CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Human rights and strong institutions are essential ingredients in every society to

ensure justice, encourage respect and tolerance for citizens and help build a sustainable

society. Injustice against humanity by other humans and systems is a global issue

from time immemorial. Similarly, the desire to promote human rights and strong and

accountable institutions is not a new subject.

In the 21st century following the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

in 1948, following the end of Second World War and the horrific Holocaust, and Cold

War that left the world in disarray, human rights issues took the global stage and forced

the world to commit to prevention of any reoccurrence of such horrors and atrocities of the

past (Global Citizenship Commission, 2016). This development increased awareness

of the equality and universality of every individual and the creation of strong institutions

to help maintain and enforce it (Ramcharan, 2015). The UN Universal Declaration of

Human Rights is recognized as the pioneer for the promotion and protection of human

rights, thus putting increased demands on national governments to protect the rights of

their citizens from any form of abuse through the creation of institutions that uphold the

law (Krasner 2001).

It has become expedient and normal for all countries of the world to domesticate

the UN’s UDHR in their constitutions; thus, human rights are often expressed in nations'

constitutions, regional treaties and other sources across the world (UNDC, Guidance, 2011).

Despite this development, evidence abounds of increasing cases of human rights abuses

around the world. Reports by Amnesty International (2008) indicated that decades after the

adoption of the UDHR, individuals still suffer a gross violation of human rights in many

countries through detention, unfair trial and physical attacks among other forms of

[Link], in Nigeria, there are documented cases of human rights abuses such as

rape, unlawful detention, killing of innocent people, environmental pollution, among other

abuses which are motivated by politics, terrorism such as Boko Haram; and activities of

multinationals especially in the Niger-Delta. Other instances are violations occasioned

by religious fanaticism, ethnic bigotry and police and military brutality, which are rarely

investigated (Onwuazombe, 2017). This shows that national governments around the

world especially in developing nations like Nigeria have not significantly lived to the

expectations or demands of the United Nations UDHR which they are signatories.

The inability of state actors to ensure the protection of human rights throughout the

world has brought several human rights groups or institutions and civil societies who are

dedicated to promoting and protecting the rights of individuals. According to Jacobs and

Maldonado (2005) human rights’ groups or exists at the domestic and international levels.

At the domestic level, such groups often act in opposition to formal government actors

and International level; they opined that human right groups are self- formulated activism

group that assumes the role of a united act throughout the world in defense of human
rights. Example of such institutions includes Human Rights without Frontiers, Human Rights

Watch, Human Rights Action Center and Amnesty [Link] this study, Amnesty

International will be the focus, as it is the largest human

rights protector or institution in the world. The ultimate goal of the Amnesty International

is a world in which all individuals have access to human rights as stated in the UDHR

(Statute of Amnesty International, 2005). With a plethora of cases of human rights violation

throughout the world, the activities of human right institutions like Amnesty International

must be examined.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Despite the crucial role of international Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in promoting

and protecting human rights globally, Nigeria continues to grapple with persistent human rights

violations. The country's human rights record has been marred by issues such as extrajudicial

killings, torture, arbitrary arrests, and detention, as well as restrictions on freedom of

expression and assembly.

Amnesty International, a prominent international NGO, has been actively engaged in promoting

and protecting human rights in Nigeria. However, the impact of Amnesty International's efforts

on human rights protection in Nigeria remains understudied.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The study specifically examines the role of Amnesty International (Al) in human tights

protection in Nigeria, with a focus on the year 2015.

1. To examine the role of Amnesty International in promoting and protecting human rights in

Nigeria between 2015 and 2024.

2. To analyze the strategies and tactics employed by Amnesty International in promoting and

protecting human rights in Nigeria during this period.

3. To assess the impact of Amnesty International's efforts on human rights protection in Nigeria

between 2015 and 2024.

4. To identify the challenges faced by Amnesty International in promoting and protecting

human rights in Nigeria during this period.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What role has Amnesty International played in promoting and protecting human rights in

Nigeria between 2015 and 2024?

2. What specific human rights issues has Amnesty International focused on in Nigeria during

this period?

3. What strategies and tactics has Amnesty International employed to promote and protect

human rights in Nigeria between 2015 and 2024?

4. What impact has Amnesty International's efforts had on human rights protection in Nigeria

between 2015 and 2024?

5. What challenges has Amnesty International faced in promoting and protecting human rights

in Nigeria during this period?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

1. Amnesty International has played significant role in promoting and protecting human rights

in Nigeria.

