Physics Notes

Energy (stage 7)
What is energy?
 Energy is the capacity to do something
 The unit is = Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ) 1KJ =
1000J
 All daily activities need energy.
 Energy Balance: if we don’t use energy, it gets
wasted.
 Energy in fuels: Energy gets converted in various
types e.g. A kettle the heat energy is absorbed by
the kettle.
 We use the energy stored in food for all our
activities and to stay alive.
 Energy is measured in joules or kilojoules.
 The energy in the food someone eats should equal
the energy they need.

Energy stores and transfers

 G.P.E =mgh
 K.E= ½ mv2
 ½*mv*v=1/2 mv2
 Thermal store = K.E.Y.P.E.
 Gravitational potential energy is the energy that
something has because of its position. E.g. a
mother lifting her child or picking a bag up.
  Kinetic energy is the energy that something has
when its moving. E.g. fast-moving car or dropping
a ball.
 Elastic store: the energy store associated with
deformed objects
 Thermal store: the energy associated with objects
or systems when there is a change in temperature
 chemical store: the store associated with the
energy in fuels, food, and electrical battery
 Energy from the sun: there are different types of
radiation. Inside the sun there is a process called
nuclear fusion. The sun is a nuclear store of energy
 The different types of energy stores include
chemical, gravitational potential, elastic, kinetic,
thermal, and nuclear.
 Energy is transferred by heating, an electric
current, forces, and radiation including light and
sound.
 Energy is a quantity, so is transferred from one
store to the other

Energy transfer diagrams and dissipation

Input energy Machine Output

energyene energy
Wasted
energy

Example:

Mechanical Machine- AC Electrical energy

energy
heat
  The wasted energy can be no longer used
 The wasted/dissipated energy is usually transferred
in the surrounding, which get hotter

Gravitational potential energy and kinetic

energy.
 G.P.E is something which u have because of your
position.
 K.E is something which u have due to the
movement.
 In a pendulum the ball swings when the ball is on
the sides that time there is maximum G.P.E and
when the ball is in the centre there is maximum
of K.E.

P.E MAX
P.E MAX
K.E MIN
K.E MIN K.E MAX

P.E MIN

P.E MAX

K.E MIN
BUILDING

Elastic Potential
K.E MIN Energy
P.E MAX
 When materials deform they store E.P.E
 Materials that return to their original shape after
deformed in called elastic.
 Some energy is dissipated when materials deform

Forces (stage 7)
Introduction to forces
 Force: a push or pull that acts on an object to
affect its movement or shape.
 You can show the movement of an arrow by using
force arrows. The length determines the length of
force.
 There are two types of forces contact and non-
contact.
 Non-contact forces are:
 Gravitational force: it is the act between any
objects that have mass. The force keeps u pulled
down in earth.
 Electrostatic force: it is the act between objects
that are electrically charged. Once charged they
will attract or repel.
 Magnetic force: it is the act between magnets or
magnetic materials.
 Contact forces are:
  Friction: when 2 solid objects rub friction takes
place
 Air and water resistance: they are types of drags.
Moving objects collide with particles and slow down
the movements.
 Thrust: pushes a car or plane forward.
 Upthrust: it is the force pushing up on a floating
object.
 Tension: it is an act which takes place when objects
are pulled.
 Reaction: it is the force that pushes you up in
reaction to your weight pushing something
downwards.
 Device used to measure size of force is force
meter. Unit is newtons(n)
 Forces can change the direction of a moving
object, speed it up or slow it down

Gravity
 There is a force of attraction between all objects
that have mass, is called force of gravity.
 The size of force of gravity depends on: the mass
of the 2 objects and the distance between them.
 Weight is a force
 Weight is measured in newtons
 Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
 Mass is measured in kg
 Mass doesn’t change while weight changes due
to gravity
 On earth the gravitational field strength is 10
newtons per kg
  Weight(n)=mass kg*gravitational field strength
 Gravitational field strength decreases as you
move away from a planet.

Air Resistance
 If we want to cut air resistance the shape of the
object should be streamlined
 The force of an object that is moving through the
air, causing it to slow down.
 It is useful to slow down speed of objects
 It depends on: the speed of the object and the area
of the object
 When there is vacuum all objects fall at same
speed

Weight of the body

= air resistance,
W=m object falls with a
g constant velocity
Air resistance known as terminal
decreases velocity

streamlined objects cuts through air resistance

 Air resistance
increases speed of
Sound (stage 7) falling decreases

Sound waves and how they travel

 Sound is produced by vibrating objects
 A vibration is a movement abut a fixed point
 Compression: is when air particle come close
together
 Rarefaction: is where air particles move further
apart
 Sound needs a medium to travel
 Sound travels fastest in solid and slowest in gases
 Longitudinal waves: waves which are particles
which go along the direction in which the waves
travel

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC

  Transverse waves: waves where the direction of
vibrations is at 90 degrees to the direction in which
the wave travels.

 When an object vibrates it makes the particles next

to it vibrate to.
 The speed of sound increases with temperature
 Sound does not travel through vacuum
 Speed of sound in gas: 343 m/s
 Speed of sound in liquid:1500m/s
 speed of sound in solid: 6000m/s

Detecting sounds
 Describing waves:
1. Amplitude (A): amplitude is the maximum
movement of the particles that make up a wave
from their rest position. The amplitude is the
highest of a crest or the depth of a trough
2. Wavelength (upside down y): wavelength is the
distance between one wave peak and the next
wave peak along the path of a wave.
3. Frequency (f): it is the number of waves which pass
a point in one second. Measured in hertz.
4. Loudness: the loudness of a sound increase with
the amplitude of the sound wave
 5. Pitch: the pitch of a musical note increases with the
frequency.
6. Loudness: the loudness of a sound increases with
the amplitude of the sound wave
7. Compressions and rarefactions: compression is a
region of slightly higher pressure where the air
molecules are closer together than usual.
Rarefactions is the opposite the wavelength of the
sound wave is equal to the distance between the
centres of 2 successive compressions.

