
temperature triples the toxic effects of o- xylene causing massive mortality to fish.
3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of vital significance to physiology,
metabolism and biochemical processes that control respiratory rates, digestion, excretion, and overall
development of aquatic organisms. Temperature changes cause total disruption to the entire ecosystem.
4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building, spawning, hatching, migration
and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms thereby
shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die dueto failure of respiratory
system and nervous system failure.
6. Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alter the seasonal variation
in the type and abundance of lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for fish at the right
time.

[Link] Control measures for thermal pollution

The following methods can be adapted to control high temperature caused by thermaldischarges:

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1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for cooling systems for cooling purposes, with
subsequent return to the water way after passage through a condenser, is called cooling process.
Cooling towers transfer heat from hot water to the atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers
are of two types:
(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor) is allowed to spray
over baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from sides, which takes away the heat and
cools the water.
(ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral pipes. Cool air with the
help of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which cools down hot water. This cool water can be
recycled.
2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges. Heated effluents on
the surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and
minimize the water area and volume. The warm waterwedge acts like a cooling pond.
3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass intothe ponds through
sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat from the fine droplets gets
dissipated to the atmosphere.
4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-
through cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and
water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually
dissipated through evaporation

3.3.4 SOIL POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities whichmay cause
harmful effect on living organisms”.

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[Link] Types, effects and sources of soil pollution

[Link] Pollutants Sources Health Effects

1 Industrial wastes Industrial pollutants are These pollutants affect
mainly discharged from and alter the chemical
various origins such as pulp and biological properties
and paper mills, chemical of soil. As a result,
fertilizers, oil refineries, hazardous chemicals can
sugar factories, tanneries, enter into human food
textiles, steel, distilleries, chain from the soil or
fertilizers, pesticides, coal water, disturb the
and mineral mining biochemical process and
industries, drugs, glass, finally lead to serious
cement, petroleum and effects on living
engineering industries etc. organisms.
2 Urban wastes Plastics, glasses, metallic Alter the constitution of
cans, fibers, paper, rubbers, soil
street sweepings, fuel Cause Water logging
residues, leaves, containers, Cause biomagnifications
abandoned vehicles and of toxic materials
other discarded through food chain
manufactured products.
3 Agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, Water logging,
practices weedicides, farm wastes, Salinisation,
manure debris, soil erosion micronutrient imbalance,
loss of fertile soil
4 Radioactive Atomic reactor, nuclear Mutations, changes
pollutants radioactive devices, functions of living beings,
Explosion of hydrogen Biomagnifications,
weapons and cosmic cancers, Infant mortality
radiations

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5 Biological agents The human and animal Variety of diseases

wastes, garbage, waste Cause nutrient imbalance
water
6 Pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbon Reduces the activity of
insecticide sex hormones of male
Organic phosphorous and female.
pesticides Causes diseases to
human beings.
7 Fertilizers Different fertilizers The nitrate causes
discharge N, Na, K, S, cancer, blue baby
Nitrates etc syndrome in infants.
8 Polymer, Plastics Waste from different Biomagnifications, water
& other water sources logging, create cancers
in animals and human
beings.

[Link] Control measures of soil pollution

1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm [Link]: Planting trees on
barren slopes
2. Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation
3. Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
4. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps arrest soil
erosion in the long term.
5. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal
problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping
is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
6. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical
pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex:
Organic wastes in animal dung may be

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used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully andpolluting the soil.
7. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary
habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposalmethods.
8. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should
be imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental
education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies canachieve this.
9. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and
reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
10. Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc
which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive
wastes should be banned.

3.3.5 NOISE POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort to all
living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , that is the tenth part of the longest unit Bel.
One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.

[Link] Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise isclassified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise
3. Domestic Noise

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Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources of such noise
pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories, industries and mills. Noise
from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearableand a nuisance to the public. The Indian
Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial pollution damages
the hearing ability by at least 20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial
blower, are exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.

Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. The number of
automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and diesel engine
vehicles has increased enormously in the recentpast further aggravating the problem of transport
noise. Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the border
line due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to deafening
in the elderly.

Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community.
Common sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones,
and loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial revolution, noise in the environment
has been doubled every ten years.

[Link] Effects of Noise pollution

 Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
o contraction of blood vessels
o making skin pale
o Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible forhigh blood
pressure.
o Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
o Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
 Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

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 The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in-turn
increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the pupil of the
eye.
 Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause damage to the
heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.
 The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that diminishes some part of
the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern leads to chronic
damage to the inner ear.
 Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
 Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system andsemicircular canals
of the internal ear.
 The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and [Link] are
subjected to psychiatric illness.
 Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
 The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severenoise pollution
causes:
 Popularly dilation
 Impairment of night vision and
 Decrease in rate of color perception

[Link] Control measures:

1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment to machine
surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source inside a sound
insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials along
the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule or
provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery. The
measure may include dissipationand deflection methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

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[Link] Preventive measures

1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.

3.3.6 MARINE POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources,hazards to
the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of sea water.

[Link] Sources
1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceansby coastal towns, cities
and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amountof sewage garbage agricultural discharge
pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of plastic dumped in to the sea.
2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil andit’s fractions are used
in houses automobiles and industries. This causes devastation of marine environment
3. Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic wastes affects an
organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food which cause various problems.
5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons

[Link] Effects of marine pollution

1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shellsand tissue damage
of egg.

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2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algaebird, fish etc.
3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds
resulting in hypothermia. During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species ofbald
eagles are affected by ingested oil.
4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption offish by man may
cause cancer.
6. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.
7. Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic animals depend either
directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic chain.
[Link] Control of marine pollution
 Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles
1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollutioncontrol
instrument.
2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.
 Methods of removal of oil
1. Physical methods.
 skimming the oil off the surface with suction device
 Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy urethane foam. Chopped
straw and saw dust also used to absorbed oil from the sea water.
2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical additives are used to
coagulated the oil

[Link] Protective method

1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea
2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level
3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques
4. Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic standard.

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3.3.7 Nuclear Pollution

Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.

[Link] Sources of Nuclear Pollution

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

[Link] Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level ofdose, kind of
radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation effects can be somatic or
genetic.

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1. Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to cell
membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resultingin abnormal cell functions, cell division,
growth and death.
2. Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can cause mutations,
which are changes in genetic makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages to
DNA molecules. People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around
100 to 1000 roentgens.