2. there is no correlation between Amnesty International’s focus areas and the most pressing

human right concerns in Nigeria.

3. There is no correlation between Amnesty international strategies and tactics and the

promotion and protection of human right in Nigeria

4. The challenges faced by Amnesty International have not impacted its ability to promote and

protect human right in Nigeria

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study will focus on Nigeria, with a particular emphasis on the activities of Amnesty

International within the country. The study will cover a specific period, such as 2015-2024, to

allow for an analysis of Amnesty International's efforts in promoting human rights protection in

Nigeria over the past decade. The study will explore the following themes:

1. Human Rights Protection: The study will examine Amnesty International's role in promoting

and protecting human rights in Nigeria, including issues related to freedom of expression,

association, and assembly.

2. Advocacy and Campaigning: The study will analyze Amnesty International's advocacy and

campaigning strategies in Nigeria, including their use of social media, public statements, and

collaborations with local organizations.

3. Collaboration and Partnerships: The study will investigate Amnesty International's

partnerships with local NGOs, community-based organizations, and government agencies in

Nigeria, and how these partnerships impact their human rights work.

4. Challenges and Opportunities: The study will identify the challenges faced by Amnesty

International in promoting human rights protection in Nigeria, as well as opportunities for

growth and improvement.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study contribute to understanding the role of international NGOs in promoting human

right in Nigeria, informing policy decisions and supporting human right defenders.

1. Improved Human Rights Protection: The study's findings can inform strategies for improving

human rights protection in Nigeria, ultimately contributing to a better quality of life for

Nigerians.

2. Enhanced Accountability: By examining Amnesty International's efforts, the study can

promote accountability among government officials, security agencies, and other stakeholders

responsible for human rights violations.

3. Empowered Civil Society: The study's outcomes can empower Nigerian civil society

organizations, communities, and individuals to demand their rights and hold authorities

accountable.

4. Contribution to Human Rights Literature: The study will contribute to the existing body of

literature on human rights, international NGOs, and their role in promoting and protecting

human rights in Nigeria.

5. Insights into Amnesty International's Strategies: The research will provide valuable insights

into Amnesty International's strategies, tactics, and impact in Nigeria, which can inform future

research on international NGOs and human rights.

6. Methodological Contributions: The study's mixed-methods approach can contribute to the

development of research methodologies in the field of human rights and international NGOs.

7. Informing Policy Decisions: The study's findings can inform policy decisions and interventions

aimed at improving human rights protection in Nigeria.

8. Improving Amnesty International's Effectiveness: The research outcomes can help Amnesty

International refine its strategies and tactics in Nigeria, leading to more effective human rights

promotion and protection.

9. Supporting Human Rights Defenders: The study can provide valuable information and

support to human rights defenders, activists, and organizations working in Nigeria.

 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 introduction

This chapter reviews existing literature on the international non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) and human rights protection in Nigeria a study of amnesty international 2015-2024. The

reviews of related literature for this study carry out and presented under the following sub-

heading:

2.1 Theoretical Foundation

2.2 conceptual Clarification

2.3 Nature of International Non-Governmental Organizations in Nigeria

2.4 Role of International Non-Governmental Organizations in Protecting Human Rights in

Nigeria

2.5 International Non-Governmental Organizations and National Human Rights Agencies

2.6 Limitations of International Non-Governmental Organizations in Nigeria’s Human Rights

Protection

2.7 Challenges and Criticism of Amnesty International

2.1 Theoretical Framework

This paper has drawn extensively from the ‘Human Security’ framework. Human Security was

institutionally invented in the international community by the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) in its Human Development Report, 1994 where the concept was defined as:

The security of people through development not arms; through cooperation not confrontation;

through peace not war…it means protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the pattern of

daily life whether in homes, in jobs or in communities (UNDP, 1994 cited in Singh, 2014, p.4).

Moving forward, human security is a people-centred concept using a multidimensional approach.

This theory is people-centred in such regard that the individual is the centre of analysis as well as

the referent object. It differs from the traditional security concepts that place the State at the

centre; instead it focuses on ‘how free and secure are we as individuals.’ Human Security

connects different types of freedoms, including the freedom from want, freedom from fear and

freedom to take action on one’s own behalf. In order to achieve this, two general strategies are

fundamental, that is; Protection and Empowerment (Singh, 2014). Protection and Empowerment

are two germane factors for achieving the goal of human security as proposed by CHS which

must be incorporated within the policy framework set to actualize human security.

