The Concepts of Politics and Governance

Politics and governance are fundamental concepts that determine how societies are organized and ruled. They
influence leadership, decision-making, and how power is distributed. Understanding these concepts is
essential for becoming an informed citizen.

What is Politics?
Politics comes from the Greek word “polis,” meaning “city-state”. It involves the process of making decisions for
a group or society. Politics also refers to the distribution of power and resources and the relationships between
governments and their people.

Why Politics is Important

 Maintains Order: Politics helps maintain order within a society.
 Conflict Resolution: It provides a framework for peacefully resolving conflicts.
 Shapes Society: Politics shapes the laws, rights, and policies that affect every individual.

Studying Politics - Politics can be studied through various academic disciplines:

 Political Science: Involves analyzing government systems, policies, and political structures.
 History: Helps in understanding how political systems and ideologies have evolved over time.
 Sociology: Examines the impact of politics on society and different social groups.
 Economics: Focuses on the relationship between politics, resources, and wealth distribution.
 Comparative Politics: Involves comparing different governments around the world to identify
similarities and differences.

Governance is the process of making and implementing decisions. It includes the institutions and structures
that manage a country or organization, the laws and policies that guide society, and the collaboration between
the government, the private sector, and citizens.

Good governance is a crucial aspect of a well-functioning society, guided by several key principles:

 Transparency: Openness in how decisions are made and implemented.

 Accountability: The responsibility of those in power to be answerable for their actions.
 Participation: The involvement of citizens in the decision-making processes.
 Rule of Law: The principle that everyone, including the government, is subject to and accountable
under the law.
 Responsiveness: The ability of governance systems to respond to the needs of the population.

Good governance ensures fairness and promotes development within society.

Politics is concerned with power and decision-making, while governance focuses on the systems and
implementation of those decisions. A comprehensive understanding of both concepts is vital for becoming an
active and responsible citizen.

Political Ideologies: A Quick Guide

Political ideologies are sets of beliefs that shape how society should be organized. They influence political
actions and guide behavior.

Prominent Ideologies:

 Liberalism: Prioritizes individual freedom and rights. It advocates for a limited government that
protects free speech, religion, and business.
 Conservatism: Values tradition and social order. It prefers gradual change and emphasizes the
importance of morality and culture.
 Socialism: Aims for equality for all. The government provides essential services like education and
healthcare to ensure everyone has access.
 Fascism: Puts the nation over the individual. It seeks a strong, strict government with no political
opposition.
 Communism: Aims for a classless society with shared property and equal work and pay for
everyone.
 Anarchism: Believes in no government or leaders, advocating for voluntary cooperation among
people.
  Libertarianism: Emphasizes freedom in all aspects of life. It seeks a minimal government with little to
no interference.
 Social Democracy: Combines equality with democracy. It provides public services like free
healthcare and education while maintaining free elections and private business.

POWER

Power in politics and governance is the ability of a person or group to influence or control the actions,
decisions, and behavior of others in a society.

Power allows leaders or institutions to:

o Make rules
o Enforce laws
o Manage public resources

Sources of Power

 Authority
 Wealth
 Knowledge
 Support from the people

Nature

1. Power Over: Domination or control over others.

2. Power To: The ability to achieve goals using one's own skills.
3. Power With: Collective action through teamwork or cooperation.

Dimensions

1. Decision-Making Power: Direct influence over decisions.

2. Agenda-Setting Power: Controlling what is discussed or prioritized.
3. Ideological Power: Shaping values, norms, and beliefs.

Types of Power

1. Coercive Power: Using threats or punishment.

2. Reward Power: Offering rewards or benefits.
3. Legitimate Power: Power from a position or official role.
4. Expert Power: Based on knowledge or skills.
5. Referent Power: Based on admiration or popularity.
6. Informational Power: Power from knowing something important.

Consequences

1. Compliance: Following rules or orders even if you do not like them.

2. Commitment: You follow or support because you believe in it.
3. Resistance: You refuse to follow or fight back against power.
4. Conformity: You change your behavior to fit in with a group, even if you do not really like it.