Echoes
 Angle of incident = angle of reflection
 Repetition of same sound again and again
 It takes place in an empty room
 Conditions: distance=17.2m and
temperature=22degree Celsius
 Reverberation: is the phenomenon of the
persistence of the sound after it has been stopped
due to multiple reflections from surfaces
 Conditions for echoes: distances = 17.2m,
temperature of room = 22 degree Celsius
 Distance= speed * time / 2
 Infrasonic=below 20 hz
 Ultrasonic=above 20 khz
 SONAR= Sound Navigation and Ranging

Electricity (stage7)
Charging up
 Properties of charge
 1. Like charges repel
2. Unlike charges attract
3. Electric lines of force start from positive to
negative
4. For positive it is always outward
5. For negative it is always inward
6. Electric lines of force never overlap
 When objects rub against each other they get
charged
 One of them gain electrons(negative charge) and
one of them loses electrons(positive charges)
 Charges are only produce by insulators
 The force between 2 charges is electrostatic force
 Electrostatic force examples: touching of metals,
when lightning struck hair stands up
 Application of electrostatic force: xerox, car
painting and spraying, electrostatic precipitation
 Symbol of charge = Q
 Unit of charge = couloumb

Electric circuits
 Lamp - produces light
 Wire - it connects all the components
 Ammeter - it is used to measure amps
 Voltmeter – it is used to measure volts
 Cell – it converts chemical energy into electrical
energy to push the current around.
 Battery – it is many cells
 Open-switch – it is when the flow of current is
broken
 Close-switch – it passes the current
 Buzzer – it produces sound
  Motor – it crates circular movement
 Rheostat – it is used to control the flow of current
 Resistor – it limits the flow of current
 Multi-meter – it measures every current
 Series circuit and parallel circuit are the 2 types of
circuit

Electric current
 Current is the flow of current (per second)
measured in amperes (A) with an ammeter.
 1 Milliamps (mA) = 0.001 A
 We use circuit symbols to draw circuit diagrams
 A complete circuit is needed for components in the
circuit to work
 Conductors allow electricity to flow easily through
them, but insulators do not.
 Current is the flow of charge (electrons) per second
 Current is measured in amperes (a) with an
ammeter
 A series circuit has only one loop
 A switch controls all the components in a series
circuit
 In a circuit the current decreases if you add more
lamps
 In a series circuit the current increases if you add
more cells
 More the resistance less charge flows per second
 Current = charge/time

Modelling electric circuit

  A measure of the strength of a cell or battery used
to send a current around a circuit.
 Potential difference is the difference in energy.
Potential difference is the work done to bring a
charge from 1 point to another point it is denoted
by the symbol v and is measured in volts.

Dangers of electricity
 The dangers
1. Spark formed from friction
2. Playing with water around with water next to
switches and electrical appliances, it leads to
short circuit
3. Many wires getting connected to one point
4. Touching switches with wet hands
 Safety measure
1. Do not keep switch on before plugging in the
wire
2. Do not use phone while charging
3. Do not charge your phone overnight
4. No touching switches sswith wet hands
5. Do not put your finger in the charging point

The earth is space

Our planet: day and night
 The earth spins on its axis
 Day and night are caused by the earth spinning
every 24 hours
 You can show the earth is spinning using a long
pendulum
  Sun appears to move across the sky because the
earth is spinning
 Sun lights up half the earth at once the other side
is called the shadow


Our planet: seasons

 The earth’s axis is tilted
 The earth orbits the sun once every 365 days
 We divide the year into seasons: spring, summer,
autumn, and winter
 Earth is tilted 23.5 degrees


The night sky

 The objects that we can see without a telescope in
the night sky include stars, planets, the moon,
comets, meteors, and artificial satellites
 Stars emit light, but we can see other objects
because they reflect light from the sun
 Comets: it is made of ice
 Meteors: when it enters the earth’s atmosphere
burns up
 Meteorites: a piece of rock that survives to reach
the ground
 Asteroids: an irregularly shaped lump of rock in
orbit the earth for various organisms
 The asteroid belt is between mars and Jupiter
 Moon is a rock which orbits the earth
 It is a natural satellite
 The planets which revolve around the star like sun,
so in this case it is called an exoplanet
Our solar system
 The solar system contains 4 inner planets and 4
outer planets and an asteroid belt
 The solar system formed from a cloud of gas and
dust brought together by gravity
 The planets, asteroids and comets orbit the sun
because of the force of gravity

Inner planets Outer planets

Names Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn,
earth, mars Uranus, Neptune
Made of… Mostly rock Mostly gas or ice

Size small large

Rings? Earth 1, mars 2 Jupiter 79, Saturn

82, Uranus,
Neptune 14.
Moons no yes

Seen by… Reflected light Reflected light

Life detected Only on earth no

The moon
 Phases of the moon happen because half the
moon is lit, and it moves around the earth
 Solar Eclipse happens when the earth or the
moon blocks light from the sun
 The gravitational force of the sun and moon
produces tides
 Below is a image of solar eclipse

