Principles of Arba Minch University

College of Agricultural Sciences 2022

Environmental Science
Department of Natural Resource Management

CHAPTER SIX: ENVIRONMENT, TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Chapter Objective
After the completion of this chapter, you will be able to understand;
 Human population and their impact on the environment,
 Harmony between environment and development,
 Models of development,
 Industrialization and urbanization,
 Technology and environmental wellbeing, and
 The relationship between globalization and social welfare.
6.0 Introduction
Along with governance systems (laws, legislation, rules/regulations, codes etc.), education
(awareness raising, capacity building, training, professional development etc.) and technology

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(technologies, and the skills, knowledge and innovation needed to manage those technologies)
form a critical pillar in a policy mix that is needed to tackle environmental problems and aim for
sustainability.
The industrial revolution has brought about new technologies with immense power. This was the
transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from
about 1760 to 1840. This has been succeeded by continued industrialization and further
technological advancements in developed countries around the world, and the impact of this
technology on the environment has included the misuse and damage of our natural earth. These
technologies have damaged our world in two main ways, pollution and the depletion of natural
resources.
6.1 Human Population and the Environment
Population-environment relationships may be examined at various levels from the local to the
global, and on different time scales. Explanations vary depending on the level of spatial
aggregation, and there are real problems in integrating small and varied local causes and effects
to obtain estimates of global significance.
Ecological disruption on a large scale by human beings is not a new phenomenon. Even before
the advent of agriculture, man as a hunter is thought to have contributed to a reduction in the
number of species of large mammals inhabiting the earth. Much more significant, however, was
the era of abuse of soils and habitat that was initiated by the agricultural revolution. One of the
best-known early examples is the conversion to desert of the lush Tigris and Euphrates valleys,

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through erosion and salt accumulation resulting from faulty irrigation practices. Overgrazing and
poor cultivation practices have contributed over the millennia to the expansion of the Sahara
Desert, a process that continues today; and the Rajasthan desert in India is also believed to be
partly a product of human carelessness and population pressure.
Much of Europe and Asia were deforested by preindustrial-men, beginning in the Stone Age;
heavy erosion, recurrent flooding, and nearly permanent loss of a valuable resource were the
result. Additionally, overgrazing by the sheep of Navajo herdsmen has destroyed large tracts of
once prime pastureland in the American Southwest.
The most elementary relation between population and environmental deterioration is that
population size acts as a multiplier of the activities, consumption, and attendant environmental
damages associated with each individual in the population.
It is beyond dispute that a population too large to be fed adequately in the prevailing
technological and organizational framework, as is the case for the globe today, is particularly
vulnerable to environmental disruptions that may reduce production even below normal levels.
More controversial, however, are the roles of the size, growth rate, and geographic distribution of
the human population in causing such environmental disruptions.

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The majorities of population and environment relationships are played out as local dramas and
should be first fully understood in this context. Even global environmental impacts (for example,
loss of biodiversity or global warming) have their roots in processes played out within regions,
communities, and households. Other processes like soil degradation, deforestation, and urban
environmental deterioration their localized character is more intuitively apparent.
The world population is growing by more than 74 million per year, of which 93% is in
developing countries. In the past, population growth was a gradual phenomenon and the Earth‘s
ability to replenish resources was capable of adjusting to this increase. In the recent past, the
escalation in growth of human has become a major cause of our environmental problems. The
needs of the huge number of human beings cannot be supported by the Earth‘s natural resources,
without degrading the quality of human life. Therefore, the greatest challenge the world now
faces is how to supply its exploding human population with the resources it needs.

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Figure 6.1: When population outpaces resources

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The rapid increase of human population is putting an incredible strain on our environment.
Humans continue to put a great demand on the natural resources of our planet. The demands that this
growth places on our global environment are threatening the future of sustainable life on earth.

6.1.1 Human population pattern and demographics

The history of the world population growth can be divided into two periods. For most of the
time that human beings have inhabited the planet, population has grown very slowly indeed. The
pace of growth began to increase from around the beginning of the 18th century, accelerating to
the very rapid rates characteristic of the 2nd half of the 20th century. During the 1960‘s the rate of
growth was 2% per annum, a rate double that of the first half of the 20th century, which in turn
was double that of the 19th century. Therefore, 20th century saw the biggest increase in the
world‘s population in human history. Generally, human population growth increased from; 1 to 2
billion in 123 years, 2 to 3 billion in 33 years, 3 to 4 billion in 14 years, 4 to 5 billion, in 13
years, and 5 to 6 billion in 11 years.

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Figure 6.2: World population growth

Population growth is not evenly distributed across the globe. The rapid growth of world
population, especially in the second half of the 20th century, had been accompanied by a shift of
population away from the developed regions of the world towards the developing world. During

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the last two centuries most of the world‘s people lived in Asia, while relatively few lived in Latin
America, North America and Oceania. Europe ranks second to Asia, but its share is decreasing
while Africa‘s share is increasing.
Prior to 1800, Asia‘s population represented roughly two thirds (about 67%) of the world total.
The remaining few people were scattered in Latin America, North America, and Oceania with
Latin America having the largest number. By 1800, the industrial revolution began in Europe and
its share of global population increased. Asia maintained two thirds of the world‘s people and
Africa‘s share declined. Less than 5% resided in the Americas and Oceania combined. In 1900,
Asia‘s share of the world population declined to about one-half, while Europe, North America,
and Latin America grew rapidly.
By 2000, Asia‘s population rose again to account for 60% of the world total. Africa‘s share
increased to be equal to Europe‘s portion. If current trends continue; Asia will remain at 60% of
the world total in 2050, Africa‘s share will rise to about 20%, and Europe‘s share will drop
below Latin America‘s – less than 10%.
The largest absolute growth in the world was taking place in South Asia. Up to the year 2000,
South Asia was expected to add about 33 million people a year to world population, and then