The State: Foundation of Political Organization

A state is the primary legal and political entity in the international system. It's not just a government; it's a
complete body that holds authority over a defined area and population. The concept of the modern state, as we
know it, emerged from the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which established the principle of state sovereignty.

Essential Elements of a State:

People: This refers to the inhabitants of the state. It doesn't require a homogeneous population; a state
can be made up of various ethnic groups, cultures, and nationalities. The key is that they are under the
jurisdiction of a single government.

Territory: A state must have a fixed, recognized geographical area. This includes land, water (both
internal and territorial waters), and airspace. The boundaries may be a subject of dispute, but their
existence is a requirement for a state.
 Government: This is the administrative body that exercises power and authority over the people and
territory. The government is responsible for making and enforcing laws, providing public services, and
managing the state's affairs. A state can change its government without losing its identity as a state.

Sovereignty: This is the most crucial element. Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state to
govern itself. It has two aspects:

o Internal Sovereignty: The state's exclusive authority within its own territory. No other entity can
challenge its rule or make laws for its people.
o External Sovereignty: The state's independence from external control. It can freely enter into
treaties, alliances, and conduct its foreign policy without coercion from other states.

The Nation: A Shared Identity 🇵🇭

A nation is a large group of people who are united by a shared identity. This shared identity is often rooted in a
common culture, language, history, and a sense of shared destiny. Unlike a state, a nation is a socio-cultural
and psychological concept, not a political or legal one. It exists as a sense of belonging and solidarity among
people.

Types of Relationships between States and Nations:

Nation-State: This is the ideal and most common model, where the people of a single nation form a
single state. The boundaries of the nation largely coincide with the boundaries of the state. Examples
include Japan, where most of the population shares a common Japanese identity, and Portugal.

Stateless Nation: A nation that does not have its own state. The people of this nation live within the
borders of one or more existing states, but they aspire to have their own. A prime example is the
Kurds, who are a nation spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria, but do not have a country of their
own.

Multi-nation State: A single state that contains two or more nations. The United Kingdom is a great
example, composed of the English, Scottish, Welsh, and Northern Irish nations. The Philippines, with its
diverse ethnolinguistic groups like the Tagalogs, Visayans, and Lumad peoples, can also be considered
a multi-nation state in a cultural sense.

Globalization: Interconnectedness and Its Effects 🌍

Globalization is a complex and ongoing process that describes the increasing interdependence and
integration of countries and peoples around the world. It is driven by advances in technology, particularly in
transportation and communication, and the liberalization of trade.

Key Dimensions of Globalization:

Economic Globalization: The integration of national economies through international trade,

investment, and the rise of multinational corporations (MNCs) like Apple or Toyota. This has created a
single global market where goods and services are produced and consumed across borders.

Political Globalization: The growth of international organizations and non-state actors. Bodies like the
United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), and the International Criminal Court (ICC) have
a growing influence on national policies. This also includes the spread of political ideas like democracy
and human rights.

Cultural Globalization: The exchange and spread of ideas, values, and cultural products (music,
movies, fashion, food) across the globe. This can lead to a more cosmopolitan world and the formation
of a "global culture," but it can also be seen as a form of cultural imperialism, where dominant cultures
overshadow local ones.

The Impact on States and Nations:

Globalization poses a significant challenge to the traditional authority of the state.

 Erosion of Sovereignty: States may lose some of their power to multinational corporations, global
financial markets, and international organizations. For instance, a country's economic policy may be
influenced by the terms of a loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or the investment
decisions of an MNC.

Challenge to National Identity: The influx of foreign cultures and the mobility of people can
complicate national identity. In a country like the Philippines, the prevalence of foreign films, music and
social media trends can both enrich and challenge local cultural norms and national identity.

Rise of Transnational Threats: Issues like climate change, global pandemics, terrorism, and
cybercrime cannot be solved by a single state. They require international cooperation, which forces
states to work together and sometimes cede a degree of their sovereignty to international bodies.

The Evolution of Philippine Politics

Political history is a narrative of political events, ideas, movements, and leaders 1. The evolution of politics in
the Philippines can be understood by examining the country's various historical periods 2. The term
democracy means "power of the people," from the Greek words demos ("people") and kratos ("strength of
power")3. A government that lacks political representation or participation can't be called democratic 4.