[Link] Management of Radioactive Waste

 The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors should be stored and
allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or in very large underground air tight
cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).
 The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the environment after
diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and Disperse)
 Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into solids such as
concrete and then it is buried underground or sea. (Concentrate and contain)

[Link] Control Measures

 Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
 Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of the area,
tectonic activity and meeting other established conditions.
 Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
 Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive elements as
fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.

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 Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in nuclear
plants.
 Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-rays.
 Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should be ensured.
 Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the waste in hundreds
of meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the best safety long term option.

3.3.8 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

[Link] Introduction
Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people generating enormous
quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation. The waste is normally disposed in
open dumps creating nuisance and environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public
health and the environment. Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse
effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.

[Link] Types of solid wastes

Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into

1. Urban or municipal wastes

2. Industrial wastes
3. Hazardous wastes

 Sources of urban wastes: Domestic wastes containing a variety of materialsthrown out from
homes.
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Wastemetals, etc.
 Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets,
hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.

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 Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials.

Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
 Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.

[Link] CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN WASTES

urban wastes are classified into:
 Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organismsare called bio-
degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
 Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degradedby micro organisms
are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

[Link] SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

 The main source of industrial wastes is chemical industries, metal and mineralprocessing
industries.
Ex: Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
 Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
 Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
 Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acid, alkali,
scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

[Link] EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate surroundings,
biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a breeding
ground for disease vectors.

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2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect soil
characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumpedon the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials and
batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human
beings.
5. Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection, transportation,
segregation of wastes and disposal techniques.

[Link] STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are- Reduce, Reuse and Recycleof Raw
Materials
1. Discarding wastes
 Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.
 Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be reused. Rubber rings
can be made from discarded cycle tubes and this reduces waste generation during
manufacture of rubber bands.

2. Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products
Ex: Old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles,
preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, Preparation of automobile body and
construction material from steel cans This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e,
3R's help save money, energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.

[Link] Discarding wastes

The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:

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1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
1. LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80cm thick refuse is
covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solidwaste volume shrinks by 25-30% and
land is used for parks, roads and small buildings. This is the most common and cheapest method of waste
disposal and is mostly employed in Indian cities.

Advantages:
1. It is simple and economical
2. Segregation of wastes is not required
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
4. Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
5. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
1. Large area is required
2. Land availability is away from the town, transportation costs are high
3. Leads to bad odor, if landfill is not properly managed.
4. Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application ofinsecticides and
pesticides at regular intervals.
5. Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

2. INCINERATION:
 It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous material and
organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification of all combustible
pathogens. It is expensive when compared to composting or land-filling.
 In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. Combustible substances
such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non- combustible matter such as glass, porcelain and
metals are separated before feeding to incinerators.

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 The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes and clinkers
may account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal bysanitary landfill or some other means.
 The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam power for
generation of electricity through turbines.
 Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it has to be dried first
before burning. Waste is dried in a preheated from where it is taken to a large incinerating furnace
called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100 to 150 tons per hour.
 Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which may be increased to
1000 C when electricity is to be generated.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
2. Requires very little space
3. Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
4. Safest from hygienic point of view
5. An incinerator plant of 3000 tons per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Its capital and operating cost is high.
2. Operation needs skilled personnel.
3. Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause airpollution.

3. COMPOSTING: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our [Link] this method,
bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action. Separated compostable waste is
dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with earth of 20cm and left for
decomposition. Sometimes, Actionmycetes are introduced for active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days,
biological action starts. Organic matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated
increasing the temperature of compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted into powdery brown

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colored odorless mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in agriculture. Humus
contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from phosphates and other minerals.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
2. This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
3. Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
4. Recycling can be done

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
2. The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have anassured market.

3.3.9 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

[Link] FLOODS
Increased rainfall or rapid snow melting causes more flow of water in the streams. This excess water flow
in a stream covering the adjacent land is called a flood. Floodplain is defined in terms of a flood frequency.
Flood frequency is referred as 10 -year flood, 100- year flood, etc. A 10-year flood at any point in a stream
is that discharge of water which may be expected to occur on average once in 10 years. Floodplains are
genera lly fertile, flat and easily formed.

[Link] CAUSES OF FLOOD

 Construction of buildings in a flood plain

 Removing vegetation
 Paving roads and parking areas
 Deforestation
 Heavy rainfall
 Urbanization

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 Earthquakes

[Link] Effects of flood

 Erosion of top soil and vegetation

 Damage and loss to land, house and property
 Spread of endemic waterborne diseases
 Interruption of basic facilities of community such as highways, railways,telephone,
electricity and day-to-day essentials
 Silting of reservoirs and dams
 FLOOD CONTROL
 Construction of flood control dam
 Deepening, widening and straightening of streams
 Lining of streams
 Banning of construction of buildings in floodplains
 Converting flood-plains into wildlife habitat, parks, and recreation areas.

[Link] LANDSLIDES

 Landslides occur when mass of earth material move downward. It is also called mass wasting or mass
movement.
 sudden landslide occurs when unconsolidated sediments of a hillside are saturated by rainfall or water
logging.
 Many landslides take place in coincidence with earthquakes. The most commonform of landslides
is earthquake induced landslides or more specifically rock falls and slides of rock fragments that form on
steep slopes.
 The size of area affected by earthquake induced landslides depends o n the magnitude of the earthquake,
its focal depth, the topography and geologic conditions near the causative fault, the amplitude, frequency,
composition and duration of ground shaking.

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[Link].1 Control measures for landslides

 Avoid construction activity in landslide occurring areas.
 Reducing slope of hilly side
 Stabilizing the slope portion
 Increasing plantation of deep rooted vegetation on the slope.

[Link] EARTHQUAKES
 An earthquake occurs when rocks break and slip along a fault in the [Link] occur due to
deformation of crust and upper mantle of the earth.
 Due to heating and cooling of the rock below these plates, movement of adjacentlyoverlying plates and
great stresses, deformation occurs.
 Tremendous energy cans build-up between neighboring plates.
 If accumulated stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, the rocks break suddenlyreleasing the stored
energy as an earthquake.
 The earthquake releases energy in the form of waves that radiate from theepicenter in all directions.
 The 'p' wave or primary wave alternately compresses and expands material in thesame direction it is
travelling.
 This wave can move through solid rocks and fluids.
 These are the fastest waves. The is wave or secondary wave is slower and shakethe ground up, down,
back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which it is travelling. Surface waves follow both the 'P'
and 'S' waves.
 The magnitude of an earthquake is measured in Richter scale. The Richter scale is logarithmic.

