University of Engineering & Technology

Peshawar, Pakistan

CE215: Structure Analysis I

Module : 05
Deflections

By:
Prof. Dr. Bashir Alam
Civil Engineering Department
UET , Peshawar
 Topics to be Covered
1. Introduction
2. Elastic beam theory
3. External work and strain Energy
4. Principle of work and Energy
5. Principle of virtual work
6. Method of virtual work for Trusses
7. Method of virtual work for Beams & Frames
8. Castigliano’s theorem for beams, frames and truss
1. Introduction
 1. Introduction
 Deflections:
• The deformation of a structure is mostly expressed in terms of the deflection from its
original unloaded position.

• The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface to the neutral surface of the
deformed structure.

• The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral axis is known s the elastic curve of the
beam.

y
 1. Introduction
• Deflections of structures can occur from various sources, such as loads, temperature,
fabrication errors, or settlement.

• In design, deflections must be limited in order to provide integrity and stability of roofs,
and prevent cracking of attached brittle materials such as concrete, plaster or glass.

• Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely in order to “appear” safe for
its occupants.

• More important, though, deflections at specified points in a structure must be

determined if one is to analyze statically indeterminate structures.
 1. Introduction
 Deflections:
• The deflections to be considered throughout this text apply only to structures having linear
elastic material response.

• Under this condition, a structure subjected to a load will return to its original unreformed
position after the load is removed.

• The deflection of a structure is caused by its internal loadings such as normal force, shear
force, or bending moment.

• For beams and frames, however, the greatest deflections are most often caused by internal
bending, whereas internal axial forces cause the deflections of a truss.
 1. Introduction
 Deflections:
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
• The curve assumed by the longitudinal axis of an original straight elastic strip or bar bent
within its elastic limits by any system of forces.
• If the elastic curve seems difficult to establish, it is suggested that the moment diagram for the
beam or frame be drawn first.

• By our sign convention for a positive moment tends to bend a beam or horizontal member
concave upward, Likewise, a negative moment tends to bend the beam or member concave
downward.

+M +M
-M -M
positive moment, negative moment,
concave upward concave downward
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
• Therefore, if the shape of the moment diagram is known, it will be
easy to construct the elastic curve and vice versa.

• Within the region of negative moment, the elastic curve is concave

downward; and within the region of positive moment, the elastic
curve is concave upward. In particular, there must be an inflection
point at the point where the curve changes from concave down to
concave up, since this is a point of zero moment.
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
• Using these same principles, it can be noted that how the elastic
curves for beams are drawn based on its moment diagram.
P P

M P P
M

x x

inflection point
inflection point
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
• Being able to draw the deflection curve also helps engineers in
locating the steel needed to reinforce a concrete beam, column, or
wall.
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
• Being able to draw the deflection curve also helps engineers in
locating the steel needed to reinforce a concrete beam, column, or
wall.
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
 1. Introduction
 Deflections Diagrams:
• Using
 1. Introduction
 Methods of finding deflections:

Semi graphical
Deflection Methods
Methods
Energy
Methods
 1. Introduction
 Deflection using semigraphical methods:
The semigraphical methods are very effective for finding the
displacements and slopes at points in beams subjected to simple
loadings as you have already studied in MOS course like:
• Double Integration Method

• Moment-Area Theorems

• Conjugate-Beam Method

For more complicated loadings or for structures such as trusses and

frames, it is suggested that energy methods be used for the
computations.
2. Elastic Beam Theory
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
• Elastic beam theory relate the internal moment in a beam to the
displacement and slope of its elastic curve. These equations form the
basis for the deflection.

• This problem of beam strength was addressed by Galileo in 1638, in

his well known “Dialogues concerning two new sciences. Illustrated
with an alarmingly unstable looking cantilever beam.

• Galileo assumed that the beam rotated about the base at its point of
support, and that there was a uniform tensile stress across the beam
section equal to the tensile strength of the material.
2. Elastic Beam Theory
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
• We will limit the analysis to the most common case of an initially
straight beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied
perpendicular to the beam’s x axis and lying in the x-v plane of
symmetry for the beam’s cross-sectional area, Fig. 7.1.

Fig.7.1
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
 Assumptions:
To derive these relationships the followings assumption are made for
the beam shown in Fig.7.1,
• Beam in initially straight.

• The beam cross-section is constant along its axis.

• Load is applied perpendicular to beam axis.

• The beam is loaded in its plane of symmetry.

• Deformations remain small. This simplifies the theory of elasticity to its linear form.

• Material is isotropic.

• Plane sections of the beam remain plane.

• The beam is long and slender.

 2. Elastic Beam Theory
• Due to the loading, the deformation of the beam is caused by both the
internal shear force and bending moment.
• If the beam has a length that is much greater than its depth, the
greatest deformation will be caused by bending, and therefore we will
direct our attention to its effects.

Fig.7.1
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
When the internal moment M deforms the element of the beam, each
cross section remains plane and the angle between them becomes 𝑑𝜃 ,
as shown in Fig.7.2.