Pre-Colonial Period
Before the Spanish arrived in 1521, the Philippines had its own government structure in villages known as
barangays5. The word "barangay" comes from a Malayan word for "boat"6.
 Government: Each barangay was a monarchy led by a Datu, who was the chief executive, lawmaker,
judge, and military leader777. A council of elders called the
Maginoos assisted the Datu8. Leadership was based on wealth and physical strength9.
 Laws & Justice: Laws were unwritten and passed down through oral tradition 10. Disputes were often
resolved through mediation and compromise11. Justice was administered through trials by ordeal, and
punishment systems were already in place12.
 Social Stratification: The social classes were politically significant and included the Maharlika (nobility
and warrior class), Timawa (freemen or warriors who served the Datu), and two types of servants:
Aliping Namamahay (servants with their own homes) and Aliping Saguiguilid (servants who lived in
their master's house)13.

Spanish Period
Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in 1521 and subsequent expeditions led to the formal colonization of the
archipelago14. The pre-colonial government of independent barangays was replaced by a centralized
government led by an all-powerful
Governor-General15.
 Structure: Former chieftains were appointed as Cabeza de Barangay16. Unified barangays formed
pueblos (towns) led by a Gobernadorcillo17. Consolidated towns then formed provinces18.
 Provincial Divisions: Provinces were categorized as Alcaldia, which were fully subjugated provinces
headed by an Alcalde Mayor, or Corregimiento, which were provinces not entirely pacified, led by a
Corregidor19.
 Judicial System: An independent body called the Royal Audiencia was created to hear and resolve
cases20.

Revolutionary Period
The
Propaganda Movement, led by figures like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena,
advocated for the same rights and freedoms for Filipinos as those granted in Spain 21. The failure of this
movement led to the formation of the
Katipunan (KKK), a secret association22.
 Katipunan Governance: The Katipunan was governed by a hierarchy of councils: Kataastaasang
Sanggunian (Supreme Council), Sangguniang Lalawigan (Provincial Council), Sangguniang Bayan
(Popular Council), and Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council)23.
 Notable Events: The Katipunan eventually divided into two factions, the Magdalo and Magdiwang 24.
On March 22, 1897, Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president 25. He later established the Biak-Na-
Bato Republic on November 1, 189726.

American Period
The Treaty of Paris marked the end of the Spanish-American War 27. William H. Taft became the first civil
governor of the Philippines28.
  Key Legislation: The Philippine Act of 1902 (Cooper Act) provided for the creation of a Philippine
legislature29. In 1916, the Philippine Autonomy Act (Jones Law) reorganized this legislature30.
 Philippine Commonwealth: The Tydings-McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence Act) of 1934
established the Philippine Commonwealth31. The first Commonwealth government was headed by
President Manuel Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña32.

Japanese Period
The Japanese occupation of Manila in January 1942 led to the establishment of the Japanese Military
Administration33.
 Government: A civil government called the Philippine Executive Commission (PEC) was created to
temporarily rule the country34.
 Second Republic: A new constitution was promulgated in 1942, and Jose P. Laurel served as the
president of this Second Republic35.

Post-War Era
The structure of post-war Philippine politics was based on the 1935 Constitution36.
 Third Republic: The first president of the Third Republic was Manuel Roxas, followed by Elpidio
Quirino, Ramon Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, and the first term of Ferdinand
Marcos37.

Martial Law and Fourth Republic

Ferdinand Marcos was elected to the presidency in 1965 38. His administration was characterized by increased
agricultural productivity, massive infrastructure development, and a defining diplomatic policy39.
 1973 Constitution: A new constitution was adopted in 1973, which provided for a modified
parliamentary form of government40.
 Violations: During Martial Law, the political rights, civil liberties, and human rights of the people were
suppressed and violated41.
 EDSA People Power: The EDSA People Power revolution ended Marcos's rule42.

Post-EDSA Period
The period from 1986 onward marked the restoration of democracy43.
 Revolutionary Government: A revolutionary government was created after Corazon Aquino became
president44. She served as the first president of the Fifth Republic45454545.
 1987 Constitution: A new Philippine Constitution was ratified in 1987, establishing a democratic and
republican government46.
 Modern Leaders: The document notes that Rodrigo Duterte was the first president to hail from
Mindanao47.