[Link].1 Effects of earthquake

 Ground shaking
 Liquefaction of ground
 Ground displacement
 Landslides
 Flood
 Fire

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 Tsunami

[Link].2 Control of earthquake

 There is virtually no technique to control the occurrence of earthquake. However,certain preventive
measures can be taken to minimize the damage.
 Minimizing development activity (especially construction, mining, construction of damsand reservoirs) in
areas known to be active seismic zones.
Continuously monitoring seismic activity using 'seismographs' and alerting peopleregarding any recorded disturbance in advance.

UNIT- IV
Building Materials
UNIT IV SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
From Unsustainable To Sustainable Development – Urban Problems Related To
energy – Water conservation, Rain Water Harvesting, Watershed Management –
Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People, Its Problems and Concerns, Case Studies
– Environmental Ethics:- Issues and Possible Solutions – Climate Change, Global
Warming, Acid Rain, Ozone Layer Depletion, Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust, Case
Studies – Wasteland Reclamation – Consumerism and Waste Products –
Environment Production Act – Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – Wildlife Protection Act – Forest
Conservation Act – Issues Involved in enforcement of Environmental Legislation –
Public Awareness.

SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction:
From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development

Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on hisenvironment
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for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to increase the quality of life. For
that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limitedsupply of resources and renewable resources.
These are to be managed in a scientific manner for availing the generations to come. Hence
developmental activities are to be taken with more care about the environment and its protection. It
brings benefits to all not only to the present generation but also for future generations.

Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising theability of
future generation to meet their own needs.

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Important components of Sustainable development:

1. Economic development

2. Community development

3. Environmental protection

True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high degree of
reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and maximum productivity.
Aspects of sustainable development:

Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy andresourceful
environment to future generation.

Intra generational equity:

A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth ofpoor countries
and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

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Approaches for sustainable development:

1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable, ecofriendly,resource efficient
and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local labour, less resources and produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources using it again and again instead
of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the material in to further products. It reduces waste
generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of people towards earth and
environment should be changed by providing environmental awareness and education.
4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural
resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regenerationcapacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. By population control we can make sustainable development.

Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization –Movement of human population from rural; areas to urban areas forwant of better
education, communication, health, employment etc.

Causes:
Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade transportation, medicalfacilities and
employment.

Urban sprawl:
The phenomenon of spreading of the cities in to sub-urban or rural areas is called urban sprawl. Urban
growth is so fast and is difficult to accommodate all commercial industrial residential and educational
facilities within the limited area.

Energy demanding activities:

Urban people consume lot of energy and materials in comparison with rural people. This is because
urban people have high standard of life and their life style demand more energy.

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Examples for energy demands:

1. Residential and commercial lightings.
2. Industries using large proportion of energy.
3. Usage of fans fridge, A.C, washing machines.

Control and prevention of pollution technologies need moreenergy.

Solution for urban energy problems:

1. Energy consumption must be minimized in all aspects.

2. Public transportation should be used instead of motor cycles and cars.
3. Using of solar energy and wind energy.
4. Production capacity must be increased.

WATER CONSERVATION
The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. The water available on the earth may
occur in all three stages as gas, liquid or solid. Temperature is the main factor in deciding the state of
water. As a liquid, the water forms hydrosphere. About 75%of the Earth’s surface is covered by the
hydrosphere.
The process of saving water for future utilization is called conservation of water.

Need for water conservation.

1. Better life style requires more fresh water.

2. Agriculture and Industrial activities require more fresh water.
3. As the population increases the requirement of water is also more .

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Strategies of water conservation

Reducing evaporation losses

Evaporation of water in humid regions can be reduced by placing horizontalBarriers of

asphalt below the soil surface.

Reducing irrigation losses

Sprinkling and irrigation conserves water by 30- 40%. Irrigation in early morning (or) later evening
reduces evaporation losses. Growing hybrid crop varieties also conserve water.

Reuse of water

Treated waste water can be reused for irrigation. Water from washings, bath rooms [Link] be used for
washing cars, gardening.

Preventing of wastage of water

Closing the taps when not in use and repairing any leakage from pipes.

Decreasing run off losses

Run off , on most of the soils can be reduced by using contour cultivation(or) Terrace
farming.

Avoid discharge of sewage

Disposal into natural water resources should be avoided

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Methods of water conservation

Rain water Harvesting and Watershed management

It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in your own village or town. And taking
measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take place in the catchment.

Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of waysCapturing

runoff from rooftops

Capturing runoff from local catchments

Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams

Conserving water through watershed management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:Provide

drinking water

Provide irrigation water Increase

groundwater recharge

Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants

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In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater collected can
be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Rain is the first form of water that
we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and
groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such
secondary sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all
these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting means to understand the
value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place where it falls.

Rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of collecting and storing rain water for use in non-monsoon
periods. In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads, footpaths and well –concreted
courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease in natural forest cover, increase in concrete
jungles and the decrease in exposed earth; very little open ground is left for water to soak in and thereby
increase the ground water table. So, artificial recharging of the ground water is extremely essential. It
is done through rain water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected at the roof top or in an
open well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into the aquifer.

Rain water harvesting techniques

There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:

1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use

2. Recharge of ground water

Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose are:

Pits

Trenches

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Dug wells

Hand pumps

Recharge shaft

Lateral shafts with bore wells

Spreading technique

Objectives of rain water harvesting.

1. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water.

2. To minimize water crises and water conflicts

3. To reduce rain water run off and soil erosion.

4. To reduce the ground water contamination from intrusion of saline water

Concept of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting involves collecting water that falls on roof of house during Rain
and conveying water through PVC or Al pipe to a near by covered storage tank.

Method of rain water harvesting

1. Roof top method: collecting rain water from roof of the building and storing in theground. It is the
low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings.

2. The rain water from roofs, road surfaces, play grounds is diverted into the surface tank or recharge
pits. The pit base is filled with stones and sand which serves as a

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Advantages:
Rise in ground water level and minimizing the soil erosion and flood Hazards. Scarcity ofwater is
reduced.

Rainwater harvesting systems channel rainwater that falls on to a roof into storage via a system of
gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to waste as it
will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid
standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage tanks
should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and
algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the
system hygienic.

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WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drainsunder the
influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface water. Watershed
management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed management.

Factors affecting watershed :

1. Overgrazing . deforestation , mining , construction activities affect and degradewatershed.

2. Droughty climate also affects the water shed.

Need or objectives of watershed management

1. To raise the ground water level.

2. To protect the soil from erosion by run off.

3. To minimize the risks of floods, drought and landslides.

4. To generate huge employment opportunities in backward rain fed areasto ensure

security for livelihood.