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about 30 million a year to 2025. Its share of world population will increase from 32% in 1980 to
34% by 2025, even though its growth rate will have declined from 2.3 % in 1980 to 1.5% by
2000-5 and 0.9% by 2020-25.
On the other hand, East Asia (which includes China) experienced the largest decline of growth
rate since the 1970‘s from 2.1% in 1970 -75 to 1.2% in 1980-85, largely as a result of the
dramatic decline in fertility that took place in China during this period. This sharp decline in the
growth rate in China is expected to continue to the end of the century and beyond, reaching to
0.1% by 2025 in China and 0.5% in the region. Although the rising from 1250 million in 1985 to
a projected 1721 million in 2025, East Asia‘s share of world population is expected to decline
from 26% in 1980 to 21% by 2025.
At the other end of the spectrum, Europe is the lowest growing region of the world. Its rate of
growth has declined from 0.9% per annum in 1960-65 to 0.3% in 1980-85, and is expected to fall
further to near 0 growth rates of 0.04% by 2020-25. Both North America and USSR have similar
slow growth rates and their respective share of world population are expected to decline from
about 6% in 1980 to just over 4% in 2025.
The more developed countries in Europe and North America, as well as Japan, Australia, and
New Zealand, are growing by less than one percent annually whereas population growth rates are
negative in many European countries, including Russia (- 0.6%), Estonia (-0.5%), Hungary (-
4%), and Ukraine (-0.4%). If the growth rates of these countries continue to fall below zero,
population size would slowly decline.
Africa had the highest average annual growth rate at around 3.0% in 1985-90. This had
decreased to about 2.4% by 2000, and there will be a slow decline to 1.9% by 2020-25. The

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population of Africa grew from 479 million in 1980 to 872 million by 2000 and 1617 million in
2025, when it will comprise 20% of the world‘s population compared with only 9.0% in 1950
and 11.0% in 1980.
Around 108 billion people have ever lived on our planet. This means that today‘s population size
makes up 6.5% of the total number of people ever born. The top five most populous countries
now are China (1.43 billion), India (1.37 billion), United States (329 million), Indonesia (270
million), and Brazil (211 million).

Source World population (2015)

United Nations Population Division (2017 Revision) 7,383,009,000

US Census Bureau (2017) 7,247,892,788

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Population Reference Bureau (2015) 7,336,435,000

Human population demographics is the population with respect to size, composition, spatial
distribution, and changes in the population that occur over time. These are resulted by the three
processes:
1. Fertility: the number of births that occur to an individual or a population
2. Mortality: death of an individual or the number of deaths that occur in a population
3. Migration: the movement of people into or out of a specific geographic area
The number of people in a given area can grow or decline because of the number of births that
take place, the number of deaths that occur and/or by the number of people moving in or out of a
locale. Migration can drastically change the size and composition of a population in a brief
period, especially in small geographic locations.
Migration is the movement of individuals or groups from one place to another which involves
permanent or semi-permanent change of usual residence. Migration is the most volatile of the
three processes – quickly reflecting changing social, economic and political circumstances; both
at the national and international level. Internal and international migration are essentially geared
by the same forces and the majority of migrants in the world today are rural dwellers moving to
the towns and cities either of their own or another country. Both types of migration bring with
them pressures for receiving areas: in the case of internal migrations, the absolute problems of
rapidly growing cities whose infrastructure can barely cope; or social pressures of adjusting to
cultural conflicts that can result from international migration. Most people move for economic

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reasons, but some migrate to escape political or religious persecution or simply to fulfill a
personal dream. Some people divide the reasons for migration into push and pull factors. Push
factors include; widespread unemployment, lack of farmland, famine, or war at home. For
instance, in the 1980‘s and 1990‘s hundreds of thousands of Africans were pushed out of their
homelands to neighboring countries because of famine and civil war. Factors that attract
migrants, pull factors, include; booming economy, favorable immigration laws, or free
agricultural land in the area to which the migrant is moving.
In general, world patterns of migration are characterized by flows from the poorer, less
developed countries to the richer more developed countries, but these flows have changed with
the fluctuating economic and social circumstance of particular sending or receiving countries.
Conflict is another potent cause of migration. In terms of net migration rates, the traditionally
most important receiving countries of the more developed world have given way to the oil rich
countries of the Middle East (e.g., the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and
Oman) with their booming economies and laborer shortage.
A demographic profile includes population trends and changes in the composition of the
population including age and sex, income levels, occupation, educational attainment and

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household size. The major sources of these demographic data include the following:
1. Census which is as an enumeration or complete population count at a point in time within
a specified geographical area. It provides more reliable and accurate data if properly
enumerated.
2. Registration of vital events which is a regular and continuous registration of vital events.
Civil registration system; which records vital statistics like births, deaths, marriages;
enables rates of population growth to be calculated; but are much less adequate than
national censuses.
3. Sample surveys which are done on scientifically selected areas that cover only a section
or portion (sample) of the population under consideration.
Population structure refers to the composition of the population in terms of age, sex, occupation,
religion, educational status, geographical distribution, socio-economic status etc. The three
processes and their predisposing factors influence the structure of a population. The age-sex
structure determines potential for future growth of specific age groups, and the total population.
6.1.2 World population and environmental challenge
The world‘s population increases every year because the global birth rate exceeds the death rate.
Globally the average population density is 25 people per km2, but there are very large differences
across countries. Many of the world‘s small island or isolated states have large populations for
their size. Macao, Monaco, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Gibraltar are the five most densely
populated. Singapore has nearly 8,000 people per km2 – more than 200 times as dense as the US,
and 2000 times that of Australia.

