EE 230: Electronic Circuits & Systems Spring 2023

HOMEWORK 6 EXAMPLE EXERCISE

NON-IDEAL OP AMPS

Problem Statement:
In Lab 5, you calculated the expected low-frequency gain and corner frequency for the circuit shown below,
in Figure 1. You then measured the filter’s frequency response using the Loopinator and, if done correctly,
observed that the measured corner frequency did not match the calculated corner frequency.

Figure 1: First-order low-pass filter from Lab 5

Hopefully, you realized that the calculated corner frequency did not match the expected corner frequency
because the frequency was high enough for the op-amp’s gain-bandwidth limitations to take effect. In other
words: While the circuit looks like a first-order low-pass filter, it behaves like a second-order low-pass filter
due to the op-amp’s nonidealities.

You were not asked in lab to find the circuit’s transfer function while including the op-amps gain-bandwidth
limitation. So, assuming the op-amp has a gain-bandwidth of 1.8 MHz, do the following:

1. Determine the filter’s transfer function, this time including the op-amp’s finite gain-bandwidth
limitation. Assume offset voltage and bias current are negligible.
2. Compute the filter’s corner frequency. Compare it with the measured corner frequency and
expected corner frequency if the op-amp gain-bandwidth is ignored.
EE 230: Electronic Circuits & Systems Spring 2023

Problem Solution:
Part 1: Finding the Transfer Function

There are multiple ways to approach finding the circuit’s transfer function. Here, we start by redrawing
Figure 1 with the op-amp treated as a nonideal amplifier with open-loop gain, 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠).

Figure 2: Low-pass filter with non-ideal op-amp

Where the circuit’s open-loop gain, 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠), is given by (1)

𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 (1)
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

To find the filter’s transfer function, start by writing the output voltage in terms of the negative input, 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 .
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠)𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 = 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠)�𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 − 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 � = −𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉 (2)
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛

Now, find 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 using node voltage.

𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 − 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜

+ + =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 )
⇒ 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = (3)
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑠𝑠𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶

Substituting (3) and (1) into (2), and solving for 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 , allows for the output voltage to be found as a function
of the input voltage.

𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = −𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 (4)
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑠𝑠𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 )
𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Now, divide both sides by 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 to get the transfer function.

−𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2

𝐻𝐻 (𝑠𝑠) = (5)
(𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐0 )(𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑠𝑠𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 ) + 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 )
EE 230: Electronic Circuits & Systems Spring 2023

Finally, begin simplifying to get 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) in the standard form of a second-order low-pass filter. While tedious,
this is nothing that hasn’t already been done in prior homework and in lab.

𝜔𝜔02
𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐺𝐺0 𝜔𝜔 (6)
𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑠 � 𝑄𝑄0 � + 𝜔𝜔02

Where:

−𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2

𝐺𝐺0 = (7)
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1

𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1

𝜔𝜔02 = (8)
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶

𝜔𝜔0 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶
=� � (9)
𝑄𝑄 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶

Part 2: Calculating the Corner Frequency

Because this filter is second order, the circuit’s cutoff frequency cannot be obtained “by inspection” from
the transfer function. A little more math is necessary. Recall from lecture that the corner frequency for a
second-order low-pass filter is given by:

1 1 2
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 = 𝜔𝜔0 �1 − �
+ 1 + �1 − 2 � (10)
2𝑄𝑄2 2𝑄𝑄

Using (8) and (9), the circuit’s resonant frequency and quality factor are found to be 2.26 × 106 rad/sec
and 0.1042, respectively. This allows the cutoff frequency to be found.

2
1 1
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 = 2.26 × 10 �1 −
6 �
+ 1 + �1 − � ≈ 23.88 × 106 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (11)
0.0217 0.0217

𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = ≈ 38 kHz (12)
2𝜋𝜋

The corner frequency measured for this circuit was approximately 39.8 kHz, which closely matches the
anticipated 38 kHz. This is a much more accurate estimate than was achieved while ignoring the op-amps
effects, 72 kHz.

Because plots are convenient for visualizing a circuit’s frequency response, the measured and calculated
responses are shown in Figure 3.
EE 230: Electronic Circuits & Systems Spring 2023

Figure 3: Measured and calculated frequency responses