Watershed management techniques

Trenches (pits) were dug at equal intervals to improve ground water storage.
Earthern dam or stone embankment must be constructed to check run off water.

Farm pond can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment’s area.

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Maintenance of watershed

Water harvesting: Proper storage of water in water shed can be used indry season
In low rainfall areas.

Afforestation and agro-forestry help to prevent soil erosion and

retention of moisture in watershed areas

Reducing soil erosion: Terracing, contour cropping minimize soil erosion and run offon the slopes
of water sheds

Scientific mining and quarrying minimize the destructive effect of mining in water shed areas Public
participation is essential for water shed management. People should be motivated for maintaining water
harvesting structures implemented by the government.

RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION

Based on the resettlement schemes proposed by each affected village and present policies, laws and
regulations of different levels of governments and the resettlement requirements of ADB, the
Resettlement Plan of Lauding Expressway Project was preparedby PPTA consulting team and the staff
from NPAEC under GPCD assisted by design institute and Local County and township governments.

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Target and Task

The overall objective of resettlement and rehabilitation is to ensure that the affected production base
will be restored, the affected labor force will be re-employed, and income and livelihood of affected
people will be improved or at least restored to their previous levels before resettlement.

At present, the rural population of project impact area is mainly engaged in agricultural actives, with
most of their income coming from planting, economic trees, and animal husbandry. According to the
actual production and living standard among affected villages, and the approved economic and social
development plans for the relevant counties, the target of

Resettlement and rehabilitation is set as follows:

(1) The resettle’s grain production level will be self-sufficient after resettlement.

(2) The income per capita shall be recovered to the standard before resettlement.

(3) The affected public infrastructures, school, hospitals, social welfare level, natural
environment and traffic condition etc. shall be improved after resettlement.

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Resettlement Task

In 2005, there were 2,829 households with 13,149 persons to be resettled or rehabilitated, in which
520 households and 2,352 persons will need house relocation.

The basic resettlement policy of Lauding Expressway Project is to respect the wishes of affected People
and maintain their current production and living traditions. Based on consultation of local affected
peoples, the economic rehabilitation will be based on developing replaced farming Resources within their
own townships and villages. Planting will be the focus of economic Rehabilitation strategy by developing
new farmland and improving the remaining farmland in the affected villages, and supplemented by
developing various other income generation opportunities in the project areas. In other words, the
resettlement and rehabilitation strategy will first to reestablish the physical production bases for the
affected persons, which will provide a long-term development potential by fully utilizing local land
resources.

Resettlement Principle

Under such policy, a number of resettlement and rehabilitation principles have beendeveloped
for the Project.

(1) The resettlement plan will be based on detailed inventory for land acquisition and houses
Demolition, and adopted compensation standards and subsidies.

(2) The resettlement shall be combined with the local development, resource utilization and
Economic growth as well as environment protection. Considering the local conditions, a Practical and
feasible resettlement plan should be developed to restore or improve their Economic production and
createbasic conditions for long-term development.

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Overall Scheme of Resettlement

Since the construction of Lauding Expressway Project will only acquire limited land acquisition and
demolition along the road alignment line, it will not have significant negative impacts on production and
livelihood for most affected villages. A series of consultation meetings were held among affected
villages and townships. According to the resettle’s opinion and suggestion, and combined with the
actual condition of affected area, the basic rehabilitation scheme was determined as follows:

(1) Project affected persons will be resettled within their original villages and village groups, so
that their way of production, living and social relationship can be maintained, which will be beneficial for
them to restore or improve their production and income level after resettlement.

(2) In order to reduce the impacts on the production and livelihood among resettle’s, the demolished houses
will be dismantled after the new houses built. The reconstruction of houses will adopt two approaches. For
most relocated households, they will choose to rebuild their houses by themselves, and all salvage materials
will belong to them. The second approach is for those who live near towns, their rehabilitation will be carried
out by local government in order to promote small town development and save farmland.

(3) The rural relocated households will be resettled in their original villages. For those who lose
Some farmland, the land-based rehabilitation will be adopted with a combination of developing new
farmland, redistributing remaining farmland and receiving their share ofresettlement subsidy among
affected village groups.

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Environmental Ethics

It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactionswith their

Environment. (OR)

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is aprinciple or value
that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad.

Ethics differs from country to country.

Functions of Environment:

1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.

2 A healthy economy depends on healthy environment.

3It is the life supporting medium forall organisms.

3. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the humanbeings
Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population growth and urbanization water
Pollution due to effluents and smoke from industries, Scarcity.

Solution to environmental problems:

Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.

Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources aspossible. Avoid
over exploitation of natural resources.

Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population andincrease the
economic growth our country.

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Ethical guidelines on environmental protection:

1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
5. Think of the global cause and act for local protection
6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.

CLIMATE:

It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal variations of the
region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.

Causes of climate changes:

1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere Increases theglobal
temperature.
2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.

Effects of climate change:

1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To migration ofanimals and
human.
2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in floods and
droughts in different parts of the world.
3. Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.

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Green house effect: Green house gases are CO 2 , Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2, CFC Among these
CO2 is the most important green house gas.O 3 and SO 2 act as serious
pollutants causing global [Link] warming up of a gas surface due to blanketing effect of
man made CO2 atmosphere.

GLOBAL WARMING:
Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR radiation. These gases allow
sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth surface. This sunlight is radiated
back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the earth surface and lower atmosphere becomes
warm. This is called global warming.

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105

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:

1. Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.

2. High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop productionand forest growth.

3. Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more [Link] temperature
will increase domestic water demand.

4. Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the riskof extinction, more
towering verities will thrive.

5. As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. Therewould be increase

in water-borne diseases.

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MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:

1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.
3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.
4. Stabilize population growth.
5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.
6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.

ACID RAIN:

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co2 present in the atmosphere gets
dissolved in it. Because presence of SO 2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in the atmosphere. The pH of the
rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of wateris called acid rain.

Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power plants industries
and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the burning of coal and oil. These gases
reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from acids like HNO3,[Link] acids descends on to
the earth as acid rain through rain water.

SOx +H2O H2SO4

NOy +H2O HNO3

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107

EFFECTS:

Effect on human being:

Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by [Link] cause
premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.

On building:

At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from [Link] rain
corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.

Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

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Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.

Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.

Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces fish population
,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of complications in ponds rivers
and lakes.

Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead materials are not
rapidly [Link] the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead matter.

Control of acid rain:

Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by usingpollution
control equipments.

Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. Inthermal points low
sulphur content coal should be used.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the stratosphereBetween10to 50 Km

above the sea level and is called as ozone layer.

Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B radiation. Now days
certain parts of O 3 layer is becoming thinner and O 3 holes are formed. Because of this more UV–B
radiation reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B radiation affects DNA molecules, causes damages to the
outer cell of plants and animals.

It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.

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Formation of O3 : It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reactionO 2 + hv

------------) O * + O *

The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O 2 toform O

3 O * + O 2 + M ----------) O 3 +M

Where M = third body like nitrogen.

Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays andcleaning

solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine whichbreakes O 3 to O2

Cl + O 3 ------------------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g) Cl O
+ O *------------------ ) Cl + O 2

Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It is a chain reaction.1% loss of O3
results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .

Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times atmospheric sulfur dioxideIs
converted in to H 2 S O 4 which increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.

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109

Effects ozone layer depletion:

Effects on human beings

1. UV rays causes skin cancer.

2. Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
3. Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.

Effects on aquatic system :

1. UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.

2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .

3. Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO2 in atmosphere. This contributes to global
warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global warming.

Control measures : Manufacturing and using of O 3 depleting chemicals should bestopped. Use of
methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFC s by other maerials which are less damage

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NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

Energy released—during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy. Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion
are used to prepare nuclear energy. During nuclear accidents large amount of energy and radioactive
products are released into the atmosphere.

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Types of nuclear accidents :-

Nuclear Test- Nuclear explosions –release radioactive particles and radioactiverays into the
atmosphere.

Nuclear power plant accidents: Nuclear power plants located in seismic vulnerablearea may cause nuclear
accidents which releases radiation.

Improper disposal of radioactive wastes: Drums with radioactive wastes, storedunderground rust and leak radioactive
wastes into water, land and air.

Accidents during transport . Trucks carrying radioactive wastes (or) fuels in [Link] major
accident at a nuclear power plant is a core melts down.

Effects of nuclear radiation

1. Radiation affects DNA in cells.

2. Exposure to low dose of radiation (100to 250 rds ) people suffer from fatigue, vomiting
,and loss of hair.
3. Exposer to high radation (400- 500 rds ) affect bone marrow ,blood cells , naturalresistance fail of
blood clot.
4. Exposure to very high dose of radiation (10000rds ) kills organisms by damagingthe tissues of heart
and brain.

Nuclear Holocaust : -Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclearbombs is

called nuclear holocaust.

Effects of nuclear holocaust.

Nuclear winter, Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood , plastics , forestsetc.

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Large quantity of soot will be carried out into the atmosphere.

Black soot absorbs all UV radiation and will not allow the radiation to reach the earth. There fore cooling
will result. This reduces evaporation of water .In stratosphere there wont be significant moisture to rain
out the black soot. Due to nuclear explosion a process opposite to global warming will occur. This is called
Nuclear winter.

Nuclear holocaust in Japan

In 1945 two nuclear bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. About100000
people were

Killed and the cities were badly destroyed. This explosion emitted forceful neutrons andgamma
radiation.

Radioactive Strontium liberated in the explosion replaced calcium in the bones .Largescale bone
deformities occurred in the people of these cities.

WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Waste land. The land which is not in use is called waste land . Waste land is unproductive,unfit for
cultivation and grazing etc. 20% of the geographical area of India is waste land.

Types of waste land:

1. Uncultivable waste land.
2. Cultivable waste land.
Uncultivable waste land: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes,sandy deserts.

Cultivable waste land: These are cultivable but not cultivated for more than 5 [Link] forest land.

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Causes of waste land formation:

1. over exploitation of natural resources.
2. Industrial and sewage wastes.
3. Due to soil erosion, deforestation, water logging, salinity etc.
4. Mining activities destroy the forest and cultivable land.

Objects of waste land reclamation:

1. To prevent soil erosion, flooding and landslides.

2. To avoid over exploitation of natural resources.
3. To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil.
4. To conserve the biological resources and natural ecosystem.

Methods waste land reclamation:

Drainage: Excess water is removed by artificial drainage. This is for water logged soilreclamation.

Leaching: Leaching is a process of removal of salt from the salt affected soil by applyingexcess amount
of water. Leaching is done by dividing the field into small plots. In continuous leaching 0.5to 1.0cm

Water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts.

Irrigation practices: High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of water helps tomaintain better
availability of water in the land. Application of green manure and bio fertilizers improves saline soil.

Application of gypsum: Soil sodality can be reduced with gypsum. Ca of gypsum replaces sodium
from the exchangeable sites. This converts clay back into calcium clay.

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Social Forestry programme: These programs involve strip plantation on road, canal sidesand degraded
forest land etc.

COSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

The consumption of resources by the people is called consumerism. It is related to both increase In
population size as well as increase in our demand due to change in life [Link] needs increases The
consumerism of resources also increases.

TRADITIONAL FAVOURABLE RIGHTS OF SELLERS

1. The right to introduce any product.

2. The right to change any price.
3. The right to use incentives to promote their products

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IMPORTANT INFORMATION TO BE KNOWN TO BUYERS

1. Ingredients of the products.

2. Manufacturing date and expiry date .Whether the product has been manufactured against an
established law of nature or involved in right variation.

Objectives of consumerism.
1. It improves the right and powers of buyers.
2. It involves making manufacturer liable for the entire life cycle of aproduct

3. It force the manufacturer to reuse and recycle the product afterusage.

4. Active consumerism improves human health and happiness and also it saves resources. Sources of
wastes are agriculture, mining, industrial and municipal wastes.

Example for waste products. It includes paper, glass, plastic, garbage,food waste, Scrap,
construction and factory wastes.

E- waste : Electronic equipments like computer, printers, mobile phones, calculator etcAfter usage
thrown as waste.

Effects of waste: Waste from industries and explosives are dangerous to human [Link] wastes
degrade soil and make it unfit for irrigation.

E-wastes contain more than 1000 chemicals which are toxic and cause environmental Pollution. In
computers lead is present in monitors, cadmium in chips and cathode ray tube , pvc in cables. All
these cause cancer and other respiratory problems if inhaled forlong long periods.

Plastics are non-degradable and their combustion produces many toxic gases.

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Factors affecting consumerism and generation of wastes:

People over population –Over population cause degradation of sources, poverty and premature deaths.
This situation occurs in less developed countries (LDC’s).In LDC’s the percaptia consumption f resources
and waste generation are less.

Consumption Over population: It occurs when there are less people than the available
Resources . due to luxurious life style per captia consumption of resources is very high.
Consumption is more and waste generation is more. Environment is also degraded.

ENVVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS

Water (prevention and control of pollution ) Act.1974.