The Executive Branch

 The executive branch is one of three co-equal branches of the Philippine government, along with the
legislative and judiciary branches1.
 It is headed by the President2.
 The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws3.
 The powers of the President are outlined in Article VII of the 1987 Constitution 4.
 Checks and balances are in place to prevent the abuse of power5.
Qualifications of the President
 Must be a natural-born Filipino6.
 Must be a registered voter and be able to read and write7.
 Must be at least 40 years old on election day8.
 Must have been a resident of the Philippines for at least 10 years before the election 9.
Term of Office
 The President serves a single, six-year term10.
 There is no re-election11.
 This single-term limit is meant to prevent the concentration of power and dictatorship 12.
Dual Role of the President
 Chief of State: The President acts as the symbolic head of the nation and represents the Philippines in
ceremonies and diplomacy13.
 Chief Executive: The President is the head of government, responsible for enforcing laws and
controlling the executive departments14.
Powers of the President
 Executive & Administrative Powers: The President has control over executive departments, bureaus,
and offices, and supervision over local governments15. The President can issue Executive Orders
(EOs), Administrative Orders (AOs), proclamations, and other directives16.
  Appointing Powers: The President appoints cabinet members, ambassadors, officers of the Armed
Forces of the Philippines (AFP), judges, and heads of constitutional commissions17. These
appointments are subject to confirmation by the Commission on Appointments18.
 Military Powers: The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the AFP19. The President can call out
the military during a crisis and may declare Martial Law or suspend Habeas Corpus for a maximum of
60 days20. These actions are subject to checks by Congress and the Supreme Court21.
 Pardoning Powers: The President can grant executive clemency, which includes pardons,
commutation, reprieve, and amnesty22. Amnesty requires the approval of Congress23.
 Diplomatic Powers: The President is the chief diplomat in foreign affairs24. The President signs
treaties, which require Senate ratification, and can also enter into executive agreements that do not
require Senate approval25.
 Budgetary & Fiscal Powers: The President prepares and submits the national budget and allocates
funds, which is subject to legislative oversight26.
 Veto Power: The President can reject bills from Congress using a Regular Veto, Line-item Veto (for
budget bills), or Pocket Veto27.
The President's Role in Lawmaking
 The President's State of the Nation Address (SONA) sets the legislative agenda 28.
 The President can certify bills as urgent for faster passage29.
Checks and Balances
 Legislative Checks: Congress can confirm appointments, initiate impeachment proceedings, override
a presidential veto, and control the budget30.
 Judicial Checks: The judiciary has the power of judicial review and can review a declaration of martial
law31.
 Other Checks: Public opinion and a free press also serve as checks on the President's power32.

The Legislative Branch

Goal:
 To understand what the legislative branch is, what it does, and why it is important 1.
What is "Legislative"?
 "Legislative" refers to the process of making laws2222.
 It is one of the three branches of government3:
o Legislative: Makes laws4.
o Executive: Enforces laws5.
o Judicial: Interprets laws6.
Legislative in the Philippines
 The legislative branch in the Philippines is called Congress7777.
 Congress is made up of two parts8888:
o The Senate (Upper House) 9
o The House of Representatives (Lower House) 10
The Senate
 Composed of 24 senators11.
 Senators are elected by the entire country12.
 They serve for 6 years13.
 They are responsible for making laws for the entire nation14.
The House of Representatives
 Composed of district representatives and party-list representatives15.
 They represent local areas and special groups16.
 They serve for 3 years17.
 They initiate money-related laws, such as those concerning the budget and taxes 18.
How a Law is Made
1. A bill is proposed19.
2. The bill goes through readings and debates20.
3. Both the Senate and the House must agree on the bill21.
4. The President signs the bill for it to become a law22.
5. If the President vetoes the bill, Congress has the ability to override the veto 23.
Why the Legislative Branch is Important
 It creates rules for the country24.
 It represents the voice of the people25.
 It serves as a check on the power of the President26.
 It helps to solve national problems27.