Unit 2

Human perspective in
interaction design process
Understanding how people interact
with computer
 Characteristics of computer systems that have caused and are causing
people problems.

 Effect of problems have are:

• Why people have trouble with computers?
• Responses to poor design
• People and their task.
Why people have trouble with
computers?
 Extensive technical knowledge but little behavioural training.
 With its extensive graphical capabilities poorly designed interface.
 Poorly designed interface

What makes a system difficult to use in the eyes of its user?

 Use of jargon
 Non-obvious design
 Fine distinctions
 Disparity in problem-solving strategies
 an "error-preventing" strategy
 Design inconsistency
Psychological
Typical psychological responses to poor design are

 Confusion: Detail overwhelms the perceived structure. Meaningful patterns are

difficult to ascertain, and the conceptual model or underlying framework
cannot be understood or established.
 Annoyance: Roadblocks that prevent a task being completed, or a need from
being satisfied, promptly and efficiently lead to annoyance. Inconsistencies in
design slow computer reaction times, difficulties in quickly finding information,
out dated information, and visual screen distractions are a few of the many
things that may annoy users.
 Frustration: An overabundance of annoyances, an inability to easily convey
one's intentions to the computer, or an inability to finish a task or satisfy a need
can cause frustration. Frustration is heightened if an unexpected computer
response cannot be undone or if what really took place cannot be determined:
Inflexible and unforgiving systems are a major source of frustration.
 Panic or stress: Unexpectedly long delays during times of severe or unusual
pressure may introduce panic or stress. Some typical causes are
unavailable systems or long response times when the user is operating
under a deadline or dealing with an irate customer.
 Boredom: Boredom results from improper computer pacing (slow response
times or long download times) or overly simplistic jobs.
 These psychological responses diminish user effectiveness because they are
severe blocks to concentration.
--Thoughts irrelevant to the task at hand are forced to the user’s attention,
and necessary concentration is impossible.
--The result, in addition to higher error rates, is poor performance, anxiety,
and dissatisfaction Physical.
 Psychological responses frequently lead to, or are accompanied by, the
following physical reactions.
 Abandonment of the system: The system is rejected and other information
sources are relied upon. These sources must, of course, be available and
the user must have the discretion to perform the rejection.
 Partial use of the system: Only a portion of the system's capabilities are
used, usually those operations that are easiest to perform or that provide
the most benefits. Historically, this has been the most common user reaction
to most computer systems. Many aspects of many systems often goon
used.
 Indirect use of the system: An intermediary is placed between the would-
be user and the computer. Again, since this requires high status and
discretion, it is another typical response of managers or others with
authority.
 Modification of the task: The task is changed to match the capabilities of
the system. This is a prevalent reaction when the tools are rigid and the
problem is unstructured, as in scientific problem solving.
 Compensatory activity: Additional actions are performed to compensate
for system inadequacies. A common example is the manual reformatting of
information to match the structure required by the computer. This is a
reaction common to workers whose discretion is limited, such as clerical
personnel.
 Misuse of the system: The rules are bent to shortcut operational difficulties.
This requires significant knowledge of the system and may affect system
integrity.
 Direct programming: The system is reprogrammed by its user to meet
specific needs. This is a typical response of the sophisticated worker.