 Outside region the penumbra you see a partial

eclipse
 The region of deep shadow or umbra is where
you see a total eclipse
  A lunar eclipse happens when the earth comes
between the sun and the moon.
 Moon is in shadow of earth.
 Below is an image of a lunar eclipse

 Gravitational attraction of the moon and sun

produces tides
 Bulge of water either side of the earth due to the
force of gravity from the moon.
 Earth spins through the bulges producing 2 high
tides a day
 When sun and moon is aligned there is extra force
on the water, and we get a higher tide, called a
spring tide
 When they are not aligned, we get lower tide called
a neap tide
 Forces (stage 8)
Speed
 Speed is distance divided by time
 Units= m/s, km/hr
 Average speed is total distance divided by total
time
 Your speed at a particular movement is the
instantaneous speed
  Speed is a measure of how fast something is
moving
 Instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular
time
 It is measured with the help of speedometer

Distance – time graphs

 A distance – time graph shows how the distance
moved changes with time
 A straight upward sloping line means a steady
speed
 If the line is horizontal, then the object is not
moving
 If the line is steeper the object is moving faster
 If the line is curved the speed is changing

 Acceleration = final speed - start speed/time

Balanced and unbalanced force

 Forces are balanced if they cancel out each other
out. They are unbalanced if they do not cancel out
 An object stays still or moves at a steady speed if
the forces on it are balanced
 Unbalanced force changes the speed, direction, or
both of a moving object
 Resultant forces: the single force equivalent to two
or more forces acting on an object
 Balanced forces:
1. If it is not moving it will stay still
 2. If it is moving it will keep moving at a steady
speed
 Unbalanced force:
1. If it is not moving it will start moving
2. If it is moving it will speed up, slow down or
change direction
 Resultant forces
1. If the resultant force is zero, the forces are
balanced
2. If the resultant force is not zero, the forces are
unbalanced

Using forces: friction

 The force of friction slows things down
 You can reduce friction by lubrication or by using
ball-bearings
 Friction is useful for grip, to start moving, or for
braking
 Friction: a force that resists movement because of
contact between surfaces
 Lubrication is the process in which friction is
reduced by preventing objects to rub against each
other
 We can use newton meter to measure the force of
friction between two objects

Using forces: tension and upthrust

 Springs, ropes and elastic materials have a tension
in them when stretched
 The extension is proportional to the tension, up to
the elastic limit.
 Springs in tension pull back
  Objects float when the upthrust equals the weight
 If something elastic, it will go back to its original
length when you remove the force. The amount
that it stretches is called the extension.
 If something does not go back to its original length
after stretching, we say it is plastic
 A bigger force will produce a bigger extension
 If you double the force, you double the extension
 The extension is proportional to the force
 We say the spring obeys the hooke’s law
 Elastic limit: the point beyond which a spring will
never return to its original length when the pulling
force is removed.
 Permanently extended: the irreversible extension
of a spring when loaded beyond its elastic limit
 Upthrust: the force on an object in a liquid or gas
that pushes it up.
 Tension: a stretching force
 Things float because of upthrust
 Apparent weight: is the weight which is perceived
under certain conditions

Levers
 Lever: a simple machine consisting of a rigid bar
supported at a point along its length.
 Levers work with some forces produces a turning
effect
 Turning effect: a force causing an object to turn
 Levers
1. The force that you exert on the bar is called the
effort
 2. The weight of the object that you lift is called the
load
3. The bar rotates about a pivot (or fulcrum)
 Forces can turn an object clockwise or
anticlockwise about a pivot
 A lever can be used as a force multiplier, or a
distance multiplier
 A lever can produce forces that are much bigger
than the effort, to lift heavy loads

Force of the
Force of your
load on the
hand on the
lever
lever

Pivot (fulcrum)

Calculating moments
 The turning effect of a force is movement
 Movement= force * distance
 A seesaw is in equilibrium if the anticlockwise
moments balance the clockwise moments. This is
the principle of moments
 A moment is measured in newton metres

Pressure
  Pressure = force/area
 Pressure is measured in n/m2(pa, pascal) or n/cm2
 A small force over a big area produces a small
pressure, and vice versa
 Pressure is a measure of the force exerted by an
object or substance over a certain area

Using pressure
 Increasing the area reduces the pressure, which
can be useful in some situations
 Reducing the area can be useful if you need a large
pressure

Diffusion in liquids and gases

 Diffusion is the random movement and mixing of
particles
 Diffusion happens faster at higher temperatures.
 Diffusion is quicker in gases than in liquids
 Diffusion happens faster in the hotter room than
colder
 Things of diffusion
1. Temperature
2. Seeing things Mass
3. Size
4. The states of the substance that are diffusing
 Diffusion is a very complicated process
 Gas pressure is caused by particles colliding with
the walls of the container
 If you compress a gas into smaller volume, or heat
it, the pressure will increase
 Atmospheric pressure decreases as you go up a
mountain
Light (stage8)
Seeing things
 Properties of light
1. Light travels in straight lines
 Light travels faster than sound. Examples:
i. Thunder and lightning start at the same
time, but we will see the lightning first.
ii. When a starting pistol is fixed, we see the
smoke first and then hear the bang
 We see things because they reflect light into our
eyes

Su sun
human

B book

 Light emitters are luminous

 Non-emitters are non-luminous
 Light does not need a medium
 Infra radiation is like light
 Light can be transmitted or reflected or absorbed
 Shadows are places where light is blocked
 Light closer to object bigger shadow
 Light away from object shadow is smaller
 Light travels in straight lines
  We see things when light emitted by a luminous
source or reflected by a non- luminous source
enters our eyes
 Light Is emitted by sources and can be transmitted,
reflected, or absorbed by transparent, translucent,
or opaque materials