• The arc dx that represents a portion

of the elastic curve intersects the
neutral axis for each cross section.
• The radius of curvature for this arc is
defined as the distance ρ , which is
measured from the center oʹ of
curvature to dx.
Fig.7.2
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
Any arc on the element other than dx is subjected to a normal strain. For
example, the strain in arc ds, located at a position y from the neutral axis,
is 𝜀 𝑑𝑠ʹ 𝑑𝑠 /𝑑𝑠 however

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑑𝜃 and 𝑑𝑠ʹ 𝜌 𝑦 𝑑𝜃

and so

Eq.7.1

Fig.7.2
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
If the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear elastic manner,
then Hooke’s law applies, 𝜀 𝜎/𝐸 . Also, since the flexure formula
applies, 𝜎 𝑀𝑦/𝐼 . Combining these equations and substituting into
the above equation 7.1, we have

----------- Eq.7.2

Here
ρ = the radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve
(1/ρ is referred to as the curvature)
M = the internal moment in the beam at the point where is to be determined
E= the material’s modulus of elasticity
I = the beam’s moment of inertia computed about the neutral axis
 2. Elastic Beam Theory
The product 𝐸𝐼 in this equation is referred to as the flexural rigidity, and
it is always a positive quantity. Since 𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑑𝜃 then from above Eq. 7.2

----------- Eq.7.3

If we choose the ν axis positive upward, shown in Fig.7.1 above, and if

we can express the curvature in terms of x and ν, we can then determine
the elastic curve for the beam. In most calculus books it is shown that
this curvature relationship is

----------- Eq.7.4
 2. Elastic Beam Theory

----------- Eq.7.4

Therefore

----------- Eq.7.5

Since the slope of the elastic curve for most structures is very small, we
will use small deflection theory and assume 𝑑𝜈/𝑑𝑥 0 so the Eq.
become

----------- Eq.7.6
3. External Work and Strain Energy
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
• Most energy methods are based on the conservation of energy principle, which states that the
work done by all the external forces acting on a structure Ue, is transformed into internal
work or strain energy Ui, which is developed when the structure deforms.

• If the material’s elastic limit is not exceeded, the elastic strain energy will return the structure
to its undeformed state when the loads are removed.
• The conservation of energy principle can be stated mathematically as
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:

• When a force 𝐹 undergoes a displacement dx in the same direction as the force, the work
done is 𝑑𝑈𝑒 𝐹𝑑𝑥, If the total displacement is x, the work becomes

𝑈𝑒 𝐹𝑑𝑥 F 𝑃
𝐹 𝑥
Δ
P
L
As the magnitude of F is gradually increased from zero to some
limiting value F = P, the final elongation of the bar becomes Δ. Ue x
 
𝑃 𝑃 2 Δ 1
𝑈𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 | 𝑃Δ ------ Eq.7.7
Δ 2Δ 0 2 F=P
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:

We may also conclude from this that as a force is gradually applied to the bar, and its magnitude
builds linearly from zero to some value P, the work done is equal to the average force magnitude
(P/2) times the displacement (Δ).

F 𝑃
𝐹 𝑥
Δ
P
1 L
𝑈𝑒 𝑃Δ ------ Eq.7.7
2
Ue x
 

F=P
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:

F
20 kN

1cm x (m)
0.01 m
Ue
20 kN

1
𝑈𝑒 20 ∗ 103 0.01 100 𝑁𝑚
2
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:

• Suppose now that P is already applied to the bar and that another force F’ is now applied, so
the bar deflects further by an amount ∆’.

• The work done by P (not F’) when the bar undergoes the further deflection is then

Δ
Δʹ
P

F’
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:
• Here the work represents the shaded rectangular area.
• In this case P does not change its magnitude since Δ’ is caused only by F’.
• Therefore, work is simply the force magnitude (P) times the displacement (Δ’)

Δ
Δʹ
P

F’
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:

• When a force P is applied to the bar, followed by application of the force F’ the total work
done by both forces is represented by the triangular area ACE.

F
F´+P C L

B
P D
Displacement work Δ
Δʹ
A E
x P
 ´
F
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Force:

• The triangular area ABG represents the work of P that is caused

by its displacement ∆.

• The triangular area BCD represents the work of since F’ this

force causes a displacement ∆‘.

• Lastly, the shaded rectangular area BDEG represents the

additional work done by P when displaced ∆‘ as caused by F’ so

----------- Eq.7.8
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Moment:

The work of a moment is defined by the product of the magnitude of the moment M and the
angle dθ through which it rotates, that is, 𝑑𝑈𝑒 𝑀 𝑑𝜃. If the total angle of rotation is θ radians,
the work becomes

d
M

𝑈𝑒 𝑀𝑑θ
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Moment:

• As in the case of force, if the moment is applied gradually to a structure having linear elastic
response from zero to M, the work is then
M

M
1
𝑈𝑒 𝑀θ ----------- Eq.7.9
2
Ue θ
θ

• If the moment is already applied to the structure and other loadings further distort the structure
by an amount θʹ, then M rotates θʹ and the work is
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o External Work- Moment:

However, if the moment is already applied to the structure and other loadings Mʹ further distort
the structure by an amount θʹ then M rotates θʹ and the total work is then

M
M´+M
M
1 1
𝑈𝑒 𝑀θ θʹ𝑀ʹ 𝑀θʹ ----- Eq.7.10 Displacement work
2 2

 ´
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o Strain Energy – Axial Force :

When an axial force N is applied gradually to the bar in Fig. it will strain the material such that
the external work done by N will be converted into strain energy, which is stored in the bar.

N
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o Strain Energy – Axial Force :

Provided the material is linearly elastic, Hooke’s law is valid, 𝜎 𝐸𝜀 , and if the bar has a
constant cross-sectional area A and length L, the normal stress is 𝜎 𝑁/𝐴 and the final strain is
𝜀 Δ/𝐿 so
Substituting the values of Δ and 𝑃 𝑁 in Eq. 7.7 yields

𝑁𝐿
∆ ------ Eq.7.11
𝐴𝐸

1
𝑈𝑖 𝑃Δ ------ Eq.7.7
2

𝑁2𝐿
𝑈𝑖 ------ Eq.7.12
2𝐴𝐸
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o Strain Energy – Bending:

Consider the beam shown in Fig. which is distorted by the gradually applied loading P and w.
These loads create an internal moment M in the beam at a section located a distance x from the
left support.

P
w M M

d
x dx dx
L
 3. External Work and Strain Energy
o Strain Energy – Bending:

The resulting rotation of the differential element dx, shown in Fig. can be found from elastic
beam theory, that is, 𝑑𝜃 𝑀/𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥. Consequently, the strain energy, or work stored in the
element, is determined from Eq. 7.9 since the internal moment is gradually developed.

