Part of sociology is carrying out research to support their theories or hypotheses to provide evidence.

Sociologists will think carefully before deciding how to carry out their research and which method they will
use.

This is the process a sociologist will carry out when conducting their research:
1. Choice of topic – the researcher will decide the topic area they are interested in which
they wish to investigate e.g. how teachers treat boys and girls in the classroom
2. Creating aims/ hypothesis –the researcher will then create research aims – what they
hope to find out e.g. to understand whether teachers treat boys and girls differently,
and/ or a hypothesis - they predict what they think they will discover e.g. Teachers are
likely to treat girls more favourably than boys in the classroom
3. Selection of sampling method – the researcher will decide who their target population
(who they possibly could study e.g. teachers working in schools in London) and then
from this decide which sampling method they will use (how they pick their sample)
and then who their sample will actually be (who will take part in the study)
4. Pilot study – the researcher will carry out a trial run of their study to check if the
research meets the needs of their study, for errors, ethical issues etc and then make
any necessary adjustments
5. Data collection – carry out the research and collect the data
6. Interpretation of data – analyse their findings, this could be statistical analysis if the method
produced quantitative data or select key themes from qualitative data

It would never be possible (or often necessary) for a sociologist to carry out their research on every person
in a society. Instead they will choose a sample of people to take part in their research:

Target population – all of the possible people that the sociologist could study that meet their criteria

Sample frame – a list of all the possible people that the psychologist wants to study (a list of the target
population).

Sample – the group of participants chosen from the target population (the type of
people the sociologist wishes to study e.g. men, those under the age of 15 etc) to take
part in the investigation.

Access – how easy it is to find the people you want to take part in the study

Sampling methods – there are a variety of different techniques psychologists can use to
select their sample. You need to know these different techniques and their strengths
and weaknesses.
In order for us to decide whether or not a sampling method it suitable we need to know how to measure
the strengths of a sampling technique. When doing this you should use the following key terms:

Representative – if the sample reflects the characteristics of the wider target population. For example if
your target population is women with children in England you should make sure they are a mix of ages,
from different areas of the country, different class backgrounds etc
Generalisable – the extent to which findings and conclusions from that investigation can be applied to the
rest of the target population. This can only happen if the sample is representative.

Objective – the researcher does not have any influence over who is chosen to take part
which means the sample selection is not biased.

Subjective – the researcher has influence over who is selected to take part which means
the sample selection is biased.

For each learn the definition and the pros and cons of each type of method:

Sampling Definition Advantages Disadvantages

method
Random Every person in the target Objective Requires a sampling
population has an equal chance of Representative and frame
being chosen. generalizable if the Not suitable if you need a
sample is big enough specific type of person
Systematic Selecting every nth person from Objective Requires a sampling
the sampling frame Representative and frame
generalizable if the Not suitable if you need a
sample is big enough specific type of person
Stratified The sample will reflect the social Objective Requires a sampling
characteristics of the target Representative and frame
population e.g. if the target generalizable Time consuming
population is 50% male and 50% Can ensure you gain
female then the sample will be. people that fit your
From each group they will make a specific criteria
random selection.
Quota The researchers identify the Representative and Subjective
proportion of social characteristics generalizable Requires a sampling
in the population (age, gender, Can ensure you gain frame
ethnicity etc) and work out the people that fit your
numbers of each category that are specific criteria
required to be representative. The
researchers then go out to find
people who fit the criteria.
Snowball The interviewer gains the trust of Can ensure you gain Subjective
one member of a group (known as people that fit your Not representative or
the gatekeeper) who then specific criteria generalizable
introduces the researcher to Ideal for a hard to reach Requires a gatekeeper
another person they know, and so group
on, like rolling a snowball.
Opportunity Selecting people who are easily Can ensure you gain Subjective
available to you at the time and people that fit your Not representative or
meet your criteria. specific criteria generalisable
Practical as not time
consuming
A small-scale study completed before a sociologist carries out their final study. It is used on a small sample
of people and is designed to test their research method/ sample before they complete the final research.
This saves the sociologist issues when they carry out the full research which could cause many practical
issues.