The law of reflection

 The angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection. This is the law of reflection
 Mirrors are used in periscopes
 To take accurate measurements about the law of
reflection you need to mark carefully where the
rays go.
 How to measure angles?
a) First you draw a line at right angles to the mirror
at the point where the ray hits it
b) The line is called the normal
c) The angle of incidence is the angle between the
normal and the incident ray, and is usually
labelled i.
d) The ray reflects off the mirror
e) The angle between the normal and the reflected
ray in the angle of reflection, labelled r.
 The angle of incidence is not the angle between
the mirror and the ray
 The angle of incidence = the angle of reflection
 This is the law of reflection
 A periscope contains 2 mirrors. It enables u to look
over the top of a wall, or over other people if you
are at the back of a crowd
 Clear v/s diffuse reflection:
  Clear reflection:
Smooth shiny surfaces have a clear reflection
 Diffuse reflection:
Rough, dull surfaces have a diffuse reflection.
Diffuse reflection is when light is scattered in
different directions

Reflection and images

 You can see an image when light reflects from a
smooth surface such as a mirror, water, or glass.
 The image is virtual and laterally inverted
 Reflections from rough surfaces are diffuse
 Real image: projected on screen because you don’t
need to look through anything to see it
 Virtual image: you look into the mirror to see your
self
 Mirror image is always inverted
 When light rays bounce from you to the mirror
that’s how you can see your reflection in the mirror

Refraction
 Air is a rarer medium
 Solid is a denser medium
 Light changes direction when it goes one medium
to another
 If the light goes from a less dense to a denser the
ray will move towards the normal
 If the light goes from a denser to less dense the
ray will move away from the normal
  Refractive index = speed of light in a vacuum
(3*10 raised to 8) / speed of light in the medium
 In air light travels 300 million km/s but in water it
travels 230 million km/s
 Light going into water from air slows down
 Speed of different materials depends on its density
 If it is more dense it goes slow
 Refraction is a result of light changing speed
 The depth that the rock appears to be is called the
apparent depth, which is shallower than the real
depth

Refraction and total internal reflection

 Light is refracted it goes from air into glass or glass
into air
 Denser materials refract light more than less dense
materials
 An optical fibre is a very thin fibre made of glass or
plastic
 An endoscope is used to see inside the human
body

Light is reflected inside and optical wire

 Total internal reflection: the complete reflection at
a boundary between 2 media.
 Critical angle: the smallest angle of incidence at
which the total internal reflection occurs.
Dispersion
 A prism splits white light into colours this is called
dispersion
 A spectrum is formed when different colours are
refracted by different amounts
 Rainbows are formed when raindrops split sunlight
into colours
 All colours are found in a spectrum
 Light is refracted in the order
R least refracted
O
Y
G
B
I
V most refracted

 Wavelength of red light is maximum, and violet is

minimum
 Refractive index of red light is minimum and of
violet is minimum

Colour
 The primary colours of light are red, green, and
blue. The secondary colours are yellow, cyan, and
magenta
 The primary colours add up to give white light
 Colour filters absorb all the colours of light except
the colour that they transmit

 A filter absorbs some colours of light and transmits

other
 If you shine white light through a red filter, the
filter will only let red light through
 Red light transmitted
 All the other colours are absorbed
 The filter has taken away all the colours expect red

 If you shine red light through a green filter, then no

light will get through
 If you look at a white light through the red and
green filter together you will see black
 Your brain perceives no light as black
 A coloured object absorbs all the colours of light
except the colour that it appears to be
  Coloured objects appear different colours in
different coloured light because they absorb
certain colours and reflect others
 Scientists produce explanations for their
observations about the world around them
 Good explanations explain a wide range of
observations
 Sometimes explanations need be changed if they
do not explain new observations
 Light from an object is focused by the lens and
cornea on the retina of the eye, which contains
light sensitive cells
 The retina sends a signal to the brain
 The camera has an aperture like the pupil of the
eye, and film or a sensor like the retina
 The colour an object appears depends on th
colours of light it reflects
 For example, a red book only reflects red light
 For any colour when light is reflected even the
colour which mix to make it reflect
 For white all 7 colours reflect
 If we look at something different for example,
consider a football kit
 In different colours of light the kit could look
different

Magnetism (stage 8)
The properties of magnets
 Iron, cobalt, steel, and nickel are all magnetic
materials that are attracted to magnets
 For magnets, like poles repel and unlike poles
attract
 You can make a magnet by stroking a magnetic
material with a magnet
 All magnets are dipoles. It doesn’t matter if you cut
it in 10 pics it will always have a north and south
pole
 A freely suspended magnet always points in the
north and south position
 Magnetic field: a region around a magnet
experiencing magnetic force is magnetic field
 There are magnetic field lines which start from the
north pole and end on the south pole they do not
overlap each other as show in the figure above
 Some of the alloys or oxides of these elements are
also magnetic
 Steel is magnetic because it mainly contains iron
 You can think of a magnetic material as being
made up of lots of very small regions called
domains
 Magnetising and demagnetising:
 Magnetisation: is the process by which a magnetic
substance attains magnetism temporarily or
permanently.
 Single stroke method
 Double stroke method
 Demagnetisation: demagnetisation is the process
of removal of magnetic properties of a magnet. The
magnesium of a magnet can be totally a partially
destroyed in the following ways:
 Rough handling
 Shielding
  Hammering
 Hitting it or banging it
 Tamper with it when on high heat