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Of the larger countries, Bangladesh is the most densely populated with 1,252 people per square
kilometer; this is almost three times denser than India, its neighbor. It is followed by Lebanon
(595), South Korea (528), the Netherlands (508) and Rwanda (495) per km2 completing the top
five. Greenland is the least dense, with less than 0.2 people per km2, followed by Mongolia,
Namibia, Australia and Iceland.
Since population is only one of many factors influencing the environment, we have consumed
more resources in the last 50 years than the whole of humanity before us. Generally, the impact
of so many humans on the environment takes two major forms:
 consumption of resources like plants, animals, water, air, fossil fuels & minerals; and
 generating wastes such as air, water and soil pollutants, and toxic materials.
The impact of so many people on the planet has resulted in some scientists coining a new term to
describe our time – the anthropocene epoch. Unlike previous geological periods, where various
geological and climate processes defined the times, the proposed anthropecene period is named
for the dominant influence humans and their activities are having on the environment.
However, while population size is part of the problem, the issue is bigger and more complex than

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just counting bodies. Essentially, it is what is happening within those populations – their
distribution (density, migration patterns and urbanization), their composition (age, sex and
income levels) and, most importantly, their consumption patterns – that are of equal, if not more
importance, than just numbers. Therefore, focusing solely on population number confuses the
multifaceted relationship between us humans and our environment, and makes it easier for us to
lay the blame at the feet of others, such as those in developing countries, rather than looking at
how our own behavior may be negatively affecting the planet.

Population size
It is no surprising that as the world population continues to grow, the limits of essential global
resources such as potable water, fertile land, forests and fisheries are becoming more obvious.
On the whole, more people use more resources and create more waste. However, how many
people are too many? How many of us can Earth realistically support?
Carrying capacity can be defined as the maximum population size an environment can sustain
indefinitely. Debate about the actual human carrying capacity of Earth dates back hundreds of
years. The range of estimates is enormous, fluctuating from 500 million people to more than one
trillion. Scientists disagree not only on the final number, but also more importantly about the best
and most accurate way of determining that number – hence the huge variability. The majority of
studies estimate that the Earth's capacity is at or beneath 8 billion people.
How can this be? Whether we have 500 million people or one trillion, we still have only one
planet, which has a finite level of resources. The answer comes back to resource consumption.
People around the world consume resources differently and unevenly. An average middle-class
American consumes 3.3 times the subsistence level of food and almost 250 times the subsistence

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level of clean water. Therefore, if everyone on Earth lived like a middle class American, then the
planet might have a carrying capacity of around 2 billion. If people only consumed what they
actually needed, then the Earth could potentially support a much higher figure.
However, we need to consider not just quantity but also quality. Earth might be able to support
over one trillion people theoretically, but what would their quality of life be like? Would they be
scraping by on the bare minimum of allocated resources, or would they have the opportunity to
lead an enjoyable and full life? More importantly, could these trillion people cooperate on the
scale required, or might some groups seek to use a disproportionate fraction of resources? If so,
might other groups challenge that inequality, including using violence?

Population distribution
The ways in which populations are spread across Earth has an effect on the environment.
Developing countries tend to have higher birth rates due to poverty and lower access to family
planning and education, while developed countries have lower birth rates. The faster-growing
populations can add pressure to local environments.
Globally, in almost every country, humans are becoming more urbanized. In 1960, less than one

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third of the world‘s population lived in cities. By 2014, that figure was 54%, with a projected rise
to 66% by 2050. While many enthusiasts for centralization and urbanization argue this allows for
resources to be used more efficiently, in developing countries this mass movement of people
heading towards the cities in search of employment and opportunity often outstrips the pace of
development, leading to slums, poor (if any) environmental regulation, and higher levels of
centralized pollution. Even in developed nations, more people are moving to the cities than ever
before. The pressure placed on growing cities and their resources due to continuing growth
includes pollution from additional cars, heaters and other modern luxuries, which can cause a
range of localized environmental problems.
Humans have always moved around the world. However, government policies, conflict or
environmental crises can enhance these migrations, often causing short or long-term
environmental damage. For example, since 2011 conditions in the Middle East have seen
population transfer (also known as unplanned migration) result in several million refugees
fleeing countries including Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan. The sudden development of huge
refugee camps can affect water supplies, cause land damage (such as felling of trees for fuel) or
pollute environments (lack of sewerage systems).

Population composition
The composition of a population can also affect the surrounding environment. At present, the
global population has both the largest proportion of young people (under 24) and the largest
percentage of elderly people in history. As young people are more likely to migrate, it leads to
intensified urban environmental concerns, as listed above.

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Life expectancy has increased by approximately 20 years since 1960. While this is a
achievement for mankind, and certainly a good thing for the individual, from the planet's point of
view it is just another body that is continuing to consume resources and produce waste.
Ageing populations are another element to the multi-faceted implications of demographic
population change, and pose challenges of their own. For example between 1970 and 2006,
Japan's proportion of people over 65 grew from 7% to more than 20% of its population. This has
huge implications on the workforce, as well as government spending on pensions and health
care.
Population income is also an important consideration. The uneven distribution of income results
in pressure on the environment from both the lowest and highest income levels. In order to
simply survive, many of the world‘s poorest people partake in unsustainable levels of resource
use, for example burning rubbish, tyres or plastics for fuel. They may also be forced to deplete
scarce natural resources, such as forests or animal populations, to feed their families. On the
other end of the spectrum, those with the highest incomes consume disproportionately large
levels of resources through the cars they drive, the homes they live in, and the lifestyle choices
they make.

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On a country-wide level, economic development and environmental damage are also linked. The
least developed nations tend to have lower levels of industrial activity, resulting in lower levels
of environmental damage. The most developed countries have found ways of improving
technology and energy efficiency to reduce their environmental impact while retaining high
levels of production. The countries in between— those are developing and experiencing intense
resource consumption (which may be driven by demand from developed countries) — that are
often the location of most environmental damage.

Population consumption
While poverty and environmental degradation are closely interrelated, it is the unsustainable
patterns of consumption and production, primarily in developed nations, that are of even greater
concern. For many, particularly in industrialized countries, the consumption of goods and
resources is just a part of their lives and culture, promoted not only by advertisers but also by
governments wanting to grow their economy continually. Culturally, it is considered a normal
part of life to shop, buy and consume, to continually strive to own a bigger home or a faster car,
all frequently promoted as signs of success. It may be fine to participate in consumer culture and
to value material possessions, but in excess it is harming both the planet and our emotional
wellbeing.
More clothes, more gadgets, bigger cars, bigger houses – consuming goods and resources has big
effects on our planet. The environmental impact of all this consumption is huge. The mass
production of goods, many of them unnecessary for a comfortable life, is using large amounts of
energy and resources, and generating huge amounts of waste.