 These physical responses also greatly diminish user efficiency and
effectiveness. They force the user to rely upon other information sources, to
fail to use a system's complete capabilities, or to perform time-consuming
"work-around" actions
Important Human Characteristics in
design
 Importance in design is perception, memory, visual acuity, sensory storage,
information processing, learning, skill, and individual differences.
• Perception
• Proximity
• Similarity
• Matching patterns
• Succinctness
• Closure
• Unity
• Continuity
• Balance
• Expectancies
• Context
• Signals versus noise
 Memory: Memory is not the most stable of human attributes, as anyone
who has forgotten why they walked into a room, or forgotten a very
important birthday, can attest. -Short-term, or working, memory. - Long-
term memory - Mighty memory - Sensory Storage
 Mental Models: As a result of our experiences and culture, we develop
mental models of things and people we interact with.
 A mental model is simply an internal representation of a person's current
understanding of something. Usually a person cannot describe this mental
mode and most often is unaware it even exists.
 Mental models are gradually developed in order to understand something,
explain things, make decisions, do something, or interact with another
person.
 Mental models also enable a person to predict the actions necessary to
do things if the action has been forgotten or has not yet beaten countered.
 Movement Control: Once data has been perceived and an appropriate
action decided upon, a response must be made.
 In many cases the response is a movement. In computer systems,
movements include such activities as pressing keyboard keys, moving the
screen pointer by pushing a mouse or rotating a trackball, or clicking a
mouse button
HUMAN CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
 The User's Knowledge and Experience The knowledge possessed by a person,
and the experiences undergone, shape the design of the interface in many
ways. The following kinds of knowledge and experiences should be identified.
 Computer Literacy - Highly technical or experienced, moderate computer
experience, or none
 System Experience - High, moderate, or low knowledge of a particular system
and its methods of interaction
 Application Experience - High, moderate, or low knowledge of similar systems
 Task Experience - Other Level of knowledge of job and job tasks
 Systems Use - Frequent or infrequent use of other systems in doing job
 Education - High school, college, or advanced degree
 Reading Level - Less than 5th grade, 5th-12th, more than 12thgrade
 Typing Skill - Expert (135 WPM), skilled (90 WPM), good (55 WPM), average (40
WPM), or "hunt and peck" (10WPM).
 Native Language or Culture- English, another, or several.
JOB/TASK/NEED
 Type of System Use - Mandatory or discretionary use of the system.
 Frequency of Use - Continual, frequent, occasional, or once-in-a-lifetime
use of system.
 Task or Need importance - High, moderate, or low importance of the task
being performed.
 Task Structure - Repetitiveness or predictability of tasks being automated,
high, moderate, or low.
 Social Interactions - Verbal communication with another person required
or not required.
 Primary Training - Extensive or formal training, self training through manuals,
or no training.
 Turnover Rate - High, moderate, or low turnover rate for jobholders
 Job Category - Executive, manager, professional, secretary, clerk
 Lifestyle - For Web e-commerce systems, includes hobbies, recreational
pursuits, and economic status
PSYCHOLOCICAL CHARCTERISTICS
 Attitude - Positive, neutral, or negative feeling toward job or
system.
 Motivation - Low, moderate, or high due to interest or fear.
 Patience - Patience or impatience expected in accomplishing
goal.
 Expectations - Kinds and reasonableness.
 Stress Level - High, some, or no stress generally resulting from
task performance.
 Cognitive Style - Verbal or spatial, analytic or intuitive, concrete
or abstract.
PHYSICAL CHARACTRISTICS