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also providefor
preventing and controlling water pollution.

Features of water act.

1. This act aims to protect the water from all kind of pollution and to preserve the qualityof water in all
aquifers.
2. The act further provides for the establishment of central board and state boardsFor prevention of
water pollution.
3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a pollutant (or)

sewage or) effluent into any water body with out the consentof the board.
4. The act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge of
pollutant Toxic pollutant.

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State pollution control board

The consent of this board is needed

1. To establish any industry or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or addition which likely
discharge Or trade effluent into a stream or well or river or on land.
2. To use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.
3. To begin to make any new discharge of sewage.
Act also empowers the state board to order closure or stoppage ofsupply of
Electricity, water or any other service to the polluting unit.

AIR PREVENTION ACT 1981

This act was enacted in the conference held at Stock Holm. It envisages the
establishments Of central and State control boards to monitor air quality andpollution
control.

Important features:
1. The central board may lay down the standards for quality of air.

2. The central board co-ordinates and settle the disputes between state boards. [Link] central board
provides technical assistance and guidance to state [Link] state boards are empowered to
lay down the standards for emission of air pollutants from industries or other resources.
5. The state boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and control equipment for for the

prescribed standards.
6. The direction of central board is mandatory on state boards.
7. With out the consent of the central board operation of an industrial unit isprohibited in
heavily polluted area.
8. Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for three months or fine of Rs10000 or both.

This act applies to all pollution industries. This act empowers the stateboard to
order closure of any industrial unit or stoppage of water supply or stoppage of electricity.

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FOREST (COSERVATON) ACT 1980

This act is enacted in 1980. It aims to arrest deforestation. This act coversall types of
Forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forest land.

IMPORTANT Features of the act :

1. The reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved wit out thepermission Of

central govt.
2. The forest land may not be used nonforest [Link] act

stops illegal activities with in forest area.

Features of amendment act of 1988

.[Link] departments are departments are forbidden to assign any forest land by wayof lease or to
any private person or NG body for re- afforestation.
2. For re-afforstation clearance of any forest land is forbidden. [Link] division

of forest land for non –forest uses is punishable.

WILD LIFE ACT 1972.

This act was amended in 1983, 1986, and [Link] act is aimed to protect and preserve all animals and
plants that are not Domesticated. India has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds and about
20000 Known species of insects. Some of them are listed as endangered species in wild life protection
act. Wild life is declining due to human action. Wild life products like skins, firs, feathers, Ivory etc. have
decimated the population of many species. Wild life population monitored regularly and management
strategies formulated to protect them.

Important Features
1The act covers the rights and non- rights of forest dwellers.
2It allows restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks.

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3. I t also prohibits the collection of non timber forest.

4. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by forest policy of 1988 are takenaway by Amended
wild life act of 1991.

ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986

This act empowers the central govt. to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil, and noise. The
central govt. formulates procedures and safe guards for handling of hazard substances.
Important features: 1. this act empowers the govt. to lay down procedures and safeguards for the
prevention of accidents which cause pollution and remedial measures if accidents occur.
2 The [Link] the authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry or its
operation if
The violation of provisions of the act occurs.
3. Violation of the act is punishable with imprisonment for 5 years or fine of one lakh orboth.

4. If violation continues an additional fine of Rs5000 per day may be imposed for entireperiod of Violation of

rules.
5. The act empowers the officer of the central [Link] inspect the sight or the plant or
machinery for preventing pollution and to collect samples of air , water, soil and othermaterials
from any
Factory or its premises for testing.

PUBLIC AWARENESS

In order to conserve our environment each and every one must be aware about our environment
problems and objectives of various environmental policies at natural andlocal level.

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Objectives of public awareness:

1. To create awareness among rural and city people about ecological Imbalance, localenvironment and
technological development.
2 To organize meetings, tree plantation programs, group discussion on development,exhibitions.
3. To focus on current environment problems and situations.
4. To train our planners, decision makers, politicians and administrators.

5. To eliminate poverty by providing employment that over comes the basicenvironmental issues.

METHODS TO CREATE ENVIRONMNTAL AWARENESS

1. Environmental education must be imparted to the students in schools and colleges.2. Media like
TV Radio and cable net work can educate the people on environmental issues through Cartoons,
documentaries, street plays.
3. Cinema about environmental education should be prepared and screened in
theatres compulsorily .This films may be released with tax free to attract thepublic.
4. All the news papers and magazines must publish the environment related [Link] audio
visual and slide shows should be arranged in public places.
6. Voluntary organizations like NCC, NSS, and ROTRACT Club should be effectivelyutilized for creating
environmental awareness.
7. Arranging competitions like story and essay writing painting competition on environmental issues for
student as well as [Link] prizes should be awarded for the best effort.
8. Public leaders cine actors and popular social reformers can make an appeal to the public about the urgency

of environmental protection.

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UNIT-V: Surface Chemistry and Applications

Lecture notes

UNIT V HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Population Growth, Variation Among Nations – Population Explosion – Family Welfare

Programme – environment and Human Health – Human Rights – ValueEducation – HIV /AIDS –
Women and Child Welfare – Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health
– Case Studies.
Field Study of Local Area to Document Environmental assets –
River/Forest/Grassland/Hill/ Mountain.
Field Study of Simple Ecosystems – Pond, River, Hill Slopes, etc
Field Study of Local Polluted Site – Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural

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Human population and the Environment

Population:- Group of individuals belonging to the same species which live in a givenarea at
given time.
Population density:- Number of individuals of the population per unit area ® per unit-volume.
Parameters effecting population:-

Birthrate (OR) Nationality:- Number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in agiven year.

Death Rate (OR) Mortality:- Number of deaths per 1000 people in a population in agiven year

Immigration:- It denotes the arrival of individuals from neighboring population.

Emigration:- It denotes the disposal of individuals from the original population to newareas.

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Rate = Number of births

Number of years

Mortality = orn of babies died

er of babies born x Number of year

h rate = Change of population

Number of year

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Population Growth :- Results from the difference between the rate of birth and death. In 1980 the global
population was about 1 billion people. In 1930 it reached 2 billion. In 1975 it reached 4 billion with in 45
years. Now the population in 6 billion. It reaches 10 billion by 2050 as per the world Bank calculation.

Causes:- 1. Due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate.

2. Availability of antibiotics, immunization increased food production, clean water and air,decreases the
famine related deaths and infant mortality.
3. The poverty and illiteracy lead controlled growth of [Link]

Marriages
[Link]’s superstitions. People believe that it is because of God’s grace.