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To complicated matters, environmental impacts of high levels of consumption are not confined
to the local area or even country. For example, the use of fossil fuels for energy (to drive bigger
cars, heat and cool our bigger houses) has an impact on global carbon dioxide levels and
resulting environmental effects. Similarly, richer countries are also relying on resource and/or
waste-intensive imports being produced in poorer countries. This enables them to enjoy the
products without having to deal with the immediate impacts of the factories or pollution that
went in to creating them.
On a global scale, not all humans are equally responsible for environmental harm. Consumption
patterns and resource use are very high in some parts of the world, while in others – often in
countries with far more people – they are low, and the basic needs of whole populations are not
being met. The countries with the fastest population growth also had the slowest increases in
carbon emissions. The reverse was also true – for example the population of North America grew
only 4% between 1980 and 2005, while its carbon emissions grew by 14%. Hence, the negative
burden of the environment misuse is not afflicted on those who greatly consume it but rather the
people in poor developing countries who are suffering from the most serious consequences of
natural disasters and the effects of long-term environmental degradation.

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The ecological consequences caused by population growth include air and water pollution, soil
deterioration, accelerated extinction of biodiversity, climate change, and destruction of other
interdependent ecosystems that sustain life. Carbon dioxide emissions and urban land use
increase with population growth.
At high-income levels, countries have more resources with which to address pollution problems,
and certain areas of the environment exhibit clear improvements through investments in clean
technologies, more efficient production techniques, and improved infrastructure.
6.2 Harmony between Environment and Development
The natural environment is a dynamic system, in which the following four functions interact:
Firstly, it is a source of raw materials and resources. Secondly, it provides space for waste
accumulation and storage. Thirdly, it constitutes an effective machine for the assimilative
regenerative processes with regard to chemically and biologically active wastes. Finally, it
determines the health level and general quality of life for all organisms that live within it. In this
aspect, two key questions are raised nowadays, regarding the economic growth and
environmental implications: Will continued economic growth bring ever-greater harm to the
Earth‘s environment? Or do increases in income and wealth sow the seeds for the amelioration of
ecological problems?

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Figure 6.3: The relationship between the socioeconomic system and the environment

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The process of growth and increasing economic production invariably leads to greater resource
use. This can be destructive to the environment in different ways. In the main, during the initial
stages of growth, environmental pressure is primarily exerted on the "green" areas, that is, in
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, and in mining, where renewable or non-renewable resources
are extracted. As development progresses, increased pressures are exerted on the "brown" areas,
including air and water pollution and the accumulation of waste products. For example, indoor
air pollution from stoves, with toxic waste, and dumping of obsolete pesticides.
A best development policy should incorporate in its design three dimensions: the economic
dimension, the social concern and the environmental challenge. The condition of environmental
sustainability is an important foundation for development.
The environmental degradation may create barriers for achieving the targets of the development
strategy. The environment degradation because of the development increasing trends raises many
issues balancing between the economic, ethical, and moral considerations. The cost of the
environment degradation is also subject of causing hard injuries to future generations.
Maintaining a sustainable and efficient growth strategy that takes into account the imperatives of
the environment protection becomes more than a necessity accepting that there are certain limits
to growth on a finite planet.

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Table 6.2: The link between the MDGs and the environment

The harmony
Human lifestyles must be respectful of ecological limits and nature‘s. This means adopting a new
paradigm that includes harmonious relationships with nature. Though they are important, it has

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to be recognized that societies have inherent tendencies to test nature to its limits and the
exploitation of nature is optimized to serve the goal of enhancing growth without due regard for
consequences for present and future generations‘ well-being. Calls for securing the survival of
the planet are often, upon closer inspection, aim for nothing less than compromising the
aggressive growth of markets. Our practical actions for enhancing sustainability should be
embodied within the framework of a new economics, addressing the market failures that ignored
the ecological implications and resulted in increasing deterioration of nature as well as the well-
being of many human populations around the world.
A paradigm for a new economics must go beyond neoclassical and environmental economics and
instead learn from the concepts of deep ecology, and rights of nature. Serving nature and
recognizing its inherent significance should be integrated in the foundations of new economic
models that ought to factor in the complex dynamic interplay between all key drivers of
sustainability, e.g., justice, equity, and rights for all worlds‘ citizens and the natural world from
which they derive their existence.
There is urgency of addressing environmental matters in the context of the new economic
realities facing the world. Past economic downturns have led to increased environmental
disruptions (e.g., effects on forest land-use and small-scale mining impacts in the aftermath of
the Asian Meltdown of 1997). Climate change mitigation and adaptation should be incorporated
into the priorities associated with national and international financial restructuring. These will be
among the world‘s largest financing needs over the coming decades. Climate change will require
continued building of new markets such as the sale of carbon credits.