1
𝑈𝑒 𝑀θ ----------- Eq.7.9
2 M M
𝑀2𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑈𝑖 ----------- Eq.7.13 d
2𝐸𝐼
So total energy stored dx
𝑀2𝑑𝑥
𝑈𝑖 ----------- Eq.7.14
2𝐸𝐼
4. Principle of Work and Energy
 4. Principle of Work and Energy
Consider finding the displacement Δ at the point where the force P is applied to the cantilever
beam in Fig. on next slide. From Eq. 7.7, the external work is 𝑈𝑒 1/2𝑃Δ.

To obtain the resulting strain energy, we must first determine the internal moment as a function
of position x in the beam.
 4. Principle of Work and Energy
Consider the beam shown

x P

M diagram

-PL M P

x
V
 4. Principle of Work and Energy
• Although the solution here is quite direct, application of this method is limited to only a few
select problems.
• It will be noted that only one load may be applied to the structure, since if more than one
load were applied, there would be an unknown displacement under each load, and yet it is
possible to write only one “work” equation for the beam.
• Furthermore, only the displacement under the force can be obtained, since the external work
depends upon both the force and its corresponding displacement.
• One way to circumvent these limitations is to use the method of virtual work or Castigliano’s
theorem
•
5. Principle of Virtual Work
 5. Principle of Virtual Work
• The principle of virtual work was developed by John Bernoulli in 1717 and is sometimes
referred to as the unit-load method.

• It provides a general means of obtaining the displacement and slope at a specific point on a
structure, be it a beam, frame, or truss.
• If a deformable structure is subjected to external load P, it will cause internal loads u at
points throughout the structure.
• As a consequence of these loadings, external displacements Δ will occur at the P loads and
internal displacements δ will occur at each point of internal load u.
In general, the principle of work and energy states,
•
 5. Principle of Virtual Work
• Suppose it is necessary to determine the displacement Δ of point A on the body caused by the
“real loads” P1, P2, and P3.
• Since no external load acts on the body at A and in the direction of Δ, the displacement can be
determined by first placing on the body a “virtual” load such that this force Pʹ acts in the
same direction as Δ.
• For convenience, we will choose Pʹ to have a “unit” magnitude, that is, Pʹ = 1.
• The unit load does create an internal virtual load u in a representative element or fiber of the
body.
 5. Principle of Virtual Work
• Once the virtual loadings are applied, then the body is subjected to the real loads P1, P2, and
P3.
• Point A will be displaced an amount Δ, causing the element to deform an amount dL.
• As a result, the external virtual force Pʹ and internal virtual load u “ride along” by Δ and dL,
respectively, and therefore perform external virtual work of 1.Δ on the body and internal
virtual work [Link] of on the element.
 5. Principle of Virtual Work
The term “virtual” is used to describe the load, since it is imaginary and does not actually exist
as part of the real loading.

Realizing that the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work done on all the
elements of the body, we can write the virtual-work equation as

Virtual loadings
1 • u • dL ----------- Eq.7.15
Real displacements

Pʹ = 1 = External virtual load acting it the direction of Δ

u = internal virtual load acting on the element in the direction of dL.
Δ = external displacement caused by the real loads.
dL = internal deformation of the element caused by the real loads
 5. Principle of Virtual Work

In a similar manner the rotation θ can be found from the virtual-work equation

Virtual loadings
1 • u • dL ----------- Eq.7.16
Real displacements

Mʹ = 1 = External virtual unit couple moment acting it the direction of θ

uθ = internal virtual load acting on the element in the direction of dL.
θ= external rotational displacement in radians caused by the real loads (moment).
dL = internal deformation of the element caused by the real loads
 5. Principle of Virtual Work
• This method for applying the principle of virtual work is often referred to as the method of
virtual forces, since a virtual force is applied resulting in the calculation of a real
displacement.
• The equation of virtual work in this case represents a compatibility requirement for the
structure.
• Although not important here, realize that we can also apply the principle of virtual work as a
method of virtual displacements.
• In this case virtual displacements are imposed on the structure while the structure is subjected
to real loadings.
• This method can be used to determine a force on or in a structure, so that the equation of
virtual work is then expressed as an equilibrium requirement.
6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
The method of virtual work can be used to determine the displacement of a truss joint when the
truss is subjected to an,

 External loading,

 temperature change, or

 Fabrication errors.

Only External loading situation will now be discussed.

 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Let us consider the vertical displacement of joint B of the truss in shown below.

• Considering one of its members having a length L, If the applied loadings cause a linear elastic
material response, then this element deforms an amount Δ𝐿 𝑁𝐿/𝐴𝐸, where N is the normal
or axial force in the member, caused by the loads.

• Applying Eq. 9–15, the virtual-work equation for the truss is therefore

𝑛𝑁𝐿
1 • Δ ----------- Eq.7.17
𝐴𝐸
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses

P1
N1 P2 n1

N3 N5 n3 n5
N7 N8 N9 n7 n8 n9
B B
 1kN
𝑛𝑁𝐿
1 • Δ
𝐴𝐸

Where:
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated direction of 
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external virtual
unit load
 = external joint displacement caused by the real load on the truss
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real loads
L = length of a member
A = cross-sectional area of a member, E = modulus of elasticity of a member
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Procedure for Analysis:

1. Real Forces N: 2. Virtual Forces n:

P1
N1 P2 n1

n3 n5
N3 N5
N9
n7 n8 n9
N7 N8
B
1kN

3. Virtual Work Equation:

𝑛𝑁𝐿
1 • Δ
𝐴𝐸
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:01
The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in the figure. Take A = 400 mm2 and E = 200 GPa.
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if a 4-kN force is applied to the truss at C.

C
4 kN

3m
A B

4m 4m
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:01, Solution:
1. Real Forces N: The N force in each member is calculated using the method of
joints.