Magnetic fields
 A region where magnetic materials is experiencing
a force is called a magnetic field
 You can find the shape of a magnetic field using
iron fillings or plotting compasses
 Magnetic fields exert forces on each other
 Point x is called a neutral point. Which is in
between 2 magnets
 We can show the pattern around a bar magnet by
drawing magnetic field lines to show where the
plotting compass lined up

Electromagnets
 A current flowing through a wire produces a
magnetic field
 An electromagnet is a coil of wire usually wrapped
around an iron core
 You can switch an electromagnet on and off by
turning the current on and off
 The magnetic field around an electromagnet is like
that around a bar magnet
 Electromagnet is a temporary magnet produced
using an electric current.
 The components: battery, copper wire, iron core,
switch
 Advantages:
 Electromagnet is stronger than a permanent
magnet. As permanent magnet has fixed strength
  Can increase or decrease strength
 We can switch on and off on electromagnet but not
a permanent magnet
 Tips to increase strength of magnet:
 By increasing the number of loops, it makes the
electromagnet stronger
 Increasing the power of current
 By increasing the thickness of the wire
 On conclusion electromagnet is better than a
permanent magnet

Energy (stage9)
The world needs energy
 Non-renewable sources will run out but renewable
sourcees wont
 Primary energy sources: energy sources from
envirment or underground
 secondary energy sources: sources of energy that
are produced from the primary sources such as
electricity from coal.
Non-renewable sources Renewable sources
Coal Solar
Oil Wind
Petrol Tidal
Disel Geothermal
Nuclear biomass
Not recycleable or reuseable Recycleable or reuseable
Not clean source of energy Clean source of energy
Produces greenhouse gases No production of
greenhouse gases
  examples of primary and secondary energy
sources
Primary energy sources Secondary energy
sources
Coal electricity
Oil petrol
sunlight gasoline
vranium hydrogen
Wind
Water
biofuel
geothermal

Generating electricity
 when a magnet moves near a coil of wire, or a coil
of wire moves near a magnet, a voltage is induced
 large-scale generators are made using very large
coils and powerful electromagnet.
 Inducing a bigger voltage:
 Move the magnet faster
 Use a coil with an iron core
 Use more turns on the coil
 Use a stronger magnet
 Simple generators, like dynamos usually contain a
coil of wire and a magnet that spins when you turn
the handle.

Non-renewable resources: fossil fuels

 In a fossil fuel power station, the fuel is burnt to
turn water into steam.
 Steam turns the turbine, which turns a generator to
generate electricity
  Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide and
pollution
 Coal, oil, and gas are the remains of plants and
animals that lived millions of years ago
 Uses of fossil fuels: generating electricity,
transportation, and heating
Advantages Disadvantages
Electricity produced Carbon dioxide
Very reliable Contributes to climate
change
Readily available Produces pollution

Renewable resources: solar and geothermal

 Solar energy can be used to produce electricity
directly using solar calls
 Energy from the sun or earth can also be used to
heat water
 Energy from deep inside the earth can be used to
turn water into steam. The steam can turn a
turbine, which can drive a generator
 Solar cells
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Can be used in individual Don’t work at night
houses/ small devices
with low power needs
Can be used in remote Expensive to produce
locations
Can work on cloudy days Greenhouse gases made
during production
Renewable- will not run
out
  Geothermal power
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Renewable- will not run Expensive to build
out
Does not produce Greenhouse gas released
greenhouse gasses while during building
running

Renewable resources: wind and water

 Water in lakes, wind, waves and tides can generate
electricity
 There are all renewable
 Moving air or water is used to turn a turbine, which
drives a generator
 There are advantages and disadvantages to all
these methods
 Hydroelectricity: is another method of generating
electricity that does not use fossil fuels
 They put turbines in water and as the turbines
move they generate electricity

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Produces electricity on Expensive to build
demand
Renewable- will not run greenhouse gas made
out during building
Does not produce Needs a sustainable
greenhouse gases while place, usually with
running mountains and lakes
Expensive to connects to
houses
Flooding valleys can
 displace people and
affect the environment

 Wave power is generated with a chamber on the

shoreline.
 The chamber needs to be very strong to resist
storms
 You need a sustainable site to build the chamber
 Tidal power is which formed by the heavy
movements of tides
 A wind turbine is a large windmill that is used to
generate electricity
 All the above methods are quite expensive to build
and produce greenhouse gases while building

Renewable resources: biofuels and

bioplastic
 Biofuels are fuels made from biomass, which is
plant and animal material or waste
 Biofuels include wood, bioethanol, biodiesel, and
biogas
 Bioplastics are made from starch instead of oil
 Biodiesel – is a biofuel made from plant oils
 Bioethanol – is a biofuel made from sugar
 Biogas – is a biofuel that can be piped from landfill
sites, or other sites where biomass is decomposing
 Biofuels
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Can be used to Produce carbon dioxide
generate electricity in when they burn, which
remote locations can contribute to
climate change
 Fuels can be obtained More expensive than
from waste products fossil fuels
Do not produce Need a lot of land to
pollution when they grow crops for some
burn fuels
Fossil fuels power Most cars are not
stations can be designed to run only on
converted to use biofuels
biofuels