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Sustainable development has comprehensive nature. It has focused on the interlocked nature of
economy and environment concerns, and on how treating the environment responsibly will
provide substantial social benefits, including greater equity. It is important that economic growth
be based on sustainable development principles and support integrative objectives, for example,
those supporting environment and public health, and that they promote preventive action on
pollution and excessive resource consumption.
Furthermore, there is still much to be done before the world‘s trading system, environment and
sustainable development are made compatible. Whether by the widespread adoption of
international standards for the environmentally sound production of goods, and further
development and acceptance of meaningful environmental certification, or through binding rules
negotiated as part of trade agreements, the existing situation needs to change dramatically if it is
to be compatible with the concept of an ―ecological civilization.‖
The international community should set up fair and just international environmental rules, abide
by the principle of ―common but differentiated responsibility‖, shoulder global environmental
obligations together, arrange international environmental treatment, and establish smooth and
efficient implementation mechanisms for international environmental conventions and treaties,

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and eventually leading to a more harmonious world.
A successful transformative approach to environment and development will depend upon broad-
based public support and participation, and on international cooperation. International
environmental cooperation should expand from pure environmental considerations to sustainable
development. We should combine environmental cooperation with development cooperation,
and resolve many, if not most environmental problems occur through development. While we
have witnessed progress for some global environment and development problems, the majority
of problems continued to worsen. We have noted the growing prominence of regional
environmental problems and trans-boundary environmental conflicts, and these problems have
had more impact on political, economic, and social development. Sustainable development is a
consensus of the international community. We should overcome cultural and ideological
differences by taking coordinated action.
The worst situation would be to revert to the old economic model of ―pollute first, clean up
later.‖ Eco-development would make explicit social, ecological, and economic criteria for the
development and use of technology (e.g., renewable, clean energy sources and energy conserving
techniques; integrated pest management and low input agriculture; agroforestry; and appropriate
uses of biotechnology). It asks," how can we create ecologically?" rather than" how can we
create? And then how can we remedy?" In so doing, eco-development provides a positive,
interdependent vision for both human development and nature. It is quite possible that in
restructuring along the lines of eco-development, technologies might bring new comparative
advantages that will help to make those economies that are quickest and most effective at
undertaking it more competitive and prosperous in the long-run.

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Economic development must be achieved in an environmentally sustainable manner. Countries

have to find a durable equilibrium between their economy and their ecology. The two areas are
closely interrelated, and if they neglect either of them, the chances are that the repercussions will
be felt in the other. Most countries have pursued economic development without taking
environmental issues into account. They are now facing the consequences: water and air
pollution, pesticides in the food supply, ultraviolet rays penetrating the thinning ozone layer,
increased global temperatures caused by greenhouse gases, and so on. The only positive aspect
of these problems is that they provide a lesson in terms of mistakes made that should be avoided
in the future. Another aspect of the headlong pursuit of economic development that countries
must consider is irreversibility, particularly in the context of environmental degradation like loss
of biodiversity.
6.3 Models of Development
Development describes a process through which the potentialities of an object or organism are
released, until it reaches its complete, mature form. In a very general way, development means
the securing of social and economic growth by changing the conditions of under-development
through organized and planned efforts aimed at the control of poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy,

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and economic and industrial under-development.
How do countries develop? If we can understand how development occurs, strategies can be
adopted to help countries to develop. In fact, development is a very complex process and it has
several dimensions which are related and interdependent and yet different. Hence, there have
been present several different models of development. Out of these no single development model
stands universally accepted. Further, the concept of development has been regularly undergoing
changes.
Initially, the western model of liberty, economic growth and modernization was adopted by
several states. Then some states came forward to adopt the socialist model of development. Some
others decided to adopt a mixed liberal-democratic-socialist model. Presently the world has been
strongly advocating the sustainable development model.

Western liberal model

In this model, it is held that all societies undergo changes from traditional, transitional and
modern stages of development. It regards political development as the condition for economic
development. It supports the independence, rights and self- interest of the individual as the basis
of all development. It stands for rapid industrialization, technological advancement,
modernization, full employment and continuous process of liberalization of society, economy
and institution. The goals of development are to be achieved based on free-market economy,
competitiveness, and all-round individual development.
This model can be described as the market model of development. It advocates that opening up
of the economies of all states is the only way for development. However, this model does not
really suit the developing countries. Many of them feel that it acts as a source of neo-colonial

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control of the rich and developed countries over the economies and policies of developing
countries of the world.
The critics, particularly the socialist critics, criticize this model because it leads to economic
inequalities and concentration of wealth in the hands of the rich class of capitalists. It gives rise
to a monopoly of the rich and an exploitation of the poor.

Welfare model
The welfare model of development accepts and strongly advocates the role of state in the
economic sphere for promoting the socio-economic welfare and common interests of the society.
It conceptualizes the state as a welfare state and advocates that state planning and organized
efforts are essential for rapid industrialization, economic growth, and socio-economic
development. The welfare state can provide various types of social services for the people, like
education, health, employment, social security and public distribution system.
This model acts as the agency for promoting desired social change and development. It takes
special steps for protecting the interests of the weaker sections of society. Welfare state protects
all social, economic and political rights of all the people and in turn the people act in a socially

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responsible way.
All developing countries accepted the welfare state model but with some changes of their
individual likings and needs. However, the welfare model did not succeed in securing the desired
development. The machinery of state, particularly the bureaucracy proved to be inefficient and
corrupt. Welfare goals were secured partially and that too with undesirable delays. The welfare
model also made the people dependent upon the state and they largely failed to develop.

Socialist (Marxist) model

The socialist model of development is a general model in which several socialist thinkers
advocate several different views about development goals and means. Some socialists accept
democratic means for securing socialist goals of development. However, the Marxist Socialists
and the Revolutionary Socialists advocate revolutionary means and a centralized system of
economic and political relations for rapid industrialization, progress, and development.
The Marxist socialist model rejects the capitalist-liberal model of development. It placed full
emphasis upon the social and economic rights, particularly the right to equality and social justice
advocating socialization means of production and distribution for rapid socio-economic
development. Industrialization was held to be the means but it was to be pursued by ensuring the
protection of the interests of the workers and common people.
Control of the communist state over the process of industrialization and development was held to
be an essential condition for development. Such a state was regarded as the supreme agency for
ensuring education, health, and social security for the masses. Little emphasis was however
placed on the civil and political rights of the people.

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However, in 1980s the socialist/Marxist model of development was found to be weak and
unproductive. Around 1985-1991 the economies and institutions of all the socialist states began
collapsing. They found it essential to adopt political and economic liberalization of their
societies, institutions, and economies.
The communist states the USSR (1917-1990), Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungry, Rumania,
Bulgaria, East Germany Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba (1945-1990) used a centralized
command economic system as the means for development.
All these states decided to liberalization, privatization, democratization, and competitiveness as
the means for growth, stability, and development. The socialist model of development suffered a
big decline in its popularity and liberal-democratic-capitalist model got a new universal
acceptance and popularity.