C
4 kN Note: Positive sign with forces shown
Tensile force( away from joints) &
Negative sign indicate compression
4 kN 2
A B in the member ( towards the joints)

N (kN)

1.5 kN 1.5 kN
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:01, Solution:
2. Virtual Forces n: Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be determined,
only a vertical 1 kN load is placed at joint C. The n force in
each member is calculated using the method of joints.

1 kN

A 0.667
0 B
n (kN)
0.5 kN 0.5 kN
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:01, Solution:
3. Virtual Work Equation:

𝑛𝑁𝐿
1 • Δ
𝐴𝐸

C 1 kN
4 kN C

C
2 A 0.667 A 8 B
A B B
N (kN) n (kN) L (m)
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:01, Solution:
3. Virtual Work Equation:

A 10.67 B

nNL (kN2•m)

𝑛𝑁𝐿 1 10.67𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
1 • Δ𝑐𝑣 10.41 10.41 10.67 𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 400 10 6 200 106 𝑚2

Δ𝑐𝑣 0.133 𝑚𝑚 ↓
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss shown. The cross-section area of each member
is A = 400 mm2 and E = 200 Gpa.

F E

4m
A D
B C
4m 4m 4m

4 kN 4 kN
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02, Solution:
1. Real Forces N: The N force in each member is calculated using the method of
joints.

F -4 E

4 4 4m
0 A 4 4 4 D
B C
4m 4m 4m
4 kN 4 kN 4 kN
4 kN
N(kN)
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02, Solution:
2. Virtual Forces n: Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be determined,
only a vertical 1 kN load is placed at joint C. The n force in
each member is calculated using the method of joints.

0.333 F -0.333 E

1 4m
0 A 0.333 0.667 0.667 D
B C
4m 4m 4m
0.333 kN 0.667 kN
1kN
n (kN)
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02, Solution:
3. Virtual Work Equation:

𝑛𝑁𝐿
1 • Δ
𝐴𝐸
F E F -0.333 E
-4

0.333
1
4 4
A 4 4 4 D A 0.333 0.667 0.667 D
B C B C
N(kN) F 4 E n (kN)
4 kN 1kN
4 kN
4 4
4 4 4
B C
A L(m) D
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02, Solution:
3. Virtual Work Equation:

F 5.33 E

5.33
16
5.33 10.67 10.67
B C
A D
nNL(kN2•m)
1 • Δ𝑐𝑣 ∑
1 98.58𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
Δ𝑐𝑣 15.07 3 5.33 2 10.67 16 30.18 𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝐸 400 10 6 200 106 𝑚2

Δ𝑐𝑣 1.23 𝑚𝑚 ↓
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02 Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the
steel truss shown in Fig. 9–8a. The cross-sectional area of each
member is A = 0.5 in2 and E = 29,000 ksi.
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:02
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:03
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss shown. Take EA constant.

wall
D C 10 kN

3m

B
A
20 kN
2m
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:03, Solution:
1. Real Forces N: The N force in each member is calculated using the method of
joints.

20 kN

23.33 kN D 23.33 C 10 kN

20
3m 20
0
B
13.33 kN A
20 kN
2m

N (kN)
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:03, Solution:
2. Virtual Forces n: Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be determined,
only a vertical 1 kN load is placed at joint C. The n force in
each member is calculated using the method of joints.

1 kN 1 kN
0.667 kN D 0.667 C

1
0
0
B
0.667 kN A
n (kN)
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:03, Solution:
3. Virtual Work Equation:

𝑛𝑁𝐿
1 • Δ
𝐴𝐸
20 kN
1 kN 1 kN
23.33 kN D 23.33 C 10 kN D
D 0.667 C 2 C

20 0.667 kN
3m 1
20
0 3 3
0 0 2
B B
13.33 kN A A B
0.667 kN A
20 kN
2m n (kN) L (m)

N (kN)
 6. Method of Virtual Work for Trusses
• Example:03, Solution:
3. Virtual Work Equation:

D 31.13 C
60
0
0
B
A
nNL(kN2•m)

1 • Δ𝑐𝑣 ∑
1 195.25
Δ𝑐𝑣 60 31.13 104.12 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝐸 𝐸𝐴
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and
Frames
 7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
The method of virtual work can also be applied to deflection problems involving beams and
frames. The principle of virtual work, or more exactly, the method of virtual force, may be
formulated for beam and frame deflections by considering the beam shown in Fig. Here the
displacement of point C is to be determined.

w
C
A B
Cv
x1 x2
RA RB
 7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
To compute Δ, a virtual unit load acting in the direction of Δ is placed on the beam at C, and the
internal virtual moment m is determined by the method of sections at an arbitrary location x
from the support

x1 x2
C
A B

rA 1 rB

x1 m2 x2
m1
Virtual unit load B
rA v1 v2
rB
 7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames

When the real loads act on the beam, point C is displaced by Δ

w
C
A B
Cv
x1 x2
RA RB

M1 M2 B
x1
V1 Real load V2 x2
RA RB

Here M is the internal moment at x caused by the real loads.