Protection refers to the norms, processes and institutions required to shield people from threats to

their survival. It refers to mechanisms for protecting people from dangers through an effort to

develop norms, processes and institutions that will systematically address some of these

insecurities (UNDP 1994 cited in Singh, 2014). Human security recognizes the impact of human

rights violations on human life. In this regard, this concept underscores the universality of certain

rights and freedoms that are essential to human survival. Coupled with this, human security made
improvements to traditional human rights approaches by a multidimensional and comprehensive

approach to violation, including practical frameworks for identifying the specific rights at stake

in a particular situation and considering the institutional and governance arrangement necessary

to exercise and sustain them (UN Trust Fund for Human Security). Another aspect to the

understanding of human security is the multifaceted approach it introduces to situation

posing insecurity and threats to human existence. In this regard, human security entails a

broadened understanding of threats and includes possible causes of insecurity which could either

be economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community or political insecurity. In

addition to this, human security emphasizes the link between both existing threats and

insecurities and the responses required for addressing them. It equally recognizes the need for

comprehensive and multi-sectoral responses that bring together the agenda of guaranteeing

security, development and human rights as a whole. As a matter of fact, the intricate nature of

human security across various issues such as food, health, politics, economics, environment, and

so on addresses the major elements of the generations of rights that is, civil and political rights;

economic, social, cultural rights; and the rights of groups. Narrowing the concept of human

security down, democracy, rule of law and respect for human rights are intrinsic values that are

crucial for the prevention of conflicts and for the alleviation of poverty in Nigeria. Alkire (2003)

essentially stated that human rights and human security both address violence and poverty as

well as ensure ‘the identification of protection and promotion of central facets of human lives

from the freedom of fear and freedom of want as the main aim of

both human rights and human security.’ The Commission on Human Security (CHS) highlighted

protection as “strategies set up by States, international agencies, non-governmental organizations

and the private sector (to) shield people from menaces” (CHS, 2003,
p.4). Rothschild (1995) argues that the achievement of the human security is dependent on an

improvement in international governance particularly consensus building. Human Security

theory requires the development of an interconnected network of multi-stakeholders’ which

includes INGOs drawing from the expertise and resources of a wide range of actors such as the

United Nations, private and public sectors working at the local, national, regional and

international levels. The international community leverage on the establishment of INGOs as key

actors in collaboration and partnership to empower individuals as well as protect them from

emerging threats or insecurities (Singh, 2014). Regardless of the scope of the various INGOs, the

realization of human rights should be factored into their objectives and programmatic

interventions. The proliferation of INGOs in Nigeria must therefore translate into the

achievement of human rights for the enhancement of human security in Nigeria.

2.2 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

2.2.1 Concept of Human Rights

There is no universal definition of what constitute human rights. Several scholars and

institutions have proffered different definitions but which point in a similar direction. According

to Donnelly (2008), human rights imply the rights one has because one is a human being. The

definition placed all human on the same footing but have not given us in-depth descriptions of

the privileges all human beings need to enjoy or hazard human need to be protected from. In

his submission, Onwuazombe (2017) defines human rights as those rights which all human

beings are given by virtue of humanity; he further identifies such rights as the right to life,

freedom of thought, the dignity of the human person, fair hearing and personal freedom,

conscience and religion. He describes further that these rights are natural, sacred and

permanent and when denied is a violation of the law.

Human rights are featured in constitutions of nations and have received significant attention in

the media and global discourse. However, the implementation of human rights has always been

an issue of concern to the global family. It is important to note that no country can claim to

have provided absolute human rights for its citizens; the degree at which human rights are

implemented varies from country to country. In authoritarian systems, human rights laws and

legislations are suspended for political reasons and the issue of sovereignty of nations has

always been a bottleneck on United Nations as a "global government" to effectively force

national governments to promote human rights. Therefore, human rights promotion and

protecting are left in the hands of civil societies like Amnesty International.

2.3 NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN NIGERIA

International Non-Governmental Organizations are generally private voluntary organizations

whose members are individuals or associations that come together to achieve a common

purpose (Mingst, 2004). INGOs operate within different territorial boundaries and equally carry

out activities that have a broad international scope. The membership of INGOs is huge as the

network transcends national boundaries. INGOs perform a variety of functions and

humanitarian services. They are mostly involved in bringing the concern of citizens to

government and international institutions, monitoring policies as well as encouraging public

participation in local, national and international matters. In understanding the role of INGOs in

protecting human rights in Nigeria, the nature of these organizations must be clearly

understood as it shapes the nature of their activities and overall influence in safeguarding

human rights. INGOs are usually registered in accordance with national laws of the countries in
which they are headquartered or operating. It is therefore imperative to first ascertain the legal

requirements that must be met in order for such organization to achieve legal recognition.