Democratic-socialist model
This model advocates development through the securing of socialist goals by using democratic
means. India and several other developing countries decided to adopt this model. In fact, these
states combined the democratic socialist model and welfare state model for rapid

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industrialization, economic growth and development. Organized planning and democratic
process of politics were adopted by them.
However, the actual operation of this model of development also proved to be inadequate for
securing the goal of rapid socio-economic-political development. Bureaucratic inefficiency,
corruption, faulty planning priorities and slow growth led to an inadequate success in all areas of
development.
It has started acting as a source of commercialization of human relations and even
commercialization of education, healthcare and social service sectors. A need for reforms and
changes are currently being designed and adopted, particularly for meeting the pressures
resulting from global economic recession.

Sustainable development model

Unprincipled and over-exploitation of natural resources, pollution, climate change and its
adverse effect on human life, increase in radiation levels; depletion of ozone layer; and
disturbances and pressures on the eco-systems, all have amply demonstrated the fact that the past
socio-economic development has not been a real development. It has created a situation of a
social-economic-environmental imbalance.
It has made it essential for us to work for securing social, economic and environmental
sustainability through sustainable development. The greatest need of the hour is to put in
comprehensive and coordinated efforts for securing development which is socially, economically
and environmentally stable and enduringly sustainable. All the dimensions of sustainable
development are emphasized by a large majority of the contemporary supporters of the model.

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6.4 Industrialization and Urbanization

Industrialization mainly refers to the process of transformation from traditional agricultural
society to modern industrial society. This process is characterized by a large portion of the
agricultural labor force shifting to industry, a large portion of the rural population shifting to
cities and towns, and a greater urban population than rural population. Thus, industrialization can
promote; the realization of urbanization, promote the growth of urban population, and the
improvement of urban functions.
Since the process of urbanization and industrialization is closely related to the development of
urban economy, and it can be considered that the process of industrialization is a process of
urbanization, so it is difficult to effectively distinguish between the level of industrialization and
the level of urbanization. Industrialization is an economic benefit hunted, and urbanization is a
resource element to be paid.
Initially, industrialization was not an urban affair, but over time, manufacturing and urbanization
became tightly connected, as the nature of manufacturing shifted from the hand labor of the
artisan shop to the machine labor of factory.

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It was privileged that the role for the transportation revolution, particularly the railroad, which
encouraged urbanization and, importantly, expanding market access for both outputs and inputs.
Railway development promoted historical urban growth and industrialization almost everywhere
in Europe and in Japan.
The urbanization and industrialization in developed countries is an endogenous change, and the
process is more coordinated, while in the developing countries it is a kind of exogenous change,
with excessive urbanization or lagging urbanization.
In the international community, it is generally considered that the development of urbanization
and industrialization in those developed countries including United States, the United Kingdom,
France and Germany are more coordinated. Further, academic communities generally believe
that those developed countries have completed the process of industrialization, and entered the
era of the information society. Therefore, it can be considered that the level of industrialization
in those developed countries is 100%. The level of urbanization in most of these developed
countries is above 80%. For example, in 2017, the level of urbanization in the United States and
the United Kingdom were 82.3% and 90.1%, respectively. This shows that, with the continuous
development of the urban economy and society, industrialization has ended, but urbanization has
not yet been completed.
The coordinated development of urbanization and industrialization is affected by the speed of
urbanization and industrialization. Based on the degree of deviation from the most ideal state of
the coordinated development of urbanization and industrialization, the coordination degree is
divided into three types. Type-I is the most appropriate region, which means that urbanization
and industrialization are basically in synchrony. It will not lead to serious economic and social
problems, and it can also maintain a narrowing gap and development trend of positive

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interaction. Type-II is above the most appropriate region, which means the industrialization
process is faster than urbanization. Type-III is in the lower part of the most appropriate region,
indicating that urbanization is ahead of industrialization.
Over the twentieth century new forces emerged that decoupled manufacturing and cities. The
spread of automobiles, trucks, and good roads, the adoption of electrical power, the
mechanization of farming and technology are thought to have encouraged the decentralization of
manufacturing activity.
Urban economists have long suggested a broad set of reasons why firms might find it
advantageous to locate in urban places – agglomeration economies. Thicker markets for goods
and factors of production, especially if the urban place is connected to a broader transportation
network, enhance market access and lower search costs associated with matching factor supply
to factor demand. Denser populations serve as conduits for the spread of new ideas and
innovations. However, urbanization and industrialization are widely viewed as the primary
sources of growth performance and climate change.
6.5 Technology and Environmental Wellbeing

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The term ‗technology‘ refers to the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes and
the machinery and devices developed as a result. It includes the equipment, knowledge, and
skills needed to perform a particular activity comprising both ‗soft technologies‘ like
information, research, training, and capacity building, and ‗hard technologies‘ such as
equipment.
The newly emerging environmental movement considered technology as a major source of
environmental degradation that would continue to generate unintended and unwanted side
effects. At the same time, policy actions to address initial environmental issues most notably
local air and water pollution, through legislation and regulation relied on the dominant mode of
thinking about technology and technological change. Environmental policies were largely
directed toward forced diffusion of a host of incremental, "end-of-pipe" cleanup technologies.
Technology remained a major "culprit" of environmental problems and was not seen as a
possible answer to overcoming anticipated resource limits of nature.
We are currently living in a period of rapid change, where technological developments are
revolutionizing the way we live, at the same time leading us further into the depths of
catastrophe in the form of climate change and resource scarcity. Technology has caused many
environmental and social problems. It also profoundly shaped society, the economy, and the
environment through advancement and addressing environmental degradation, climate change,
food scarcity, waste management, and other pressing global challenges. For example,
refrigeration and air-conditioning systems that use ozone-depleting refrigerants have huge
environmental impacts associated with their use whereas technologies used for treating waste
help solved environmental problems. How fast human society meets these depends in large part