7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
• From elastic bending theory

𝑀
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥
Also 𝐸𝐼

𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 1. ∆

Also
𝑀
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚 𝑚. 𝑑θ 𝑚 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
Summing the effects on all the elements dx along the beam requires integration and therefore

𝑚𝑀
1. ∆ 𝑑𝑥 ----------- Eq.7.18
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
where in

𝑚𝑀
1. ∆ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

1 = External virtual unit load acting it the direction of Δ

m = internal virtual moment in the beam or frame expressed as a function
of x and caused by external virtual unit load.
Δ= external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the
beams & frames
M = internal moment in the beam or frame expressed as a function
of x and caused by real loads.
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
In a similar manner, if the tangent rotation or slope angle θ at a point A
on the beam’s elastic curve is to be determined, a unit couple moment
is first applied at the point, and the corresponding internal moments mθ
have to be determined. Since the work of the unit couple is then 1.mθ

𝑚𝜽𝑀
1. θ𝐶 𝑑𝑥 ----------- Eq.7.19
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames

Separate x coordinates have to be

chosen within regions that have no
discontinuity of loading.
Also, it is not necessary that each x
have the same origin.
However, the x selected for
determining the real moment M in a
particular region must be the same x as
that selected for determining the
virtual moment m or mθ within the
same region.
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames

w
x1 x2
C C 1
A B A B
C
x1 x2 rA rB
RA RB

m2 x2
w m1
M1 M2 B
B v2
x1 rA v1 rB
V1 V2 x2
RA RB

𝑚𝜽𝑀
1. θ𝐶 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:04
Determine the slope and displacement of point B of the steel beam shown in the

figure below. Take E = 200 GPa, I = 250(106) mm4.

3 kN/m

A B
5m
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
 Example:04, Solution: Vertical Displacement at B:
1. Virtual Moment m: The vertical displacement of point B is obtained by placing a

virtual unit load of 1 kN at B and the m moment is formulated at section x.

1 kN 1 kN
x -1x = m x

A B
5m v
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
 Example:04, Solution: Vertical Displacement at B:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M is

formulated as shown in Fig.

x 3x
3 kN/m 𝑥
3𝑥2
𝑀 2
2
A B
5m x
V
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
 Example:04, Solution: Vertical Displacement at B:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The vertical displacement of B is thus

5
0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:04, Solution: Slope or rotation at B:
1. Virtual Moment m: The slope at point B is obtained by placing a virtual unit

couple moment of 1 kN-m at B and the m moment is formulated at section x.

x 1 kN•m -1 = m x 1 kN•m

A B
5m v
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:04, Solution: Slope or rotation at B :
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M is

formulated as shown in Fig.

x 3x
3 kN/m 𝑥
3𝑥2
𝑀 2
2
A B
5m x
V
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:04, Solution: Slope or rotation at B:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The Slope or rotation at B is thus

5
0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05
Determine the slope and displacement of point B of the steel beam shown in the

figure below. Take E = 200 GPa, I = 60(106) mm4.

14 kN•m 5 kN
A C D
B
2m 2m 3m
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05, Solution: Vertical Displacement at B:
1. Virtual Moment m: The vertical displacement of point B is obtained by placing a

virtual unit load of 1 kN at B and the m moment is formulated at section x.

mΔ1=0.5x1 mΔ2=0.5x1
x1
1 kN
x2 x3 1 mΔ3= 0

A
B C D m
0.5 kN 0.5 kN
2m 2m 3m
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05, Solution: Vertical Displacement at B:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M is

formulated as shown in Fig.

14 M1 = 14 - x1
14 kN•m x 5 kN
1 x2 x3 M2 = 6x2
C M3 = 0
A
B D M
1 kN 6 kN

2m 2m 3m
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05, Solution: Vertical Displacement at B:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The vertical displacement of B is thus

2 2
0 0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05, Solution: Slope or rotation at B:
1. Virtual Moment m: The slope at point B is obtained by placing a virtual unit couple

moment of 1 kN-m at B and the m moment is formulated at section x.

x1 x2 x3 m1 = 0.25x1 m3 = 0

0.5
A
B C D
1 kN•m m2 = -0.25x2
0.25 kN 0.25 kN -0.5
2m 2m 3m m
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05, Solution: Slop or rotation at B :
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M is

formulated as shown in Fig.

14 M1 = 14 - x1
14 kN•m x 5 kN
1 x2 x3 M2 = 6x2
C
M3 = 0
A
B D
M
1 kN 6 kN

2m 2m 3m
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:05, Solution: Slop or rotation at B:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The Slop or rotation at B is thus

2 2
0 0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06
Determine the slope and the horizontal displacement of point C on the frame.
Take E = 200 GPa, I = 200(106) mm4

5m
B C 4 kN

EI
2 kN/m
1.5 EI 6m

A
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06, Solution: Horizontal displacement at C:
1. Virtual Moment m: Placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN at C in horizontal direction

and the m moment is formulated at section x.

x2 C
1
m2= 1.2 x2
1.2 kN

m1= x1
x1

A 1 kN
1.2 kN
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06, Solution: Horizontal Displacement at C:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M

is formulated as shown in Fig.

x2
5m
B C 4 kN
M2= 12 x2
12 kN
2 kN/m
6m
x1 M1= 16 x1- x1 2

16 kN
A
12 kN
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06, Solution: Horizontal displacement at C:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The Horizontal displacement of C is thus

6 5
0 0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06, Solution: Slope or rotation at C:
1. Virtual Moment m: Placing a virtual unit couple moment of 1 kN-m at C and the m
moment is formulated at section x.

x2 1 kN•m
C
m2= 1 - x2/5
1/5 kN

x1 m1 = 0

0
A
1/5 kN
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06, Solution: Slop or rotation at C :
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M

is formulated as shown in Fig.

x2
5m
B C 4 kN
M2= 12 x2
12 kN
2 kN/m
6m
x1 M1= 16 x1- x1 2

16 kN
A
12 kN
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:06, Solution: Slop or rotation at C:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The Slop or rotation at C is thus

5
0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07
Determine the vertical and horizontal displacement at point D of the frame shown in
figure.

2k/ft
5k B
C
2I

I I 15ft

A D

30ft
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Vertical displacement at D:
1. Virtual Moment m: Placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN at D in vertical direction and
the m moment is formulated at section x. Analysis of frame under unit load is shown on
next slide.