 Age Young middle aged or elderly.

 Gender Male or Female.
 Handiness Left, right or ambidextrous.
 Disabilities Blind, defective vision, deafness, motor handicap.
HUMAN INTERACTION SPEEDS
 The speed at which people can perform using various communication
methods has been studied by a number of researchers.
 Reading: The average adult, reading English prose in the United States, has
a reading speed in the order of 250-300 words per minute. Proof reading
text on paper has been found to occur at about 200 words per minute, on
a computer monitor, about 180 words per minute.
 One technique that has dramatically increased reading speeds is called
Rapid Serial Visual Presentation, or RSVP. In this technique single words are
presented one at a time in the center of a screen. New words continually
replace old words at a rate set by the reader. For a sample of people
whose paper document reading speed was 342 words per minute? (With a
speed range of 143 to 540 words per minute.) Single words were presented
on a screen in sets at a speed sequentially varying ranging from 600 to
1,600 words per minute. After each set a comprehension test was
administered.
 READING • Prose text - 250-300 words per minute. • Proof reading text on
paper - 200 words per minute. • Proofreading text on a monitor - 180 words
per minute.

 LISTENING • Speaking to a computer: 150-160 words per minute. • After

recognition corrections: 105 words per minute.

 KEYING • Typewriter Fast typist: 150 words per minute and higher Average
typist: 60-70 words per minute • Computer Transcription: 33 words per
minute Composition: 19 words per minute • Two finger typists Memorized
text: 37 words per minute Copying text: 27 words per minute • Hand
printing Memorized text: 31 words per minute. Copying text: 22 words per
minute.
UNDERSTAND THE BUSINESS JUNCTIONS
 Business definition and requirements analysis
--Direct methods
--Indirect methods
--Requirements collection guidelines
 Determining basic business functions
--Developing conceptual modes
--Understanding mental models
--Users new mental model
 Design standards or style guides
--Value of standards and guidelines
--Document design
--Design support and implementation
 System training and documentation
-- Training
Direct Method
 Individual Face-to-Face Interview
 Telephone Interview or Survey
 Traditional Focus Group
 Facilitated Team Workshop
 Observational Field Study
 User-Interface Prototyping
 Usability Laboratory Testing
 Card Sorting for Web Sites
 A technique to establish groupings of information for Web sites
Indirect Method
 MIS Intermediary
 Paper Surveyor Questionnaire
 Electronic Surveyor Questionnaire
 Electronic Focus Group
 Marketing and Sales
 Support Line
 E-Mail or Bulletin Board
 User Group
 Competitor Analyses
 Trade Show
 Other Media Analysis
 System Testing
Performance versus Preference
Miller’s Law