Sociologists will carry out pilot studies for a number of reasons:

1. Ensure the data gained meets the needs of the investigation
2. Check any ethical issues
3. Check the sample is correct/ access is possible
4. Check for errors/ aspects of their research they missed

Ethics refers to whether or not a piece of research is morally right or wrong. In order to make
sure research is considered ethical, sociologists must abide by the guidelines set by the British
Sociological Association. The following are ethical issues which can arise in research and how
sociologists will address these to help solve the problem:

 Deception: Do not deceiving people when studying them

To overcome this... do not lie about what the study is for
 Informed consent: Tell the paricipants the full details of the study before they start
To overcome this... they sign a consent form
 Confidentiality: Keeping participants’ personal details confidential and when writing about someone
keeping them anonymous
To overcome this... use a pseudo name
 Protection from harm: Ensuring they do not offend/ upset or cause physical or psychological harm
To overcome this... do not ask sensitive questions or conduct dangerous experiments
 Parental consent: Asking for parental persmission if they are under 16
To overcome this... parents should sign a consent form
 Right to withdraw: Participants can choose to pull out of the study at any stage
To overcome this... Allow them to pull out if they request to. If they are visably upset at any stage you
should ask them if they are ok continuting

You must know the following definitions off by heart – stick as closely as you can to the words written here:

Primary research methods – research that is carried out first-hand by the sociologist themselves
Advantages – researcher can ensure that the research exactly meets their aims and that the data has not
been manipulated or changed in any way.
Disadvantages – practical issues such as time and money, lack of skills themselves to do the research,
difficult to gain the large sample they need by themselves

Secondary research methods – data that has been collected by someone else that is not the researcher
conducting the current study. The data already exists and the researcher analyses this.
Advantages – practical as is immediately available and may cover a larger sample than they could gain
access to
Disadvantages - researcher must be careful to guarantee the quality of the research, is it current, has it
been carried out by a reputable source, does it apply to their country etc. The content may also not
specifically meet their needs as it has not been specifically designed by them

Different methods will produce different types of data. The data produced can be split into two categories:

Quantitative – data in the form of numbers. It is often looking at how many times
something occurs or how long something takes. Data is analysed statistically and is often
represented in the form of tables or graphs.
Advantages - easy to analyse and present in graphs etc, can compare data and see patterns
and trends.
Disadvantages - numbers can over-simplify results. They do not show you reasons why, meanings, feelings
etc
Positivists – a group of sociologists who prefer the use of quantitative methods as they believe that
sociology should be studied scientifically and be objective.

Qualitative – data in the form of words. It is often data that cannot be quantified, for example
feelings, thoughts and opinions of participants.
Advantages –provides detailed information about how individuals feel and gives us insight into
their thoughts and behaviours.
Disadvantages - difficult for sociologists to analyse, compare data and draw conclusions from
and when the sociologist does interpret the data it can suffer from bias.
Interpretivists – a group of sociologists who prefer the use of qualitative methods as they are interested in
feelings and meanings and do not believe research can ever be objective.

The following key terms can be used to help a sociologist judge whether or not a method is useful or not:

Reliability – the sociologist can repeat the method and easily compare findings
Patterns and trends - sociologists are able to identify links and changes over time e.g. has something
increased/ decreased
Validity - the research collected is true to life. Rich and in-depth data that is honest.
Objective – non-biased, the researcher has not influenced the data collected
Subjective – biased, the researcher could have influenced the data collected
Rapport – building a relationship with the participants in the study so they feel more comfortable
Researcher effect –the researcher influences the responses the participants give e.g. through their social
characteristics/ body language/ leading questions etc
Interviewer bias – type of researcher effect specific to interviews
Hawthorne effect – participants act differently when they know they are being observed
Social desirability – giving answers that the respondent thinks the researcher wants to hear
Practical issues – how time-consuming, expensive and difficult the research is to carry out
Triangulation – using a mix of research methods to cancel out the disadvantages of each type of method to
gain more overall advantages
 You need to learn the definition and common advantages and disadvantages of each of the following
research methods. Remember in the exam you will need to apply the advantages and disadvantages to the
specific scenarios they give you.