B 2I C

15ft I I

A D

30ft 1k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Vertical displacement at D:

1k 30k-ft 1k
30k-ft 0k 0
0
0k B B 30ft C C
1k x 1k

𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝐵 𝑥
15ft 𝑚𝑣 30
𝐴𝐵
𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝐷 0
x x
0k A D
0
1k
30k-ft mv Values 1k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Vertical Displacement at D:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M

is formulated as shown in Fig. Analysis under actual loads are shown on next slides.
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Vertical Displacement at D:
2. Real Moment M:

900k-ft 2k/ft
0k
60k C
B 30ft 0 0
900k-ft C
60k x
5k B
𝑀𝐶𝐵 𝑥2
15ft 𝑀𝐴𝐵 975 5𝑥 𝑀𝐶𝐷 0
x x
5k A D
0
975k-ft
60k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Vertical displacement at D:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The vertical displacement of D is thus

Segment AB BC CD
Origin A C D
Limits 0 to 15 ft 0 to 30 ft 0 to 15ft
Moment of inertia , I I 2I I
M values 5x - 975 -x2 0
mv values 30 x 0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Vertical displacement at D:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The vertical displacement of D is thus

𝒏
𝑴 𝒎𝒗
Δ𝑫𝒗 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝒊𝑰𝒊
𝒊 𝟏

1 𝑥2 𝑥
Δ𝑫𝒗 5𝑥 975 30 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝐸𝐼 2
523125
Δ𝑫𝒗
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Horizontal displacement at D:

1. Virtual Moment m: Placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN at D in horizontal direction

and the m moment is formulated at section x. Analysis of frame under unit load is
shown on next slide.

B 2I C

15ft I I

A D

30ft 1k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Horizontal displacement at D:

15k-ft 15k-ft
0k 1k 0
1k
15k-ft B 30ft C 15k-ft
1k C 1k
B 0k x 0k

𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝐵 15
15ft 𝑚ℎ 𝑥
𝐴𝐵 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝐷 𝑥
x x
1k A D 1k
0
0
mh Values
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Horizontal Displacement at C:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M

is formulated as shown in Fig. Analysis under actual loads are shown on next slides.
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Horizontal Displacement at C:
2. Real Moment M:

900k-ft 2k/ft
60k 0k
B C 0
900k-ft 30ft 0 C
B 60k x
5k
𝑀𝐶𝐵 𝑥2
15ft 𝑀𝐴𝐵 975 5𝑥 𝑀𝐶𝐷 0
x x
5k A D
0
975k-ft
60k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Horizontal displacement at D:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The Horizontal displacement of D is thus

Segment AB BC CD
Origin A C D
Limits 0 to 15 ft 0 to 30 ft 0 to 15ft
Moment of inertia , I I 2I I
M values 5x - 975 -x2 0
mh values x 15 x
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:07, Solution: Horizontal displacement at D:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The horizontal displacement of D is thus

𝒏
𝑴 𝒎𝒉
Δ𝑫𝒉 𝒅𝒙
𝑬 𝒊 𝑰𝒊
𝒊 𝟏

1 𝑥2 15
Δ𝑫𝒉 5𝑥 975 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝐸𝐼 2
171562.5
Δ𝑫𝒉
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08
Determine the vertical and horizontal displacement at point C of the frame shown in
figure.

10k
5k C
B 2I

I 8ft

A
16ft
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Vertical displacement at C:

1. Virtual Moment m: Placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN at C in vertical direction and

the m moment is formulated at section x. Analysis of frame under unit load is shown on
next slide.

B C
2I
1
I

A
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Vertical displacement at C:

1k
16k-ft 16k-ft
0 0
0 B B C
16ft
1k x 1k
8ft 𝑚𝑣 16
𝐴𝐵 𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝐵 𝑥
x
0 A
16k-ft
1k mv Values
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Vertical Displacement at C:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M

is formulated as shown in Fig. Analysis under actual loads are shown on next slides.

10k
0
5k B
0 B 16ft C 0
x
8ft 𝑀𝐴𝐵 40 5𝑥 𝑀𝐶𝐵 0
x
A
5k
40k-ft
10k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Vertical displacement at D:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The vertical displacement of D is thus

Segment AB BC
Origin A B
Limits 0 to 8 ft 0 to 16 ft
Moment of inertia , I I 2I
M values -40 + 5x 0
mv values -16 -x
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Vertical displacement at D:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The vertical displacement of D is thus

𝒏
𝑴 𝒎𝒗
Δ𝑪𝒗 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝒊𝑰𝒊
𝒊 𝟏

1
Δ𝑪𝒗 5𝑥 40 16 𝑑𝑥 0
𝐸𝐼
2560
Δ𝑪𝒗
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Horizontal displacement at C:

1. Virtual Moment m: Placing a virtual unit load of 1 kN at C in horizontal direction

and the m moment is formulated at section x. Analysis of frame under unit load is
shown on next slide.

B 2I C 1k
15ft I

30ft
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Horizontal displacement at C:

0 0 0
1k B 1k 1k
B 16ft C
0 0
x
8ft 𝑚ℎ 8 𝑥
𝐴𝐵 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝐵 0
x
A
1k
8k-ft
0
mh Values
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Horizontal Displacement at C:
2. Real Moment M: Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M

is formulated as shown in Fig. Analysis under actual loads are shown on next slides.

10k
0
5k B
0 B 16ft C 0
x
8ft 𝑀𝐴𝐵 40 5𝑥 𝑀𝐶𝐵 0
x
A
5k
40k-ft
10k
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Horizontal displacement at C:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The Horizontal displacement of C is thus

Segment AB BC
Origin A B
Limits 0 to 8 ft 0 to 16 ft
Moment of inertia , I I 2I
M values -40 + 5x 0
mh values 8-x 0
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Example:08, Solution: Horizontal displacement at C:
3. Virtual-Work Equation: The horizontal displacement of C is thus

𝒏
𝑴 𝒎𝒉
Δ𝑪𝒉 𝒅𝒙
𝑬𝒊𝑰𝒊
𝒊 𝟏

1
Δ𝑪𝒉 5𝑥 40 8 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝐸𝐼
853.33
Δ𝑪𝒉
𝐸𝐼
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Assignment 04:

Problem 01: Determine the vertical and horizontal displacement of point C

take EI = Constant

A B
10ft

8ft 200 lb/ft

C
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Problem 02: Determine the slope and the vertical displacement of point C on
the frame. Take E = 200 GPa, I = 15(106) mm4.