 Miller's law was formulated by George Armitage Miller (1920–2012), a

professor of psychology at Princeton University, as part of his theory of
communication.
 Miller’s law :The average person can only keep 7 (plus or minus 2) items in
their working memory.
 The main idea indicated in Miller’s law is to simplify and reduce interfaces
into smaller , easier and understandable module and then to miake this
information more focused and valuable.
 Miller's Law emphasizes the advantages of 'chunking', which simplifies
memory by chunking complex information. It is widely used in our daily life
and can easily help us recognize, process and remember information.
 In our common bank card number and the display of financial values,
assuming our bank card number is 1234567833310329 so displayed, is it
difficult to be remembered in a short period of time, when the card number
is adopted as a group of 4 numbers, according to the following figure in
the form of 4-4-4-4 interval, is it much clearer.
 In the same way, when we look at the financial value, we can find that the
default amount of the system uses three numbers as a group, and is
separated according to the block principle of 3-3-3-3, so that we can
distinguish at a glance.
 The application of Miller's Law is not only in the display of our numbers, but
also in the processing of the content, so let's see what Miller's Law is used in
B-side design.
 Use of Miller's Law is in design
 Control of the number of information presented : In tabs, we organize a large amount of
content in the same view. In order to let users view similar content in the same view, tab
tabs are usually controlled within 7, because when they exceed a certain range of values,
it will increase the user's memory and decision-making cost of tag information.
 Through Tabs navigation, we can quickly know what content is on the current page.
When viewing the content, we can quickly click to get it.
 In the user information module, even if there are more functions, they are basically visually
spaced according to the 7±2 principle, which makes the hierarchy much clearer and
convenient for the users after the group block distinction.
 Consistency of design style : According to the definition of Nielsen Principle of
consistency, the same terminology, function and operation should be consistent. A
consistent design system with high standards in product design can bring users a sense of
brand trust and reduce the cost of repeated learning through consistent repetition.
 Keeping a uniform structure in the layout of product display pages can reduce the user's
thinking burden and allow them to quickly locate the information they want to focus on
when browsing through different products.
 Maintain the consistency of the main color in the same product, to avoid inconsistency of
color because of the different pages. For example, if the main button on the previous
page is orange, then the main button on the current page should also be orange to
avoid color changes and misunderstandings. In the above picture, no matter which
product page we are on, we can clearly identify and
 Adjust the difficulty of memorization to 0 :Miller's law guides us to limit the
content to 7 ± 2 in order to improve the efficiency of short-term memory, so
as to improve the friendliness of the product. We can go one step further
and reduce the content to be memorized to 0, so that users can use the
product conveniently without memory at all.
 In Google Browser, when it is necessary to fill in the login information, the
system will identify the current operation and provide the default account
and password to fill in automatically. The use of technical means avoids the
user's confusion of account and password and reduces the burden of
memory.
 Group block processing of complex information :Because of the complexity
of the business, we will meet a large number of product names to be
processed. The design of this scenario we don't fall too much into the trap
of Miller's law, whatever information should be controlled within 7±2!
 These product information are obviously all very important and direct
deletion is not appropriate. We can group them in blocks according to
business logic. Using split lines as well as spacing to differentiate by type, we
can change the information from disorder to order.
Navigating the interface
 Navigation in human–computer interaction (HCI) allows users to move from
one part of the interface to another. It also concerns the ability of users to
locate where they are in an interface. Navigation is aided by navigation
controls, such as menus and link Navigation design
 Navigation design refers to organizing an interface's navigation to enable
users to seamlessly go from one point to another. It provides users with
knowledge of where they are in the interface, how they reached there,
and where they can go from there.
 The user interface (UI) designer should design the navigation in a user-
centered way. In other words, it should not be the user's duty to figure out
where the interface's features are, as the navigation should walk the user
through the system itself.
 Navigating the interface
 Structure of navigation design
-The UI designer must consider the interface's structure to organize the navigation. The structure is of
two main types:
-Local structure
-Global structure
Let's look at how the navigational structures should be designed.
Local structure : Local structure refers to a single screen or page in an interface. A single screen's
navigation should tell the user about the following things:
 Where they are: The screen should give enough information to the users about their current location in
the interface, and the current state of their goal. For example, a page title shows the users where they
currently are in the interface.
 What they can do: All the possible navigation options from the current screen should be clearly visible to
the user. Any links or buttons to other pages should be highlighted to communicate their purpose to the
user, so they know where they can go further in the interface.
 What will happen: Navigation options should clearly indicate to the user what will happen once they
click on them. For example, when icons are used for navigation, they should be accompanied by some
explanation or labels. This way, the user does not have to test where it goes by clicking on it, and later
be frustrated when the result is not as expected.
 Where they have been: Users must be given enough feedback about the screens they have visited, and
the tasks they have completed, so they don't feel lost. One way designers do this is by displaying
breadcrumbs, which show the path of arriving at the current page
 Global structure : Global structure refers to how all the screens in an
interface link together. There are two ways to organize the global structure:
 Hierarchical organization: The whole system is functionally decomposed
into logical groups. This hierarchy helps define the menu options of an
interface. An example of such a hierarchy is shown below:
 Network diagram: A network diagram is essential to show links between
pages that might not be grouped together in a hierarchical organization.
This technique is more task oriented than a hierarchy.
Organizing the display
There are five level objectives for data display