Characteristics of P.G.:-

Exponential growth:- Population growth occurs exponentially live 10, 10 2,103, 104 etc.,
Which shows the dramatic increase in global population in thepast 160 years.

Doubling Time:- Time required for the population to double its size at a constant annualrate. It is
calculated as follows:-

Td = 70 / r When r = annual growth rate

If a ration has 2 % annual growth its population will double in 35 years.

Infant Mentality:-

Percentage of infant died out of those born in one year. This rate is decreased inthe last 50
years. This differs widely in developing and developed countries.

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Total fertility rates (TFR):

Average number of children delivered by a woman in her life time. The TFR variesfrom 2 in
developed to 4.7 in developing countries.

This ratio should be fairly balance in the society.

Male – female ratio has been upset in many countries including China - India. In china theratio of girls
and boys is 100 – 140.

Demographic transition:
P.G. is redacted to economic development. The birth rate and death rate full due to improved
living conditions. This results in low population growth. This pheromones in called demographic transition.

Variation of population among Nation:

At present the worlds population has crossed 6 billions. Less developed countries(Africa, Asia, S.A)
have 80% population while developed countries have only 20%.

In most developed countries like USA, Canada, Australia population increases by less than 1%.
But is less developed countries the population increases by more than 1% / year.

Kenya is the fastest population growing countries in the world. When 20 million areresiding.

China & India’s populate on was above 1000 million in 2000 years. Its share is 1/3 of the world
population.

Europe and N.H. accoents for 14% of world population.

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Variation of pollution based on Age structure

Age structure of population can be classified into 3 classes.

Pre- productive population (0 – 14 years)

Reproductive population (15 - 44 years)

Post reproductive population (Above 45 years)

Variation of population is now explained based on the above three classes.

Pyramid shaped Variation of population (increase)

Eg. In India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Algerian Reproductive population is more in companionto pre
reproductive population and post productive population. Hence the population increases.

Bell shaped variation of population:

Eg: In France, USA, UK, Canada etc., pre reproductive population and reproductivepopulation is more
(OR) less equal. Hence population growth in stable.

Urn shaped variation of populations

Eg: In Germany, Italy, Sweden,

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In Japan pre productive age group population in smaller than the reproductive age grouppopulation. In
the next 10 years. The number of people in reproductive age group less than before resulting in decrease of
population.

Population Explosion:

The enormous increase in population due to low death rate and high birth rate iscalled as
population expansion.

Doubling time: The number of years needed for a population to double in size. The doublingtime varies from
country to country.

of the country ng ti me
Turkey rs

an

Population growth is higher in less developed countries.

Cause of population explosion:

1. Invention modern medical facilities, reduces the death rate and increases birth rate, whichleads to population

explosion.
2. Increase of life expectancy is another important reason for population explosion. Eg:- In
1956, the average life expectancy of the human beings was 40 years. But now it is 61 [Link] is
one of the reasons for the population wxplosion.

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Effect of population explosion (OR) environmental and social impacts of growing population

Poverty:

1. Population explosion leads to environmental degradation.

2. Population explosion causes over exploitation of natural resources. Hence there will be ashortage of resources
for the futune generation.
3. Increase in population will increases diseases, economic in equity and command wars.
4. Forests, grass lands are under threat.
5. The main reason for the growing unemployment in growing [Link] vast
population is a very big task.
7. Population explosion is the main cause for pollution of air, land, water and noise.
8. Disposal of plastics and wastages is another problem of over population.

9. Scancity of fuel is also due to population explosion.

Family welfare programmes

Family welfare programme was implemented by Govt. of India as a voluntary programme. It is a

policy of growth covering human health, family welfare children andwomen’s right.

Objectives:
1. Slow down the population explosion by reducing fertility.

2. Pressure on the environment, due to over exploitation of natural resources is reduces.

Population stabilization Ratio

The ratio is derived by dividing crude birth rate by crude death rate.
Developed countries: The stabilization ratio of developed countries is 1. indicating zeropopulation growth.

Developing countries:

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The ratio of developing countries is rearing 3 which in expected to lower down by 2025. Stabilization in
developing countries is possible only through family welfare programmes.

Family planning Programme

If provides educational and clinical services that help couple to choose how many children to have and
when to have them. Family planning programme provides information on birth spacing birth control and health
care for pregnant woman and infants. It also reduced the number of legal and illegal abortions per year and
decreased the risk of death from pregnancies.

Objectives:

1. Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 / 1000 infants.

2. Achieve 100% registration of births, deaths marriage and [Link] late

marriages and late child bearing.
4. Encourages breast feeding.

5. Enables to improve woman’s health education, [Link]

the spnead & Aids / HIV.

[Link] and control of communical diseases.

Fertility control methods

Traditional methods

It includes taboos and folks medicine.

Modern methods
It includes birth control techniques like mechanical barriers, surgical methods, chemicalpills and
physical barriers to implantation. More than 100 contraceptive methods are on trial.

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Family planning programme in India

1. In 1952 India started family planning programme.

2. In 1970 Indian govt. forced FP campain all the over country.

3. In 1978 govt. legally raized the minimum age of marriage for men from 18 to 21 and forwomen 15 to 18 years.

4. In 1981 census report showed there is no drop in population. Hence funding for FPprogramme has been
increased.

Environment & human Health

Healthy person:- Physically fit person with out suffering any disease is called a healthyperson.

Disease:- Harmful changes in the body’s condition by nutritional, biological, chemical (or)psychological
factors are called diseases.

Important Hazards and their health effects refer – bortChemical

Hazards and their health effects refer T.B. Biological Hazards and

their health effects Refers T.B. Preventive measures:

1. Always wash your hand before eating.

2. Cut short and clean your nails systematic. [Link]

chemically treated and filtered [Link] food always in

hot condition.
5. Wash the vegetables and fruits a with clean water before cooking.
6. Avoid plastic containers and Al vessels.

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7. Do physical exercise to have proper blood circulation.

Human Rights
Human rights are the fundamental rights possessed by human beings irrespective caste,nationality,
sex & language.
The aim of Govt. is to ensure happiness to the entire citizen with equal rights.
Under the Indian constitution the following fundamental rights have been guaranteed to humanbeings.

[Link] right to freedom

[Link] right to property
3. Human right to freedom of religion.
4. Human right to culture and education. [Link]

right to constitutional [Link] right to

Equality
7. Human right to against exploitation.
8. Human right to food and [Link]

right to health

1. Human rights to freedom

Every citizen has the freedom to express his view [Link]

can assemble at any place to express their [Link] to
form unions (or) associations.
Freedom to slant any profession.