In Nigeria, Companies and Allied Matters Act Cap C20, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 1990

guides the establishment of INGOs, within the domestic jurisdiction of Nigeria as a sovereign

State. Chapter 3, Section 54 provides for the incorporation of foreign companies in Nigeria

before it can be recognized as a legal entity or be allowed to operate. Section 54(1) states:

Subject to Sections 56-59 of this Decree every foreign company which before or after the

commencement of this Decree was incorporated outside Nigeria, and having the intention of

carrying on business in Nigeria shall take all steps necessary to obtain incorporation as a

separate entity in Nigeria for that purpose, but until so incorporated, the foreign company shall

not carry on business in Nigeria or exercise any of the powers of a registered company and shall

not have a place of business or an address for service of documents or processes in Nigeria for

any purpose other than the receipt of notices and other documents, as matter preliminary to

incorporation under this Decree. Pursuant to this Section, foreign based entities regardless of

scope and objectives are required to be registered under the Nigerian law of which their

existence and operations depend on. This Section also entails the fact that foreign companies

operating within Nigeria are subject to Nigerian laws which cannot be violated in the course

of operations. Thus, international NGOs to be domiciled in Nigeria must first be registered and

incorporated into the corporate legal framework of the country. The proposed NGO Bill for the

Establishment of the NGO Regulatory Commission sponsored by Hon. Umar Baba Jubril is

another initiative to define the nature of INGOs by subjecting these organizations and other

Civil Society Organizations in Nigeria to the supervision, coordination and monitoring by a

Regulatory Commission. Part II, Section 7 of this Bill listed the objectives of the Commission to

bother on enabling and encouraging NGOs and Civil Societies to accomplish their missions

according to the law as well as ensuring the transparency and accountability of the operations

of NGOs and Civil Societies. Most importantly, the Commission seeks to supervise NGOs and

Civil Societies to ensure that they operate according to the law. INGOs come under the scope of

this Bill as it provides the function of the Commission to include facilitating and coordinating

the work of all national and international NGOs operating in Nigeria as well as maintaining the

register of all INGOs operating in Nigeria.

2.4 Role of International Non-Governmental Organizations in Protecting Human Rights in

Nigeria

A good number of International NGOs with different scope and function operate in Nigeria.

Some of which include: ActionAid International, Amnesty International, Defence for Children

International, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC), Hellen

Keller International, Oxfam International, Transparency International, and so on. The role of

INGOs in protecting human rights in Nigeria is multifaceted. INGOs perform a wide range of

functions in ensuring the optimum realization of human rights in Nigeria. INGOs have become

an indispensable non-state actor employing various strategies and approaches in the quest

Of human rights protection in Nigeria. Dada (2013) asserted that in demonstrating the

importance of human rights organizations for the implementation of human rights protection,

the roles played by them involve:

 Advocacy role

 Investigative role
  Research role

 Monitoring role, and so on.

I. Advocacy Role

One of the core functions of INGOs in protecting human rights is in advocating on behalf of

people on a wide range of issues. INGOs carry out campaigns, disseminate information and

organize promotional events to draw attention to human rights issues. Within this context,

INGOs defend the rights and fundamental freedoms of people particularly where violations by

the Federal Government have occurred. Advocacy strategies involve but not limited to

lobbying, information sharing, education and communication, and most often community

organizing. INGOs are prominent in defending human rights in Nigeria as well as take calculated

efforts ensuring national policies and programmes conform to international human rights

standards. According to Edwards and Hulme (1993), advocacy by INGOs take two forms:

attempts to influence global level processes, structures and ideologies, and attempts to

influence specific policies, programmes or projects which is mostly the common form adopted

by many human rights based INGOs and they do this through intensive media attention.

II. Investigative Roles

Dada (2013) explains this role to entail conducting inquiry in order to expose human rights

abuses for possible remedial action. Investigation is an essential aspect of human rights

protection often bequeathed to INGOs because of their independent and non-governmental

status. INGOs are important agents of investigating human rights abuses as they are likely to

look into cases surrounding violations without being bias by collecting evidences while working

hand in hand with both local and international bodies for effectiveness. Oxfam International
and Amnesty International are organizations that investigate cases of social injustice,

repression, violations of fundamental rights as well as violations of civil and political rights,

respectively.