Definition of method Type of Advantages Disadvantages

method/ data
Questionnaire - respondents Primary/ Reliable – can compare Lacks validity – closed
provide answers to pre-set Quantitative findings as each participant questions do not leave room
questions which are usually completes the same closed for detailed responses and
closed ended (yes or no or questions feelings. Participants may not
multiple-choice) on paper or Can see patterns and trends be honest as no contact with
a website Objective – researcher cannot researcher and may give
influence the results socially desirable answers
Could have a low response
rate if a postal questionnaire
Survey/ attitudes survey – Primary/ Reliable – can compare Lacks validity – closed
used to discover people’s Quantitative findings as each participant questions do not leave room
opinions on an issue through completes the same closed for detailed responses and
a few quick questions – often questions feelings. Participants may not
cover a large population Can see patterns and trends be honest as no contact with
Representative and researcher and may give
generalizable – can carry out socially desirable answers
on a large sample
Official statistics – data Secondary/ Reliable – can compare data Lacks validity - not possible
collated and published by Quantitative easily and identify patterns to identify reasons and
the government and trends. meanings behind the data as
Representative – government you cannot find out how the
can access a large sample that respondents felt.
is representative of the Subjectivity - some argue
population and therefore that statistics can be biased
generalisations can be made. and show what the
Practical – due to the data government want them to –
being secondary, it is easy and they can be manipulated.
cheap for sociologists to
access (e.g. from a website)
Non-official statistics - data Secondary/ Same as above Same as above but may not
collated and published Quantitative have the level of trust as
official statistics
Structured interviews – Primary/ Reliable - all respondents have Lacks validity - closed and
researcher asks the same set Quantitative the same questions so can standardized questions mean
list of questions (often compare and identify patterns that the respondent cannot
closed) to each respondent and trends. expand
Objective – more objective Interviewer bias - could
than unstructured as the change results e.g. through
research sticks to the same body language, tone of voice
questions for each interview. in questioning or due to the
Can explain questions and social characteristics of the
avoid any misunderstandings interviewer
Unstructured interviews - an Primary/ Valid – the open questions Lack reliability – each
informal conversation, the Qualitative and the relaxed, conversation interview is different so
interviewer can adjust the feeling means participants can cannot compare or see
questions (usually open- open up and express true patterns and trends
ended) for each respondent feelings Interviewer bias - could
Rapport – researcher can change results e.g. through
build a relationship with body language, tone of voice
participant which creates trust in questioning or due to the
which can increase validity social characteristics of the
Researcher can explain interviewer and subjective –
questions, avoid interviewer can misinterpret
misunderstandings and responses – both can reduce
explore topics that are not validity
pre-planned Ethics - More likely to suffer
from ethical issues such as
asking sensitive questions
Impractical – time consuming
and requires a skilled
interviewer
Focus groups - a group of Primary/ Valid - respondents feel more Validity issues - respondents
people who are asked to Qualitative comfortable due to the group may not disclose sensitive
discuss a particular topic or basis and therefore are more material in front of group and
issue, they are sometimes likely to be honest and respondents may over
given stimulus to aid members of the group can exaggerate or may give
discussion e.g. a video or bounce ideas off each other socially desirable answers
article Practical – can gain opinions Researcher effect – as
of lots of people at once researcher is present
Lacks reliability - Very
difficult to replicate the
process and see patterns and
trends
Observations – watching a Primary/ General advantages (apply to General advantages (apply
person or group and Qualitative or all) to all)
recording their behaviour. quantitative Valid – can see how Not representative and
There are many types: participants behave not just generalizable – as likely to be
how they say they behave and conducted on a small group
can see them in their natural of participants
environment Not reliable – cannot
compare behaviours if
unstructured
Participant observation – Primary/ Valid – understand how the Subjective – researcher
the researcher takes part in Qualitative or participants truly feel as doing becomes too involved and
the activities that the group quantitative the same things can be biased in their
are doing Rapport - researcher can build interpretation of events
a relationship with participant Hawthorne effect – presence
which creates trust which can of researcher can effect
increase validity behaviour of participants
reducing validity
Ethical issues – if joining in
on deviant behaviours
Impractical – difficult to
record findings
Non-participant observation Primary/ Less subjective than Hawthorne effect – presence
- the researcher watches a Qualitative or participant as researcher of researcher can effect
group but does not join in quantitative doesn’t get involved and as a behaviour of participants
result less subjective reducing validity
Easier to record findings as
observing not joining in
Covert observation – Primary/ Reduces Hawthorne effect as Ethical issues – big problem
watching a group without Qualitative or participants do not know they of deception, lack of consent,
the group knowing quantitative are being watched which invasion of privacy etc
increases validity
Overt observation – Primary/ Fewer ethical issues – as the Hawthorne effect – presence
watching a group when they Qualitative or researcher is not involved and of researcher can effect
know they are being quantitative can gain consent behaviour of participants
watched reducing validity
Case studies - an in-depth Can be any Valid – can build up a full Unrepresentative - often a
investigation on a specific combination picture of the participants and small sample size that is not
event, place or social group get rich and detailed data representative and therefore
using a variety of methods Triangulation – using a variety not generalisable
of methods that give both Ethical issues - can be raised
quantitative and qualitative when carrying out an in-
data can create triangulation depth study into vulnerable
groups
Subjectivity – as researcher
can become too involved in
group and therefore is
difficult to keep value
freedom
Researcher effect – due to
involvement of researcher,
they could affect the results
Ethnography – an in-depth Primary/ Valid – gives rich, in-depth Unrepresentative - groups
study of a group of people Secondary or data as they see how they small and specific and cannot
using qualitative methods both/ actually behave make generalisations
Qualitative Rapport – the researcher has Lacks reliability - cannot be
the time and opportunity to replicated and standardised
build a good relationship with and therefore difficult to see
the participants patterns and trends
Validity issues – researcher
selects information which
they believe is worth
recording and can be
subjective
Impractical - time-consuming
Content analysis - analysing Primary/ Reliable – can compare Subjective - Sometimes
a piece of communication in Quantitative different forms of difficult to decide which
written, visual or spoken communication and see categories texts, sounds and
form, often in the media patterns and trends. It pictures should be in, each
quantifies the meaning of text, researcher will interpret
can uncover the frequency of these differently
which they occur Lacks validity - Not
Practical - relatively cheap and considered a valid method as
easy to conduct as sources are it doesn’t provide meanings
widely available or reasons
Longitudinal study - a study Depends on See changes – due to length of Impractical - extremely time
which takes place of a long the methods time studying group you can consuming could be
period of time and is used to chosen see developments over a expensive
examine changes. period of time Unrepresentative - Difficult
If quantitative then can see to find a sample that you can
patterns and trends over time study for a long length of
If qualitative then can gain time and unlikely to be a
validity as build up a full large group
picture of time Subjective – researcher can
become too heavily involved
in the research and can
become biased
Mixed methods – using Depends on Valid - By adding qualitative Practical issues – more
more than one research the methods methods to quantitative you expensive/ time-consuming
method chosen can add meaning to numbers etc to do more than one
(increase validity) method and requires skill to
Reliable - By adding analyse both sets of results.
quantitative methods to The researcher has to ensure
qualitative you can add more that the methods
accuracy to words and may be complement each other
able to increase reliability Analysis issues – Researchers
Therefore the strengths of the are often only skilled in
methods can cancel out the analysing one type of data
other disadvantages Methods can contradict each
other if they produce
different findings