 Bioplastics are made from starch

 Starch can be broken down by decomposers, so
bioplastics are biodegradable

The earth in space

Galaxies
 Our solar system is surrounded by gas and dust in
the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud
 A galaxy consists of stars, planetary systems,
stellar dust, and gas
 There are thousands of millions of stars in a galaxy
 There are thousands of millions of galaxies in the
universe
 Two of the neighbouring galaxies are the large and
small magellanic clouds
 Our galaxy:
 The nearest star to our sun is proxima centauri. It
has a diameter 7 times smaller than our suns
diameter
 There is a least one exoplanet orbiting proxima
centauri, making it our nearest solar system
 Most stars that you are stars in the milky way
  Astronomers think our sun and the other stars in
our galaxy are all orbiting a huge black hole at the
centre
 The milky way is a spiral galaxy. It is shaped with
curved arms making a disc with a bulge in the
middle
 The universe consists of everything

Asteroids
 Asteroids are irregularly shaped pieces of rock,
mostly in orbit between mars and Jupiter as there
is an asteroid belt located there
 Asteroids are pieces of rock left over from the
formation of the solar system
 Asteroids are large enough to be called a minor
planet
OBJECT DEFINITION APROXIMATE
SIZE
Asteroid A large piece of Smaller than a
rock orbiting the planet larger
sun than a meteorite
Meteoroid A smaller piece 1 m in diameter
of rock that has or smaller
broken off from
an asteroid or
comet
Meteor A smaller piece 1 m in diameter
of rock that has or smaller
entered the
earth’s
atmosphere
Meteorite A meteor that 1 m in diameter
reaches the or smaller
ground (is not
 burnt up in the
atmosphere)
Comet An object made About 10 km in
of ice and dust diameter
orbiting the sun
that has a tail
when it gets
closer to the sun

Magnetic earth
 The earth behaves as if it has a bar magnet inside
it
 Compasses point north because the needle is a
magnet that lines up with the field
 Scientists think that the earths magnetic field is
produced by moving currents of iron in the earth’s
core.
  A compass needle points north because the
needle is a small magnet
 as in the earth’s crust there are magnetic fields
which have magnetic properly
 earth’s magnetic fields reflect solar wind

forces (stage9)
floating and sinking
 an object will float on water if it is less dense than
water
 objects float because liquids exert a force on them,
called upthrust
 collisions of liquid and gas particles produce
upthrust
 density=mass/volume

using ideas about density

 density can be used to identify materials
 in the past most scientists worked alone
 today most science Is done by teams of people
 today, as in the past, scientists build on the work of
other scientists

energy(stage9)
hot and cold
 temperature is a measure of how hot something is,
measured in degrees Celsius
 thermometers are used to measure temperature
 when u heat a solid, liquid or gas the particles
move faster or vibrate more
  energy is dissipated when it moves from a hot to
cold region.
 Human body temperature in 37 degrees Celsius
 Heating causes temp rise
 Energy depends on the amount of material, but
temperature doesn’t
 The process of heating changes the motion of
particles

Conservation of energy
 The law of conservation of energy says that energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or
stored
 In all processes you have the same amount of
energy at the end as you had at the beginning
 In all processes some energy in dissipated usually
heating the surroundings
 The useful energy is transferred by the light
 We can think of the energy heating the
surroundings as wasted energy
 Energy that is dissipated is usually wasted energy
 Energy that is transferred by heating is not always
wasted energy

Energy transfer: conduction

 Energy is transferred through a solid by conduction
 Metals are good conductors of energy, but plastic
and wood are poor conductors they r good
insulators
 Liquids and gases that are not free to move around
are poor conductors of energy
  Objects feel cold when they conduct energy away
from your skin
 Molecules acquire kinetic energy and start
vibrating in their mean position 1st molecule the 2nd
to the 3rd in this way the whole metal gets heated
by conduction molecules position

Energy transfer: convection

 When a gas or liquid gets hot it expands and
becomes less dense
 The less dense gas or liquid rises and is replaced
by cooler gas or liquid
 This sets up a convection current
 A convection current in the atmosphere is called a
thermal
 Convection currents can happen in all liquids and
gases that are free to move

Radiation
 All objects emit thermal radiation. They emit light if
they are hot
 Radiation, including light and infrared, is emitted
by the sun
 Radiation does not need a medium – it can travel in
a vacuum
 The atmosphere reflects radiation like glass in a
greenhouse
 Does not need physical contact
 Can take place is vacuum
 Radiation is a type of heat transfer that taken place
with help of electromagnet infrared waves
 Radio waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared rays
 U.V rays
 X- rays
 Gamma rays
 Greenhouse effect: the effect of heating the earth
because the energy from the sun is reflecting to
the earth from a layer of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere
 Electromagnetic spectrum: a range of radiation
with electrical and magnetic properties that can
travel through a vacuum. It also refers to the range
of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
produced by the sun and other sources
 Dull, dark surfaces tend to absorb more infrared
than light, shiny surfaces
 Dark surfaces also emit more infrared than light
sources

Light can be… Infrared can be…

Emitted by hot objects Emitted by hot objects
Reflected well by shiny Reflected well by shiny
surfaces surfaces
Absorbed by objects and Absorbed by objects and
your retina your skin
Detected by a camera Detected by a thermal
imaging camera
Transmitted through a Transmitted through a
vacuum as a wave vacuum as a wave

Cooling by evaporation
  Liquids evaporate when faster particles escape
 The average speed (the temperature) of the
particles is decreased
 Evaporative coolers transfer energy from air to a
liquid to cool the room
 Animals use liquids on their skin to cool down
 You can explain evaporative cooling using ideas
about particles.
• Their average speed depends on the temperature
of the liquid.
• At a higher temperature the average speed will
be higher.
• The particles do not all move at exactly the same
speed: some travel faster, some slower.
• The particles are colliding with each other, and
energy is transferred in those collisions.
• A few of the particles at the surface will be
travelling fast enough to be able to escape.
• When fast-moving particles escape, the average
speed of the particles left behind is slower.
• A smaller average speed means the liquid is
cooler - evaporation has cooled it.
• The cooler liquid absorbs energy from the air and
more particles escape.
• Eventually all the particles escape. The liquid has
evaporated. The air around the liquid has cooled.