III. Monitoring Roles

This role cuts across monitoring compliance with agreements reached internationally by States.

INGOs with broad human rights objectives are actively involved in ensuring treaties signed by

governments are ratified and domesticated. Failure to uphold certain norms and principles of

human rights as stated in these treaties or failure to make provisions for them within her laws

may not count as a breach or violation since the provisions are not binding on her. As at today,

Nigeria is yet to ratify the following international treaties: Optional Protocol to the Convention

on the Rights of the Child (CRC) on the involvement of the child in armed conflict. b) Optional

Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) on the sale of children, child

Prostitution and child pornography. c) Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights (ICCPR) concerning abolition of death penalty. In respect of the above,

INGOs operating in Nigeria monitor Nigeria’s status in ratifying international human rights

agreements; compliance and how far these agreements have been incorporated in the body of

our legal system and policy framework. In the same vein, agreements made by Nigerian

government in international forum such as UN General Assembly, periodic meeting of Human

Rights Committee in Geneva are monitored to ensure proper implementation as a way to

guarantee human rights protection.

Research Roles
INGOs undertake intensive and extensive research into human rights issues to provide

information and materials on a wide range of issues revolving around protection mechanisms

and recent developments. Information Gathered in the course of research result into policy

formulation. Data generated from organizations like Amnesty International, Human Rights

Watch have become reliable sources of information on human rights, particularly periodic

reviews, annual reports and country index.

2.5 International Non-Governmental Organizations and National Human Rights Agencies

The protection of human rights in Nigeria through the machinery of INGOs is relatively

impossible without a Consolidated effort from national human rights agencies. These national

agencies are said to understand the terrain of the country where human rights violations are

concerned and have considerable level of influence Within Nigeria because they have the ability

to relate with the actual Nigerian reality.

In Nigeria, certain human rights agencies exist as created by the government to ensure the

protection of human

rights at every level. Some of these agencies include National Human Rights Commission

(NHRC), Public

Complaints Commission (Ombudsman), Legal Aid Council, etc.

I. National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

The NHRC is a nationally recognized body as the major protector of human rights in the

Country. The National

Human Rights Commission (Establishment) Act, Cap N46, LFN 1995 (as amended) was

established in line with

Resolution 48/134 of the UN General Assembly which mandated all member states to establish

an independent

National institution for the promotion, protection and enforcement of human rights. The

Commission has a complaints mechanism accessible to every Nigerian citizen whose rights have

been violated. Some of the functions and powers of the Commission as contained in the

constitution include the following:

a) Monitoring and investigating all alleged cases of human rights violations in Nigeria.

b) Assisting victims of human rights violations seek appropriate redress and remedies on their

behalf

c) Publishing periodical reports on the state of human rights protection in Nigeria.

d) Organize local and international seminars, workshops and conferences on human rights

issues for public enlightenment.

e) Liaise and cooperate with local and international organizations on human rights for the

purpose of advancing the promotion and protection of human rights. NHRC currently works

with UN agencies such as United Nations Development Programmes (UNDP), United

Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHRC), and international NGOs such as Ford

Foundation, Amnesty International and the Network of African Human Rights Institutions.

II. Public Complaints Commission (Ombudsman)

Ombudsman was established by the Federal Government to entertain complaints of injustice,

corruption, unfair Treatment and abuse of office by public office holders from citizens and

members of the public. The Commission was established by the Public Complaints Commission
Act, Cap P37, LFN 2004 as a national agency to investigate cases of social injustice, proffer

recommendations and also take corrective actions. The Commission by law is empowered to:

a) Entertain grievances and complaints of citizens against public servants.

b) Investigate such cases of corruption, bribery and nepotism or favouritism against public

servants.

c) Ensure the arrest and prosecution of public officers who infringe upon the rights of the

citizens.

d) Help redress the abuses suffered by citizens in the hands of public servants.

The Ombudsman has investigation-based statutory powers which enable it to carry out

investigation on both public and private entities particularly on account of administrative

injustices. To this end, Ombudsman relate with both local and foreign NGOs in order to achieve

her core objectives as a pro-rights national agency. Ombudsman has a fertile relationship with