Indian Constitution

Indian constitution provides for civil, social, cultural, educational and political rights.

Article 14 – equality before law.

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Article -15
Prohibits discrimination on the ground of race, religion caste, sex (or) place of birth.
Article 16
Provides equal opportunity for all citizens in regarding to employment.
Article 19
Provides for freedom of speech and expression, forming association and union.
Article – 20
Protection from connection except in accordance with the law of the land.
Article – 22 – lays down the rights of a person in custody.

Article – 24 – prohibits exploitation of labour children.

Article – 25 – grantees freedom to profess, practice and propagate a religion of one’s choice.

Value education

Education is nothing but learning through which knowledge about a particular thing can be acquired
with the help of our knowledge and expedience we can identify our value to understand ourselves and our
relationship with other and their environment.

Types of Education:

Format Education:- (In this all leaning process are self related). All people will read write, will get good jobs
and take with any problem with the help of formal education.

Value Education:- It is an instrument used to analyse our behavior and provide proper direction to our youth.
It teacher the youth the distinction between right & wrong, to be helpfulloving, generous and tolerant.

Eg:- If a person is highly, Qualified and well settled in life, something he does not know how tobehave with his
environment.

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Value based environmental education

The provides knowledge about the principle of ecology, fundamental of environment and biodiversity. It
creates sense of duty to care for natural resources and to mange them in sustainable key.

Objectives:
1. Improve integral growth of human being.
2. To create altitudes and improvement towards sustainable life style.
3. To increase awareness about our national history, cultural heritage, constitutional rights,national integration.
4. To understand (about the our) natural environment in which how land, air and water are
interlinked.
5. To know about various living and non living organism and their interaction with theenvironment.

Types of values:

1. Universal values (or) social values:

These values tells about the importance of the human conditions. These are reflected in life, joy, love,
tolerance, truth etc.

2. Cultural values:
These values various with respect to time and place. These are concerned with rights & wrong, good
& bad true & false and behavior of human beings. It is reflected in language, education, law, economics,
philosophy etc.

3. Individual values:

These are personal principles and the result of individual personality and experience parents & teachers
are the main key to shape and individual values. I t is reflected in individualgoods, relationship, commitments.

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4. Global values:

Human civilization is a part of the planet. Nature and natural pheromone on the earthare
interconnected and inter-linked with special bonds of harmony. If this harmony disturbed any where leads to
catastrophic results due to ecological imbalance.

Aids / HIV – Discover in 1983. Source of the virus is not beer identified spread through African monkey.
Through vaccine program – spread by small pox vaccine programme of [Link] – B Viral vaccine
legmy and new York.

World scenario
90% from developing countries. 13% of world’s population live is Africa. Almost all states & African
countries were affecters HIV. India ranks 2nd in the world with 5 million affects [Link] in India:

Large number of infected people are in Maharastra & Tamil Nadu followed by Delhi, UP, Karnataka &
Goa. Till sept. 2003 24,667 cases are found in Tamil Nadu.

Smog:- Mixture of smoke from coal combustion and fog in suspended droplets form photochemical smog cause
irritation to eyes and lungs (ii) many damage plants (iii) Irritation to nose & throat (iv) asthma

Role of IT in Environment

IT plays a vital role in the field of environment education. IT means collection, processing, storage and
dissemination of information. The internet facilities, information through satellites,www and geographical
information provides up to date information on various aspects of environment, weather.

Remote sensing

It refers to any method which can be used to gather information about an object without coming in contact with
it. Gravity, magnetic, electro magnetic forces could be used for remote

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sensing. Remote sensing covers various disciplines from laboratory testing to astronomies. Now remote
sensing is used to denote identification of earth feathers by detecting the characteristic electro magnetic
radiation. That is reflected by the earth.

Components of a remote sensing system

The system consists of a sensor to collect radiation. Other important parts are a platform, an
aircraft, a balloon, rocket and satellite.

The information received by the sensor is suitably manipulated and transported back to earth. The data’s are
reformed and processed on the ground to produce photographs, computer compatible magnetic taps and
digital storage medium.

Applications

1 Agriculture: In India agriculture provides livelihood of 70% of population and contributes to about 35% of net
nation product. We require optimal management of land and water resourcesalong with high yielding variety
seeds, fertilizer input.

Remote sensing can provide valuable information for land and water management.

2. Forests: Remote sensing provides information clearly on the type, density and extent of forest cover, wood volume
and biomass, forest fire, encroachment etc.

3. Land cover: Spatial information on land is required at different scales depends upon use remote sensing data
is converted to map. The spatial resolution plays a role on the scale ofmapping.

4. Water resources: Remote sensing data has been used in many application related to surface water body
mapping, ground water targeting, wet land, flood monitoring, reservoir sedimentation, water quality monitoring etc.
One of the most simple applications is inventorying surface water body.

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LECTURE NOTES

DATABASE

It is the collection of inter related data on various objects. In the computer the informationof database is
arranged in a systematic manner.

Applications: I The ministry of environment and forest. They are compiling database on variousbiotic
components. Database is also available for diseases likes HIV | AIDS. Malaria, Fluorosis.

National Management Information System (NMIS) : They compile database on R& D

Projects along with information about research scientists and personnel involved.
Environmental Information System : It functions in 25 centres all overthe country.

They generate net work of database in areas like pollution control, remote sensing,biodiversity, and
desertification.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

It is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data onlarge

Number of inter related aspects.

Applications: Different thematic maps having digital information on water resources,

Soil type, forest land, crop land, grass lands are superimposed on a layered form incomputer
using soft ware.

Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands can be made on GIS base.

3. GIS can be used to check unplanned growth and related environmental problems.

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LECTURE NOTES

SATELLITE DATA:
It helps in providing correct and reliable information forest cover

Provides information of monsoon, ozone layer

depletion Smog [Link] in discovering reserves of oil,
minerals.

WWW:

More current data is available on www on

line learning [Link] .[Link] \
environmental science.
Multimedia Digital content manager (DCM) in the form of CD ROMS.

Application of computers in the field of Environment & human health:

1. Unknown parameters can be stimulated by

computer techniques [Link](Environmental Impact
Assessment) problems can be analyzed
[Link] of emission sources are compiled and
maintained
4. Net-work analysis, statistical analysis and the status of environmental pollutions can be

highlighted
5. Comprehensive administrative system can be developed by using
computer networktechniques.
6. Remote sensing-Graphical Interface System are useful for coral reef mapping and

oceanresources. They are also useful to access the loss of biodiversity/hot spots etc.

Environmental Science 159 AITT & H&S