Sound (stage 9)
Loudness and amplitude
1. Properties of waves: Waves have amplitude,
wavelength, and frequency.
2. Definitions:
- Wavelength: Distance from one point on a wave to
the next.
- Amplitude: Distance from the center to the
highest/lowest point.
- Frequency: How many waves pass in 1 second.
3. Sound waves: Are pressure waves with compressions
and rarefactions.
4. Using an oscilloscope:
- Shows sound waves as pressure variations over
time.
- Up on the screen = particles close together; down
= particles far apart.
- Loudness relates to amplitude - a loud sound has a
large amplitude, a soft sound has a small amplitude.
- Amplifying a sound increases its amplitude, making it
sound louder.
- Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

Pitch and frequency

1. Pitch of a sound depends on frequency: The number
of times a string vibrates per second determines pitch.
2. High-pitched sounds = high frequency: Low-pitched
sounds have low frequency.
3. Frequency measured in hertz (Hz): High frequencies
use kilohertz (kHz); 1 kHz = 1000 Hz.
4. Frequency vs. amplitude: Changing frequency affects
pitch; changing amplitude affects loudness.
5. Human audible range: About 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz;
range decreases with age (e.g., by age 30, maybe up to
14,000 Hz).
- Higher notes have a higher frequency.
- The range of frequencies humans can hear is the
audible range.
- Different animals have different audible ranges.
- Human audible range gets smaller with age.
The page explains the concept of ultrasound, which is
sound with a frequency higher than 20,000 Hz - beyond
the audible range of humans.

Adding up and cancelling out

- Interference: When waves interact, they add up or
cancel out.
- Constructive interference: In-step waves create a
louder sound.
- Destructive interference: Out-of-step waves create a
quieter or silent sound.
- Usefulness: Interference helps tune instruments like
pianos and guitars.
  The higher the amplitude the louder the sound
 Crest is the upper portion of the wave
 Trough is the lower portion of the wave
 If the waves add up to produce a bigger wave, we
say that it is constructive interference
 If the waves cancel out to produce a smaller or no
wave, we say that it is destructive interference
 Waves interact(interfere) can add together or
cancel out
 If they add, then the total sound is louder
 If they cancel out, then the total sound is quieter or
there is silence
 We use interference in noise-cancelling
headphones

Electricity (stage9)
Current in series and parallel circuits
 A circuit with a single loop is called a series circuit
 Current in the circuit always flows from positive to
negative terminal conventionally
 If one bulb blows the circuit does not work
 Same current flows through out the circuit
 Voltmeter is always parallel to the lamp
 Formula for resistance in a parallel circuit:
R=R1+R2+R3
 Parallel circuit is where there is more than one loop
 Current will split
 Voltage remains the same through out
 If one bulb blows the circuit with still work normally
 The resistance offered in a series circuit is more
compared to a parallel circuit.
 Formula of resistance in parallel circuit
equation:1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

The earth in space

The Big Bang Theory – Detailed Notes for Grade
8
1. What is the Big Bang Theory?
 The Big Bang Theory explains the origin of the
universe.
 It states that the universe began from a tiny,
extremely hot and dense point around 13.8 billion
years ago.
 From that point, it started to expand rapidly —
this expansion is still going on today.
2. Key Points:
Feature Description
Time of origin About 13.8 billion years
ago
Initial state Big Bang Extremely hot,
dense, and small point
(a singularity)
Big Bang Sudden, massive
expansion of space
Current state A cooler, larger,
expanding universe with
galaxies, stars, and
planets

3. Misconception: Explosion or Expansion?

 The Big Bang was not a giant explosion.
 It was a rapid expansion of space itself — more
like a balloon inflating.
4. What Happened After the Big Bang?

Time After Big Bang What Happened

10⁻⁴³ seconds Time, space, and forces
began to form
First few minutes Formation of basic
elements like hydrogen
and helium
380,000 years Universe cooled enough
for atoms to form; light
could travel freely —
Cosmic Microwave
Background was
released
Millions of years Stars and galaxies
formed
Billions of years Planets, solar systems,
and eventually life
appeared

5. Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory

✅ 1. Redshift of Galaxies
 Galaxies are moving away from us.
The light from these galaxies is stretched, or