Cleen Foundation, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes (UNODC). Moving forward, INGOs

and national human rights agencies cooperate and relate on a host of issues. Some of the major

points of cooperation or areas of relationship between INGOs and national human rights

agencies include:

a) Capacity building

b) Research and information gathering

c) Awareness and human rights education

d) Investigation, etc. INGOs are involved in the capacity building assistance to national human

rights agencies by providing skills and technical development required to further their human

rights protection mandate. A typical example is the training provided by the UNODC for
members of staff of the Ombudsman on security issues. INGOs equally liaise on and support

workshops, conferences and symposiums organized by national agencies to better improve

their work in protecting for human rights across Nigeria. Closely related to this, INGOs and

national human rights agencies cooperate in terms of investigation. They work closely together

as well as provide assistance in the course of carrying out investigations relating to manifested

or potential abuses. Another important medium of partnership is in the area of research and

information gathering. Both INGOs and national human rights agencies embark on intensive

research and rely on each other’s information gathered. Data sharing has become a critical

point of collaboration for instance, the Amnesty International Periodic Review, and Human

Rights Watch Index and Annual Reports are reliable data sources readily made available to

NHRC and other national human rights organizations. By extension, it is a core function of

human rights-based organizations whether non-governmental or governmental, local or

international to embark on proper campaign on human rights issues.

2.6 Limitations of International Non-Governmental Organizations in Nigeria’s Human Rights

Protection

INGOs are limited by various factors in the course of preserving human rights in Nigeria. Some

of these limitations include: government intervention, funding and resources, language barrier,

spread or the proliferation of the organization, socio-cultural practices, and partnership, among

many other things. First, the activities of INGOs are subject to control measures put in place by

the government as an attempt to censor information disseminated by these organizations.

Again, INGOs carry out wide range of activities and perform various functions to ensure the

protection of human rights in Nigeria some of which are cost and resource intensive. Lack of
funds and essential resources constrains INGOs from carrying out operations. INGOs

particularly require adequate manpower and funds to carry out research, publicity and

investigation such that inadequate of financial and non-financial could limit the extent to which

these activities are executed. Prominent INGOs in Nigeria are located within the Federal Capital

Territory with little or no representation in other parts of the country leaving a significant

amount of the population out of the reach by these organizations due to the geographical

expanse of the country. Moreover, there is inadequate information about the existence of

some of these organizations particularly in rural and under-served communities. An average

Nigerian living in a remote area is relatively unlikely to know about the existence of these

INGOs hindering the ability of such person to know about available services to seek redress

through these organizations. A major factor limiting the ability of INGOs to protect human

rights in Nigeria is contained in the fact that some manifestations of human rights violations are

expressed in socio-cultural practices of people across different

tribes. It is seemingly difficult to convince people otherwise so far it forms a major part of their

culture and agelong tradition. Typical examples are female genital mutilation, child marriage,

widowhood practices embedded in the popular beliefs of the people. The ignorance to the

effects of some of these practices enables their continuity regardless of the several mechanisms

adopted by INGOs. Closely related to socio-cultural factor is the issue of language barrier which

may pose a challenge in a multi-ethnic country like Nigeria where a human rights activist or

researcher may not understand the native language of the various places infested with various

Degrees of human rights violations. This makes information gathering and communication

relatively difficult.
2.7 Challenges and Criticism of Amnesty International

Despite the significant role Amnesty International is playing in Nigeria from 1967 to

date, the organization is not without some criticism and challenges which have continued to

affect the viability of the organization in the fight against human right abuse. One of the major

criticisms against Amnesty International is the perception that the organization is western-

centric (Conor, 2009). This implies that the organization is driven by western ideologies

especially as it relates to what constitute human rights. It is important to note that western

cultures are often a subject of resistance in other worlds especially in the Middle East and Asia,

thus, the activities of Amnesty International in such cultures are looked with some

suspiciousness. In many of such country’s membership for the organization and support is very

low. Another challenge Amnesty Nigeria is facing is the recurrent demand by the citizen and

government authorities for the organization to leave Nigeria. In August 2019, the organization

was accused of being sponsored by the opposition party and taking sides with the nation's

enemies. The protest was a result of rumours that they planned a nationwide protest by a

coalition of civil organization. The protest tagged "Revolution Now" was supposed to hold

August 5 across the country. Amnesty International, however, said they will not be threatened

and will continue to fight for human rights and hold government accountable (Adepegba and

Akinkuotu, 2019). Another challenge facing Amnesty International and indeed other

international human right groups is their lack of authoritative capacities. The Universal

Declaration on Human Right is not binding on the Nigerian laws. Amnesty International can only

draw the attention of the Nigerian government and international communities to issues of

human rights abuses. Sometimes, the Nigerian government and regimes are very slow in taking
actions, hence, requires more time and resources on the side of the organizations. The plethora

of such cases might significantly slow down the progress of Amnesty International.
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