Item A
Researching changes in girls’ attitudes In 2014, 1405 girls and young women between the ages of 7 and 21 took
part in an attitudes survey conducted by the research organisation Childwise. A similar study had been carried
out in 1994 by sociologist Sue Sharpe, who used unstructured interviews in order to find out about girls’
attitudes to education.
1. From item A, examine one strength of the research [2]
2. Identify one disadvantages of using unstructured interviews to investigate girls’ attitudes towards
education [4]
3. Identify one sampling method Sharpe could have used in her investigation and explain why this would
methods would have been suitable [4]
Item B
Measuring children’s happiness and well-being in 2009, Professor Nick Buck wanted to find out how happy
children were with their lives and what was important to their overall well-being. To do this he gave a
questionnaire to a sample of 2613 young people from the United Kingdom.
4. From item B, examine one weakness of the research [2]
5. Identify one advantages of using questionnaires to investigate children’s happiness [4]
6. Identify one sampling method Buck could have used in his investigation and explain why this would
methods would have been suitable [4]
7. Identify one reason for the increase in divorce and explain how you would investigate that using an
attitudes survey [4]
8. Identify one reason for the underachievement of working class pupils in education and explain how
you would investigate that using official statistics [4]
9. Identify one ethical issue that could arise when investigating the causes of crime and explain how you
would overcome this [4]
10. Identify what is meant by a pilot study and explain why sociologists chose to conduct these [4]
Study Method used Advantages Disadvantages
Families
Delphy and Leonard – Analysis of secondary Practical – research Subjective – could be
Feminists – women sources – existing already exists so don’t biased interpretation of
oppressed in the home research on conjugal have to carry out own information
due to housework roles in different families research and can analyse
a large amount of data
Oakley – Feminist – the Analysis of secondary Practical – research Subjective – could be
conventional family is sources – existing already exists so don’t biased interpretation of
‘nuclear’ research on conjugal have to carry out own information
roles in different families research and can analyse
a large amount of data
Parsons – Functionalist Analysis of existing Practical – research Subjective – could be
-- family provides 2 sociological research already exists so don’t biased interpretation of
irreducible functions (secondary sources) have to carry out own information
research and can analyse
a large amount of data
Rapoport and Rapoport Analysis of secondary Practical – research Subjective – could be
– Postmodernists - 5 sources – existing already exists so don’t biased interpretation of
types of family diversity research on family have to carry out own information
diversity research and can analyse
a large amount of data
Willmott and Young – Large scale social survey Representative – 2000 is Lacks validity – do not
Functionalists – (structured interviews) a large sample size and know reasons behind
symmetrical family on 2000 people in can generalise to London family roles and closed
London and nearby Reliable – can compare questions
areas different families to see Social desirability –
patterns and trends participants may have
lied to please researcher
Zaretsky – Marxist – No known research
family benefits
capitalism
Education
Ball – Interactionist – Used a variety of Validity – would Subjective – because he
streaming and setting methods including understand how the got to know the children
has a negative impact on Participant observations students felt and build could become biased
achievement over 3 years in a up a rapport so they feel Hawthorne effect –
comprehensive school, comfortable being children acted
interviews and honest differently because they
questionnaires with know they are being
pupils and teachers watched
Unrepresentative – only
one school so cannot
generalise
Ball, Bowe and Gerwitz Interviewed teachers Triangulation – from Unrepresentative – not
– league tables only and parents and using mixed methods a large sample of schools
benefit the middle class examined LEA Validity – understand so cannot generalise
documents (secondary how the parents and
sources) teachers feel
Mixed methods
Bowles and Gintis – Used a variety of Triangulation – from Contradictions – the
Marxist – schools methods in a school using mixed methods – methods could produce
correspond to work including observations, validity and reliability different findings which