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on the pace and scale at which good technology displaces inferior technology in different global
contexts.
Technology development, placement, transfers and diffusion is a complex process. However,
environmentally sound technologies need to be compatible with development goals and any
national environmental, socio-economic, and cultural priorities. Environmentally sound
technologies are those;
 form a life cycle perspective and protect the environment,
 pollute less,
 use resources in a sustainable manner,
 recycle more of their wastes and products,
 handle all residual wastes in a more environmentally acceptable way, and
 substitutes understand, utilize and replicate the technology, including the capacity to
choose it and adapt it to local conditions and to integrate it with indigenous technologies.
Despite the negative impact of technology on environment, a recent rise in global concern for
climate change has led to the development of new environmental technology aiming to help

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solve some of the biggest environmental concerns that we face as a society through a shift
towards a more sustainable, low-carbon economy.
Environmental technology, also known as ‗green‘ or ‗clean(er)‘ technology, refers to the
development of new technologies that aim to conserve, monitor, or reduce the negative impact of
technology on the environment and the consumption of resources. It includes products or
services those reduce the negative environmental impacts while protecting human health and
ecosystem quality. Examples include carbon-scrubbing filters, waste reduction technologies,
water purification machines etc. This technology generally feature five characteristics:
(1) high efficiency in energy and resource use,
(2) low cost,
(3) do not generate secondary pollutants,
(4) use of renewable energy and/or materials, and
(5) beneficial to human and ecosystems‘ health.
The development and deployment of green technologies should be a viable method toward a
sustainable environment in order to address a number of critical issues, such as climate change
mitigation and adaptation, increasing energy and resource demands, and sustainable waste
management. These technologies could assist in decreasing the carbon intensity, promoting
energy and resource efficiency, and avoiding serious environmental degradation. This would
result in improving environmental quality, human welfare and social equity, while reducing the
risk of resource scarcities, and move towards sustainable development. Deployment of green
technologies could also provide great opportunities to support the promotion of a green
economic system.

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Modern environmental technology has enabled us to capture the naturally occurring renewable
energy and convert it into electricity or useful heat through devices such as solar panels, wind
and water turbines, which reflects a highly positive impact of technology on the environment.

Smart home technology

Smart home technology uses devices such as linking sensors and other appliances connected to
Internet of Things (IoT) that can be remotely monitored and programmed in order to be as
energy efficient as possible and to respond to the needs of the users.
IoT is a network of internet-connected objects able to collect and exchange data using embedded
sensor technologies. This data allows devices in the network to ‗make decisions‘ autonomously
based on real-time information. For example, intelligent lighting systems only illuminate areas
that require it and a smart thermostat keeps homes at certain temperatures during certain times of
day, therefore reducing wastage.
This environmental technology has been enabled by increased connectivity to the internet as a
result of the increase in availability of Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and smart sensors in buildings and cities.
Experts are predicting that cities of the future will be places where every car, phone, air

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conditioner, light and more are interconnected, bringing about the concept of energy efficient
‗smart cities‘.
The technology of the internet demonstrates a positive impact of technology on the environment
due to the fact that social media can raise awareness of global issue and worldwide virtual
laboratories can be created. Experts from different fields can remotely share their research,
experience and ideas in order to come up with improved solutions. In addition, travel is reduced
as meetings/communication between friends and families can be done virtually, which reduces
pollution from transport emissions.

Electric vehicles
The environmental technology of the electric vehicle is propelled by one or more electric motors,
using energy stored in rechargeable batteries. Since 2008, there has been an increase in the
manufacturing of electric vehicles due to the desire to reduce environmental concerns such as air
pollution.
Electric vehicles also determine a positive impact of technology on the environment because
they do not contribute to air pollution, meaning they are cleaner and less harmful to human
health, animals, plants, and water. Furthermore, they rely on renewable energy.
There have recently been several environmental technology government incentives encouraging
plug-in vehicles, tax credits, and subsidies to promote the introduction and adoption of electric
vehicles. Electric vehicles could potentially be the way forward for a greener society because
companies such as Bloomberg have predicted that they could become cheaper than petrol cars by
2024 and according to Nissan, there are now in fact more electric vehicle charging stations in the
UK than fuel stations.

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Direct air capture (DAC)

This is an environmental technology removing carbon from the atmosphere. For a slightly more
ambitious technology to conclude with, the idea of pulling carbon dioxide directly out of the
atmosphere has been circulating climate change mitigation research for years, however it has
only recently been implemented and is still in the early stages of development.
Direct air capture is the process of capturing carbon dioxide directly from the ambient air and
generating a concentrated stream of carbon dioxide for sequestration or utilization. It is thought
that this technology can be used to manage emissions from distributed sources like exhaust
fumes from cars. Full-scale DAC operations are able to absorb the equivalent amount of carbon
to the annual emissions of 250,000 average cars.
Many argue that DAC is essential for climate change mitigation and that it can help reach the
Paris Climate Agreement goals, as carbon dioxide in the air has been the main cause of the
problem after all. However, the high cost of DAC currently means that it is not an option on a
large scale and some believe that reliance on this technology would pose a risk as it may reduce
emission reduction as people may be under the pretense that all of their emissions will simply be
removed.