 Consistency of data display: terminology, abbreviations, formats, colors,

capitalization...all standard.
 Efficient information assimilation by the user: familiar format, application
domain dependent, rules for neat data columns, left justification for
alphanumeric data, right justification for integers, lining up decimal points,
proper spacing, comprehensible labels.
 Minimal memory load on user: not necessary to remember contents of one
screen to relate them to another screen; completion of tasks should be
made by few actions; labels and common formats should be provided for
novices - intermittent users
 Compatibility of data display with data entry: format of displayed
information clearly linked to the format of data entry; o/p fields should also
act as editable i/p fields.
 Flexibility for user control of data display: the user should be able to chose
the best way to view the information on the screen; typically, the order of
columns and rows should be easy to modify.
Getting user’s attention
 Animation Items blinking on the screen easily capture the user's attention.
This technique can be disturbing and invasive. Animation is often used to
express the GUI internal state, signaling work in progress or activity in
general.
 Color Like animation, this technique should be used wisely. Too many colors
tend to produce confusing GUIs.
 Sound As with technique, when used wisely, can be very effective. Indeed,
when dealing with disabled people, sound signals could offer an effective
feedback means.
 Graphic Adornments (such as bold fonts, special graphics, and so forth)
When used wisely and coherently, these graphic conventions could be
effective without being disruptive.
Facilitating data entry.
 consistency of data-entry transactions similar delimiters, abbreviations
 minimal i/p actions by user
– fewer i/p actions imply greater productivity
– fewer chances of error
– better a single choice (mouse click, menu selection, single key) than a sequence
of characters
– only 1 device better than switching between mouse, keyboard, light pen...where
home row position is lost
– redundant data entry should be avoided
– it is annoying to provide the same information in different places twice, opportunity
for error - (the system should copy the information)
 Minimal memory load on users: users should not need to remember lengthy codes and
complex syntactic command strings
 Compatibility of data entry with data display closely link format of displayed information
with data-entry format
 Flexibility for user control of data entry.
Determine user’s skill level
 Here are 3 main types of user 1 Novice 2 Knowledgeable / intermittent user
3 Expert / frequent user
 Users can however, be classified in any other way that is appropriate to the
system being built.
 Some users may have keyboard skills, others not.
 Some users may have knowledge of other similar systems, others not.
 The advantages of classification mean that generalizations can be made
about users and their needs.
 This doesn’t necessarily mean that the best system has been designed for
every individual.
 It means that the system has been designed to fit the generalizations for
each user group.
The Novice/Beginners
 For the novice user of a system, progress is slow because of the limitations of working
memory.
 Chunking is almost entirely absent.
 Systems used by novices require more feedback and more opportunities for closure.
Guidelines for novice users
 All initiatives should come from the computer – the novice may not know what is to be
done
 Each required input should be brief – the shorter it is the more likely it is to be remembered
 Input procedures should be consistent with user expectations – humans search for patterns
and will generalize
 No special training should be necessary – especially true in the case of web or multimedia
where the user is ‘on their own’
The Novice/Beginners
 All system messages should be clear – in the language of the user, not the
designer
 User decision should be made from a small set of options – the more of a
selection you offer, the harder it is to choose
 Users should control the pace of interaction - they need to understand the
system and feel that they can control it, and not the reverse
 User decision making should be a response to a specific request for action –
save - y/n?
 Help should always be available – tutor / book / online
 There should be sufficient feedback - closure
Knowledgeable / intermittent users

These users need consistent structures, good help facilities, good

documentation.
Expert users

 These users have fast response time and will require brief feedback.
Experts organise their knowledge according to a higher conceptual
structure.
 They can recall more than novices because their knowledge is chunked.
 Expert users will look for keyboard shortcuts, abbreviated sequences.
 Experts can find constant confirmation screens irritating - Use these only
when important.
 Examples : Logging on according to the experts view and the actual steps
Expert users
 Expert steps for logging on :
1 Input username
2 Input password
 Actual steps for logging on
 Press any key to activate screen
 Click into input box
 Input username
 Press tab or click into second input box
 Input password
 Press return
 Wait for welcome message or error message
◦ if welcome message then task ends
◦ if error message then
repeat 2-7 or
toggle 'caps-lock' and repeat 2-7 or
ask for help
Task Analysis
 Task analysis is the procedure to learn the users and abstract frameworks,
the patterns used in workflows, and the chronological implementation of
interaction with the GUI. It analyzes the ways in which the user partitions the
tasks and sequence them.
What is a TASK?
 Human actions that contributes to a useful objective, aiming at the system,
is a task. Task analysis defines performance of users, not computers.
Hierarchical Task Analysis
 Hierarchical Task Analysis is the procedure of disintegrating tasks into
subtasks that could be analyzed using the logical sequence for execution.
This would help in achieving the goal in the best possible way.
 A hierarchy is an organization of elements that, according to prerequisite
relationships, describes the path of experiences a learner must take to
achieve any single behavior that appears higher in the hierarchy.
Task Analysis
 Techniques for Analysis
 Task decomposition − Splitting tasks into sub-tasks and in
sequence.
 Knowledge-based techniques − Any instructions that users need
to know.
 ‘User’ is always the beginning point for a task.
 Ethnography − Observation of users’ behavior in the use
context.
 Protocol analysis − Observation and documentation of actions
of the user. This is achieved by authenticating the user’s
thinking. The user is made to think aloud so that the user’s
mental logic can be understood
 Natural Language
 A natural language interface is a user interface in which the user and the system
communicate via a natural (human) language. The user provides input via speech or some
other method, and the system generates responses in the form of utterances delivered by
speech, text or some other method.
 Systems that provide natural language interfaces often support spoken interaction. In this
case, speech recognition processes the user's input, and speech synthesis generates spoken
responses. However, the use of speech is not essential to a natural language interface.
 Typical examples of natural language interfaces include:
 Voice agents that communicate via speech. These agents may run on a computing device
such as a mobile phone, tablet, laptop or desktop computer. They can be embedded in
specialized hardware such as consumer appliances, or the automation system of a vehicle.
 Chat bots in Web applications. Chatbots that process natural language requests from the user.
For example, a customer service application available on an organization's web site could
offer a natural language user interface to handle customers' inquiries. Not all chatbots are
speech-based, some text-based chatbots can let people use speech via a keyboard
dictation function.
 Interactive Voice Response (IVR) systems that interact with the user via a telephone call. IVR
systems accept speech or key pad input and generating speech output.
 Why is natural language interface important?