which benefits interviews and data Rapport – build up a is then difficult to know
capitalism analysis of grades relationship so increases what to believe
(secondary sources). validity Subjective – could
Mixed methods become too involved
and biased
Durkheim – No known research
Functionalist – schools
help create value
consensus and social
cohesion
Halsey, Heath and Ridge Longitudinal study of Reliability - See changes Practical issues – time
– working classes cannot 8000 males born over time consuming
achieve social mobility between 1913-1952
from 3 main social
classes
Parsons – Functionalist – No known research
education is the bridge
between family and
work and teach
meritocracy
Willis – Marxist – Participant observations Validity – understand Hawthorne effect – boys
working class boys join and group discussion boys’ experiences from may show off/ act
subcultures because interviews in a school as PO and build up a differently which
they know meritocracy is well as unstructured rapport so they feel reduces validity
a myth interviews with teachers comfortable being Unrepresentative –
and parents. honest cannot apply to boys in
Mixed methods Triangulation – from other schools so not
using mixed methods generalisable
Crime and deviance
Becker – Interactionist – No known research
labelling, SFP and master
status
Carlen – Feminist – In-depth unstructured Validity – understand Unrepresentative –
women commit crime interviews of women the women’s cannot apply to all
due to gender and class aged between 15-46 experiences and build up females so not
deal who had been convicted a rapport so they are generalizable
of crimes more likely to be honest Researcher effect –
on such a sensitive topic women may lie, give
socially desirable
answers as
embarrassed/ showing
off etc which reduces
validity
Cohen – Functionalist – No known research
working class boys join
delinquent subcultures
Heidensohn – Feminist – Unstructured interviews Validity – understand Researcher effect –
women don’t commit the women’s women may lie, give
crime due to social experiences and build up socially desirable
control a rapport so they are answers as embarrassed
more likely to be honest which reduces validity
on such a sensitive topic
Merton – Functionalist – No known research
people commit crime if
they cannot achieve
culturally defined goals
Social stratification
Davis and Moore – No known research
Functionalists – role
allocation means
stratification is fair
Devine – didn’t believe Recreated Goldthorpe Reliable – some Not representative – too
embourgeoisiement had and Lockwood’s study by standardised questions small a sample to apply
fully happened using semi-structured to compare data and can to all working class
interviews to interview compare with people
62 male car workers in Lockwood’s study to see
Luton patterns and trends
Marx – Marxist – No known research
bourgeoisie exploit
proletariat because they
have more economic
capital
Murray – New Right – Analysed secondary Representative – Lacks validity – do not
underclass are to blame sources of quantitative statistics covered the see the full picture/ the
for society’s problems data such as official whole country reasons behind the
statistics on crimes Reliable – can make statistics
rates, unemployment comparisons and see Subjective – could have
rates and birth rates patterns and trends interpreted with bias
outside of marriage
Townsend – relative Questionnaires to over Representative – covers Lacks validity – do not
deprivation is the best 2000 households which the country so can make know the causes of
way to define poverty included over 6000 generalisations poverty
people from all different Not applicable to today’s
areas of the country. society as the categories
are outdated e.g. cooked
breakfast
Walby – Feminist – 6 No known research
patriarchal structures
Weber – Weberian – Analysed and developed
power is not just Marx’s writings
economic but political (secondary source)
and status too
Item A - Extract from Stephen Ball’s Beachside Comprehensive:
As part of experiencing the daily life of the school I taught 3 periods of lessons a week, accompanied tutor groups
on school visits, was a teaching assistant in lessons and took part in lessons. The groups I was with varied in terms
of being mixed ability or streamed. In my first year I was in school for 3 days a week, in my second year 4 days a
week and then occasional visits in my third year.
1. From Item A, identify and describe the method used by Stephen Ball including what you know of his
perspective on streaming and setting in schools. [4 marks]
2. From Item A, Identify and explain one advantage of using observations to investigate the impact of
streaming on educational achievement. [4 marks]