5 kN

C
3m

B 60o

2m
A
7. Method of Virtual Work for Beams and Frames
Problem 03: Determine the horizontal displacement of joint A. AE is constant.
Use the principle of virtual work.
8. Castigliano’s Theorem
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
In 1879 Alberto Castigliano's, an Italian railroad engineer, published a
book in which he outlined a method for determining the deflection or
slope at a point in a structure, be it a truss, beam, or frame. This
method, which is referred to as Castigliano’s second theorem, or the
method of least work, applies only to structures that have constant
temperature, unyielding supports, and linear elastic material response.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
This theorem states that displacement at a point is equal to the first
partial derivative of the strain energy in the structure with respect to a
force acting at the point and in the direction of displacement. In a
similar manner, the slope at a point in a structure is equal to the first
partial derivative of the strain energy in the structure with respect to a
couple moment acting at the point and in the direction of rotation.

𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑖
∆𝑖 ----------- Eq.7.20 θ𝑖 ----------- Eq.7.21
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑀𝑖
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
Derivation:
To derive Castigliano’s second theorem, consider a body (structure) of
any arbitrary shape which is subjected to a series of n forces P1, P2, ….,
Pn.
Since the external work done by these loads is equal to the internal
strain energy stored in the body, we can write

The external work is a function of the external loads (Ue = ∑∫Pdx).

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
Derivation: Case 1
The multiple loads are applied first, developing Ui as the internal
energy of the structure.
Now, if any one of the forces, say Pi, is increased by a differential
amount dPi, the internal work is also increased such that the new strain
energy becomes
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
Derivation: Case 2
Now, if we apply dPi to the body first, then this will cause the body to
be displaced a differential amount dΔi in the direction of dPi.
Further application of the loads P1, P2,…, Pn, displace the body by Δ1,
Δ2, …, Δn.
The final internal energy in this case is:

+
The first term on the right side, however, is a second-order differential
and may be neglected.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
Derivation:

The above derivation requires that only conservative forces be

considered for the analysis.
These forces do work that is independent of the path and therefore
create no energy loss.
Since forces causing a linear elastic response are conservative, the
theorem is restricted to linear elastic behavior of the material.
This is unlike the method of virtual force discussed in the previous
section, which applied to both elastic and inelastic behavior.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:

The strain energy for a member of a truss is given by

𝑁 2𝐿
𝑈𝑖 ------ Eq.7.12
2𝐴𝐸
Substituting this equation into Eq. 7–20 and omitting the subscript i,
we have
𝜕 𝑁𝐿2
∆
𝜕𝑃 2𝐴𝐸

It is generally easier to perform the differentiation prior to summation

In the general case L, A, and E are constant for a given member, and
therefore we may write 𝜕𝑁 𝐿
∆ 𝑁 ------ Eq.7.22
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
It is generally easier to perform the differentiation prior to summation
In the general case L, A, and E are constant for a given member, and
therefore we may write

𝜕𝑁 𝐿
∆ 𝑁 ------ Eq.7.22
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸

Where:
 = external joint displacement of the truss
P = external force applied to the truss joint in the direction of 
N = internal force in a member cause by both the force P and the loads on the truss
L = length of a member
A = cross-sectional area of a member
E = modulus of elasticity of a member
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
𝜕𝑁 𝐿
∆ 𝑁 ------ Eq.7.22
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸

This equation is similar to that used for the method of virtual work, Eq.
9–15, except n is replaced by ∂N/∂P.
Notice that in order to determine this partial derivative it will be
necessary to treat P as a variable (not a specific numerical quantity),
and furthermore, each member force N must be expressed as a function
of P.
As a result, computing ∂N/∂P generally requires slightly more
calculation than that required to compute each n force directly.
These terms will of course be the same, since n or ∂N/∂P is simply the
change of the internal member force with respect to the load P, or the
change in member force per unit load.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Procedure for Analysis:
1. External Forces P:

Place a force P on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is

to be determined. This force is assumed to have a variable magnitude in

order to obtain the change 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝑃.Be sure P is directed along the line of

action of the displacement

n1

n3 n5
n7 n8 n9
B
P
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Procedure for Analysis:

2. Internal Forces N:

Determine the force N in each member caused by both the real

loads and variable force P. Assume tensile forces are positive and

compressive forces are negative.

N1 F

N3 N5
N7 N8 N9

P
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Procedure for Analysis:

2. Internal Forces N:

Compute the respective partial derivative 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝑃 for each member.

After N and 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝑃 have been determined, assign P its numerical value

if it has replaced a real force on the truss. Otherwise, set P equal to

zero.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Procedure for Analysis:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem:
Apply Castigliano’s theorem to determine the desired displacement Δ. It

is important to retain the algebraic signs for corresponding values of N

and 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝑃 when substituting these terms into the equation.

𝜕𝑁 𝐿
∆ 𝑁 ------ Eq.7.22
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸
If the resultant is positive, Δ is in the same direction as P. If a negative

value results,Δ is opposite to ¢ P.

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example 09: Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss shown
in the figure below. The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in
the figure is A = 400 mm2 and E = 200 GPa.

C
4 kN

3m
A B

4m 4m
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:09, Solution:
1. External Forces P : Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be
determined, only a vertical force P is placed at joint C. The n
force in each member is calculated using the method of
joints.