 A natural language interface (NLI) is important for several reasons:

 User-Friendliness: NLIs allow users to interact with systems in a way that feels
natural and intuitive to them, reducing the learning curve typically associated
with new technology or systems.
 Accessibility: NLIs can make technology more accessible to people who are
visually impaired, elderly, or those with certain physical disabilities, as they can
use speech or simple text inputs to interact with systems.
 Efficiency: Through the use of natural language processing (NLP), NLIs can
understand and execute complex instructions, reducing the amount of
manual input required from the user and speeding up task completion.
 Ubiquity of Use: As voice-activated technologies become more prevalent, NLIs
are becoming a more common way for people to interact with devices, apps,
and services in various contexts, from home automation to customer service.
 Personalization: NLIs, especially when combined with machine learning
algorithms, can learn from past interactions to provide personalized responses
and improve the overall user experience.
 When to use natural language interface?

 Voice-Activated Systems: In situations where hands-free operation is necessary or

advantageous, such as while driving, cooking, or for people with physical
disabilities.
 Customer Service: For businesses to automate and streamline customer
interactions, NLIs can be used in chatbots and virtual assistants to handle customer
queries and provide 24/7 service.
 Search Engines: To facilitate easier, more intuitive search processes. Instead of
typing specific keywords, users can input queries in a conversational manner.
 Smart Devices: In home automation systems, where users can control various
devices and appliances using voice commands.
 Educational Tools: Especially for younger children or individuals not as tech-savvy,
NLIs make interactions simpler and more intuitive.
 Data Analysis Tools: To simplify the process of retrieving and interpreting complex
data. Users can ask direct questions and receive insights in a user-friendly format.
An advanced application of NLP is natural language querying (NLQ). Unlike
traditional query languages that require specific syntax, NLQ enables users to
interact with data more intuitively, much like conversing with a human.
 Eight Golden rules of Interface design