Item B – Extract from Fiona Devine’s Affluent Workers Revisited:

I wanted to ask similar questions to those of Goldthorpe and Lockwood to enable me to get a sense of whether
things had changed since their research or not. Every car worker was asked the same set of questions but I was
able to add in extra ones if they said something I wanted to find out more about. Generally the views these car
workers shared were not the same as what was in Goldthorpe’s study and I did not believe there was a ‘new
working class’.
1. From Item B, identify and describe the method used by Fiona Devine including what you know of her
perspective on class identity. [4 marks]
2. From Item B, Identify and explain one disadvantage of using semi-structured interviews to investigate
changing class identity [4 marks]

Item C – Extract from Pat Carlen’s Women, Crime and Poverty:

During the conversations I had with these women they spoke to me at length about their experiences in prison or
youth detention centres and described how difficult these experiences had been. They also gave me an insight
into the reasons why they thought they had ended up in this situation. Reasons ranged from a breakdown in
marriage which meant they could no longer support themselves and their children, unemployment and violence
in the home leading to the women retaliating back against their husbands.
1. From Item C, identify and describe the method used by Pat Carlen including what you know of her
perspective on the causes of women committing crime. [4 marks]
2. From Item C, Identify and explain one advantage of using unstructured interviews to investigate the
causes of female crime. [4 marks]

Item D -

1. From Item D, identify and describe the method used by the Rapoports including what you know of their
perspective on family diversity. [4 marks]
2. From Item D, Identify and explain one disadvantage of analysing secondary sources to investigate family
diversity. [4 marks]