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Sensors
Sensors play a huge part in the positive impact of technology on the environment as they often
play a vital role in the monitoring and reduction of harmful activities. They provide high quality,
accurate and reliable measurements of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. From
monitoring global warming to tracking the spread of pollution, there are many reasons to use a
drone in order to monitor carbon dioxide, methane and other hydrocarbon gas concentrations in
remote or dangerous locations.
Technologies, in general, may help in taking remedial actions like waste recycling to solve an
existing problem, preventive actions like pollution prevention to avoid problems from
happening, or management actions like ISO Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14000
series) and Energy Management Systems (ISO 50000 series) that help make the transition
between from taking just remedial actions, to taking preventive action to solve environmental
problems.
To ensure that the above actions can be taken, and to enable a coherent technology policy mix to
be developed, the right environment has to be in place. In developing, transferring and adapting a
particular environmental technology, three key words stand out and need to be kept in mind:
localization, customization and contextualization. These words are closely related to being
sensitive to and understanding in detail, the needs of the user when developing and transferring
environmental technology.
It has to be ensured that the technology is properly localized to the scale at which it is to be used.
This will mean that we need to keep in mind several issues such as user needs, industrial

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production capacities, ability of the market to absorb the product/service being produced, and
availability of support services such as transport and energy. Customization relates to ensuring
that the technology is customized to the need of the area where it is to be used. We need to keep
in mind several issues such as specific user needs, situation of the market (and its saturation with
respect to the product/service), innovativeness of the idea, and potential problems faced in the
entire lifecycle of the product/service. The technology must also be adequately contextualized to
the situation where it is to be used. Several issues such as financial requirements/availability,
legal and legislative obligations, human skills needed/available, material resources, and inputs
needed/available must be kept in mind.
For an environmental technology to be successfully developed and transferred, a number of
factors need to be taken into account, besides the basic ones of technical, financial and market
aspects that specifically affect the technology. These additional factors include (a) laws and
legislation, (b) management systems, (c) information management and (d) codes and standards.
The factors array themselves around the core of technology development and affect all aspects of
the technology‘s management.
A number of global and local environmental problems that we currently face has led to the

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declaration of a number of laws and legislation to mitigate and minimize these problems. These
laws and legislations have either targeted technology issues directly (for example, pollution
prevention technologies), or have created a situation that require new technologies to be
developed. All aspects of technology management has to therefore take awareness of the relevant
laws and legislation in their development and implementation.
Management of technology information is also a very critical aspect of technology management
as a whole. Providing the right information at the right level to the right person ensures that the
best/right decision on technology choice can be taken. This technology information should be
useful, easily accessible, trustworthy, and current. Proper information management is not just
about the information itself, or its exchange between different stakeholders. It also includes the
need to develop appropriate capacities and skills to manage the information.
Emerging out of laws and legislation management of technologies is also affected by a number
of codes and standards. These codes and standards may be international in nature (particularly
those driven by ISO), or may be national in nature. Eco-labels, which help in identifying and
purchasing of environmentally friendly products and services, also fall in this category.
Codes/standards help in making the development, manufacturing and supply of technologies and
their products and services more efficient, safer and cleaner.
For technologies to be successful in developing countries and emerging economies there are
additional socio-economic criteria that also need to be taken into consideration. Experience has
shown that, in developing countries, technologies need to not only solve the problem but also
generate income, save costs and create jobs at the same time.

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In such a scenario, development of technologies takes place with an approach that looks at the
environment primarily as a ‗business opportunity‘ – to start a business, to create jobs, to generate
income and to contribute to overall economic development. This is an important ‗leap-frogging‘
approach that eventually also prevents an environmental problem from becoming a problem in
the first place.
Technology for environment refers to any technology that, while fulfilling its primary roles, also
uses less energy and material, produces less GHG emissions, and generates less other wastes -
essentially promoting sustainable development in the long run.
6.6 Globalization and Social Welfare
Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and
governments worldwide. It has accelerated since the 18th century due to advances in
transportation and communication technology. It is widely believed to increase economic
competition, stimulate economic growth, and promote economic efficiency. Claimed advantages
are an improved allocation of resources internationally and the promotion of technological
progress worldwide. Nevertheless, globalization may reduce social welfare if it results in
considerable inequality of income, as seems to be occurring in more developed countries. It is

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likely to adversely affect government commitments to social welfare in nations highly endowed
with low-skilled labor. Low-skilled workers are initially difficult to mobilize because they have
little education, work erratic hours, and a growing percentage of them are women, who are
exceptionally hard to organize. The way the effects of globalization on social welfare have been
reduced to simplistic, stylistic statements that either judge all aspects of globalization or
uncritically admire its benefits. In reality, however, globalization has complex and paradoxical
consequences for human well-being.
Arguments about the social consequences of globalization cannot be reduced to a simple
opposition in which globalization is viewed either as having disastrous consequences of
otherwise as bringing untold benefits. These issues are far more complex. While employment
opportunities and incomes have indeed increased for many people in low income countries that
have adopted export led industrialization strategies, improvements in incomes and standards of
living have come at a cost for many of these countries. Rapid urbanization, overcrowding,
heightened inequalities, the decline of traditional values, emotional stress and other negative
manifestations of prosperity now characterize many newly industrializing developing countries.
Globalization has also fostered the diffusion of Western cultural beliefs and practices to other
parts of the world that many traditionalists hate. This has resulted in the resurgence of
fundamentalist religious and cultural movements that have in some cases used violence to resist
the spread of secularism, individualism, and consumerism. On the other hand, rapid advances in
communication technologies and more the frequent exchanges between people of different
cultures through technologies and travel have produced results that cosmopolitans view as highly

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desirable. As these examples suggest, a proper analysis of the impact of globalization requires a
nuanced understanding of the complexities and paradoxes of the globalization process.
The issue today is not whether globalization should be, welcomed or rejected but how
globalization could be regulated in terms of principles that promote social justice. Nation states
can ignore global realities and retreat into economic nationalism and isolationism.
6.7 Chapter Review Questions
1. What do we need to do for the development of environmental technologies?
2. Is population growth a environmental problem? Explain!
3. How many people could our planet hold delivering the needs of all people and without degrading
the environment? How to achieve this?
4. How could environment and development be harmonized?
5. What are the main differences between the five models of development?
6. Interconnect urbanization and industrialization!
7. Discuss with your friend about;
a. Environmentally friendly technology,
b. Environmental technology, and
c. Technology for environment.

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8. What is the relation between globalization and social welfare!

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