 1. Strive for Consistency Whether it is the layout, the size of the button, the color code or the
tone used when writing the page, it is important to be consistent throughout the site. This
consistency will allow you to develop your identity and not lose users as they navigate your
site.
 2. Enable Frequent Users to Use Shortcuts Allow your users to access all parts of the website
with a minimum of clicks. To do this, you not only need to establish a good hierarchy in the
menu, but also make things clear.
- You should think about incorporating features for advanced users and for beginners for
example, with keyboard shortcuts or macro facilities, as for example with Canva which allows its
users to use shortcuts to copy and paste.
 3. Offer Informative Feedback
- If your users have performed or are performing actions on your website, it is best to display
feedback immediately so that they have an idea of where their processes are
- Next, we'll take an example with a tool that many professionals use, Google Drive: For this
example, you will have to create a new folder that you can delete right after.
- When you are in this folder, choose a document of your choice, a photo, a video, a PDF file
and use drag and drop to transfer it to your folder. Once your transfer is in progress, this window
will appear to keep you informed of the progress of your transfer
 Eight Golden rules of Interface design
 4. Design Dialog to Yield Closure
 Remember to close any interaction made with a user based on the cause of the
interaction :
 Thank you message.
 Validation message.
 Summary message during a purchase.
 Your user must see the path in his action, by offering him the end of an interaction
through feedback you reduce his mental load and improve his experience on your
interface.
 5. Offer Simple Error Handling
 A good interface should be designed to avoid errors as much as possible. However,
if something goes wrong, your system should make it easy for users to understand
and resolve the problem. Simple ways to deal with errors include displaying clear
error notifications and descriptive hints to resolve the problem.
 For example, on our site, we tell you when you log in if your login information is
wrong.
 Eight Golden rules of Interface design
6. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions
 Immediately discovering that it is easy to choose "Cancel" after making an error is a very good
thing for the user. If your users know that there is an easy way to solve a problem, they will feel less
anxious and more willing to explore the options.
 The rule can be applied to all operations or groups of operations.
 For example, here we are in the Outlook mobile application, when archiving an email, a small
window automatically appears at the bottom of the screen offering to cancel the archiving.
7. Keep users in control.
 Experienced users strongly desire the sense that they are in charge of the interface and that the
interface responds to their actions. They don’t want surprises or changes in familiar behavior, and
they are annoyed by tedious data-entry sequences, difficulty in obtaining necessary information,
and inability to produce their desired result.
8. Reduce Short-Term Memory Load
 The limitation of human information processing in short-term memory requires that displays be kept
simple, multiple page displays be consolidated, window-motion frequency be reduced, and
sufficient training time be allotted for codes, mnemonics, and sequences of actions.
 Avoid overloading your site or application with information of the same level. You have to deduce
which ones should be placed first or you will lose the user's attention. No matter where you place
your site, whether it's the home page or the menus, make sure that your user can't be distracted by
unnecessary information.
 Preventing errors .
Error prevention can be done by:
 Eliminating error-prone conditions.
 Presenting users with a warning message and a confirmation option if they are about to
commit an error.
 There are two types of errors:
 Slips: These are unconscious errors that are caused by the inattention of the user.
 Mistakes: These are conscious errors that are caused by a mismatch between the design
and the user’s mental model.
Guidelines for preventing errors :
 Prioritize preventing high-cost errors. Once they have been sorted, only then move to low-
cost ones.
 Constraints and defaults can prevent slips.
 Warnings, undo functionality, and reduced memory load on users can prevent or significantly
reduce mistakes.
 Preventing errors .
The following guidelines can help prevent mistakes:
 Collect user data - it is important to ensure that the user’s mental model matches the designers’
mental model. Gathering user data and understanding users is essential to achieve this. We can
collect user data through different methods depending on the context, such as ethnographic
studies, contextual inquiry, field studies, etc.
 Design conventions - following the general design conventions helps bridge the user’s Gulf of
Evaluation and Execution. Users interact with other interfaces throughout the day, and your
interface matching the general design conventions followed by other interfaces eases the
experience for the user. For example, the menu icons on an e-commerce website should be
placed where it is conventionally placed on other e-commerce websites.
 Affordances - providing affordances to communicate the design to the users. Affordance is
how the user interacts with the interface, and the signifier is the visual cue that communicates
the affordance to the user, e.g., a shadow with clickable buttons.
 Ask for confirmation - at times, users are not aware of the consequences of their actions.
Therefore, it is important to ask them for confirmation, e.g., factory reset will erase all your data,
or changing display zoom will restart the phone before performing the action.
Ensuring Human control while
increasing automation