redshifted, showing the universe is expanding.
This was first discovered by Edwin Hubble in the
1920s.
✅ 2. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
 Discovered in 1965.
It's the faint glow of radiation left over from the Big
Bang.
 Detected in every direction in the universe.
✅ 3. Abundance of Light Elements
Big Bang Theory predicted more hydrogen and
helium, which we find in the universe today.
6. Important Scientists
Georges Lemaître – Proposed the idea of an
expanding universe.
Edwin Hubble – Observed redshift, proving galaxies
are moving apart.
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson – Discovered the
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
7. What Came Before the Big Bang?
Science does not yet fully understand what came
"before" the Big Bang.
 Time and space themselves began with the Big
Bang, so the concept of "before" may not even apply
in the usual sense
8. Is the Universe Still Expanding?
Yes! The universe is still expanding, and in fact, the
expansion is accelerating.
9. Simple Analogy: Balloon Model
 Think of the universe as a balloon.
 When you blow air into it, the balloon expands.
Dots on the balloon (galaxies) move away from
each other, but not because they are moving, rather
because the space between them is expanding.
10. Conclusion
The Big Bang Theory is the best scientific
explanation for how the universe began and evolved.
 It is supported by strong observational evidence.
The universe is still growing and changing — and
science continues to explore its mysteries.
Difference Between Asteroids, Meteors, and
Meteorites
Term Description Where it’s size
found
Asteroid A large Mostly in Can be a
rocky object the Asteroid few meters
that orbits Belt to hundreds
the Sun between of
Mars and kilometres
Jupiter wide
Meteor A small In the Usually
piece of Earth’s small — like
asteroid or atmosphere a pebble or
comet that grain of
enters sand
Earth's
atmosphere
and burns
up, creating
a streak of
light
Meteorite A meteor On Earth's Can range
that surface from a few
survives its grams to
journey several
through the tons
atmosphere
 and lands
on Earth

� Easy Way to Remember:

 Asteroid = In space
 Meteor = In the sky (shooting star)
 Meteorite = On the ground
�Extra Notes:
Meteors are sometimes called "shooting stars", but
they are not real stars.
Meteorites are valuable for study because they give
clues about the early solar system.
Life Cycle of a Star – Two Paths: Low-Mass vs
Massive Star
Stars form from clouds of gas and dust (nebulae), but
their life cycle depends on how much mass they
have.
� 1. Common Beginning (for All Stars)
✅ Step 1: Nebula
A large cloud of gas (mainly hydrogen) and dust in
space.
 Gravity pulls the gas and dust together.
✅ Step 2: Protostar
As the gas collapses, the centre gets hotter and
forms a protostar.
 Not yet a star but heating up.
✅ Step 3: Main Sequence Star
When temperature becomes high enough, nuclear
fusion begins (hydrogen → helium).
The star now shines and becomes a main sequence
star.
The star stays in this phase for millions to billions of
years.
Now the path splits depending on mass:
⭐ Life Cycle of a Low-Mass Star (Like Our Sun)
✅ Step 4: Red Giant
 Hydrogen in the core runs out.
Outer layers expand and the star becomes a Red
Giant.
 Fusion continues in outer shells.
✅ Step 5: Planetary Nebula
The outer layers are blown away into space, forming
a glowing cloud called a planetary nebula.
✅ Step 6: White Dwarf
 The hot core that remains is a White Dwarf.
 No fusion occurs. It slowly cools and fades over
time.
✅ (Optional) Step 7: Black Dwarf (theoretical)
After a long time, the white dwarf may cool down to
become a black dwarf, but the universe is not old
enough for any to exist yet.
� Life Cycle of a Massive Star
✅ Step 4: Red Supergiant
 A massive star expands into a huge Red Supergiant.
Fusion continues, creating heavier elements
(carbon, oxygen, iron…).
✅ Step 5: Supernova
When fusion stops, gravity causes the core to
collapse.
 This results in a giant explosion called a supernova.
Releases huge amounts of energy and forms heavy
elements. ✅ Step 6: Neutron Star or Black Hole
After the supernova, the core that remains can
become:
o A Neutron Star: very dense and made mostly of
neutrons.
o A Black Hole: if the core is very massive, gravity
crushes it into a point of infinite density.
� Summary Table Stage
Stage Low-mass star Massive star
1 Nebula Nebula
2 Protostar Protostar
3 Main sequence Main sequence
Star Star
4 Red Giant Red supergiant
5 Planetary Supernova
Nebula
6 White dwarf Neutron star or
black hole
7 Black dwarf
(therotical)
Key Concepts:
 Nuclear Fusion powers stars and creates elements.
 Mass determines the star’s fate.
Massive stars die dramatically; small stars fade
slowly.
Theory of the moon
1)Giant Impact Hypothesis (Most Accepted Theory)
 What it says:
A Mars-sized object (called Theia) collided with the
early Earth.  What happened:
o The huge impact threw a lot of debris (rock and
dust) into space.
o This debris started orbiting Earth.
o Over time, the debris clumped together to form the
Moon.
 Evidence:
o The Moon's rocks are similar to Earth's crust.
o The Moon lacks heavy metals like Earth's core,
which makes sense if it came from the outer layers.
o The Moon orbits in the same plane as Earth’s
rotation.
2)Co-formation Theory (Also called the Double Planet
Theory
 What it says:
Earth and the Moon formed together, side by side,
from the same cloud of gas and dust in space.
 What happened:
o During the formation of the Solar System, a disk of
material surrounded the young Sun.
o Earth and Moon condensed at the same time from
this material.
 Problems:
o If they formed together, the Moon and Earth should
have similar compositions, but they don’t match
exactly.
o This theory can’t explain the Moon’s small iron
core.
3)Capture Theory
 What it says:
The Moon was formed elsewhere in the Solar System
and was later captured by Earth's gravity.
 What happened:
o The Moon formed as a separate body.
o as it came close to Earth, Earth’s gravity pulled it in
and captured it into orbit.
 Problems:
o Very unlikely for such a large object to be captured
without breaking apart.
o Energy loss needed for capture is hard to explain.
o The Moon’s composition is too similar to Earth’s for
it to have come from elsewhere.
Summary Table:
Theory Key Idea
Main Problem
Giant Impact Moon formed from debris Explains
most
after a collision
features well
Co formation Moon and Earth formed Can’t
explain
Together
differences in
.
composition
Capture Moon was formed elsewhere Very
unlikely
and caught by Earth and
doesn’t

match composition