P kN

A 0.667P
0 B
P Load
0.5P 0.5P kN
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:09, Solution:
2. Internal Forces N : When only real load ( P = 0 ) is acting then values of N
force are

C
4 kN

4 kN 2
A B
N Force (P=0)
(kN)
1.5 kN 1.5 kN
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:09, Solution:
2. Internal Forces N : When real load and P both are acting then values of N
force are

P
C
4 kN

4 kN 2 + 0.667P
A B
N Force (kN)

0.5P - 1.5 kN 0.5P + 1.5 kN

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:09, Solution:

2. Internal Forces N : For convenience, these results along with the partial
derivatives 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝑃 are listed in tabular form as follows:

Member N(P≠0) 𝜕𝑁 N(P=0) L N( )L

𝜕𝑃

AB 0.667P + 2 0.667 2 8 10.67

AC -(0.833P-2.5) -0.833 2.5 5 -10.42

BC -(0.833P+2.5) -0.833 -2.5 5 10.42

∑ 10.67
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:09, Solution:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem: as we know that

𝜕𝑁 𝐿
∆𝑐𝑣 𝑁
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸

1 10.67𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
Δ𝑐𝑣 10.41 10.41 10.67 𝑘𝑁
𝐴𝐸 400 10 6 200 106 𝑚2

Δ𝑐𝑣 0.133 𝑚𝑚 ↓
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example 10: Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss shown
in the figure below. The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in
the figure is A = 0.5 in2 and E = 29000ksi.

F E

10ft
A D
B C
10ft 10ft 10ft

4k 4k
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:10, Solution:
1. External Forces P : Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be
determined, only a vertical force P is placed at joint C. The
force in each member is calculated using the method of
joints.

F -0.333P E
0.333P

P 10ft
0 A 0.333P 0.667P 0.667P D
B C

P
0.333 P 0.667 P

P Load
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:10, Solution:
2. Internal Forces N : When real load and P ( replacing one force at point C)
both are acting then values of N force are
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:10, Solution:
2. Internal Forces N : When only real loads (i.e P = 4k ) is acting then values of
N force are

F -4 E

4 4 10ft
0 A 4 4 4 D
B C
10ft 10ft 10ft
4k 4k 4k 4k
N(kips)
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:10, Solution:
2. Internal Forces N : For convenience, these results along with the partial
derivatives 𝜕𝑁/𝜕𝑃 are listed in tabular form as follows:
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:10, Solution:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem: as we know that

𝜕𝑁 𝐿
∆𝑐𝑣 𝑁
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸

246.47𝑘. 𝑓𝑡
Δ𝑐𝑣
0.5 𝑖𝑛2 29000𝑘𝑠𝑖

Δ𝑐𝑣 0.204 𝑚𝑚 ↓
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:11 Determine the horizontal displacement of joint D of the
truss shown in Fig. 9–12a. Take E = 29,000 ksi. The cross-sectional
area of each member is indicated in the figure.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:11 As in the preceding example, it may be preferable to
perform a separate analysis of the truss loaded with 10 k and loaded
with P and then superimpose the results.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses:
• Example:11
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:

The internal bending strain energy for a beam or frame is given by

𝑀2𝑑𝑥
𝑈𝑖 ----------- Eq.7.14
2𝐸𝐼

And as we know from costigliano theorem

𝜕𝑈𝑖
∆𝑖 ----------- Eq.7.20
𝜕𝑃𝑖

Substituting this value in above equation we get

𝜕 𝑀2𝑑𝑥
∆ ----------- Eq.7.23
𝜕𝑃 2𝐸𝐼
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
It is generally easier to differentiate prior to integration. Provided E and
I are constant

𝜕𝑀 𝑑𝑥
∆ 𝑀 ----------- Eq.7.24
𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼

Where:
 = external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the beam
or frame
P = external force applied to the beam or frame in the direction of 
M = internal moment in beam or frame , expressed as a function of x and cause by
both the force P and the loads on the beam or frame
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
If the slope θ at a point is to be determined, we must find the partial
derivative of the internal moment M with respect to an external couple
moment Mʹ acting at the point, i.e.,

𝜕𝑀 𝑑𝑥
θ 𝑀 ----------- Eq.7.25
𝜕𝑀ʹ 𝐸𝐼
Where:
 = external displacement of the point caused by the real loads acting on the beam
or frame
M´ = external moment applied to the beam or frame in the direction of 
M = internal moment in beam or frame , expressed as a function of x and cause by
both the force P and the loads on the beam or frame
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
• Procedure for Analysis:
1. External Forces P or Couple moment Mʹ:

• Place a force P on the beam or frame at the point and in the direction of the
desired displacement.

• If the slope is to be determined, place a couple moment Mʹ at the point.

• It is assumed that both P and Mʹ have a variable magnitude in order to

obtain the changes 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑃 and 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑀ʹ .
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
• Procedure for Analysis:

2. Internal Moments M:

• Apply both actual and external P load or moment couple Mʹ and establish
appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of the beam or frame
where there is no discontinuity of force, distributed load, or couple moment.

• Calculate the internal moment M as a function of P or Mʹ. Also, compute the

partial derivative 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑃 and 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑀ʹ or for each coordinate x.

• Assign P or Mʹ its numerical value if it has replaced a real force or couple

moment. Otherwise, set P or Mʹ equal to zero.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
• Procedure for Analysis:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem:

Apply Castigliano’s theorem to determine the desired displacement Δ or

θ. It is important to retain the algebraic signs for corresponding values

of M and 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑃 and 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑀ʹ when substituting these terms into the
equation.

𝜕𝑀 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑀 𝑑𝑥
∆ 𝑀 θ 𝑀
𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑀ʹ 𝐸𝐼
If the resultant sum of all the definite integrals is positive, Δ or θ is in the
same direction as P or Mʹ.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:11
Determine the displacement of point B of the steel beam shown in the figure below.
Take E = 200 GPa, I = 500(106) mm4.

12 kN/m

A B
10 m
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:11, Solution:
1. External Forces P : The vertical displacement of point B has to be determined so

placing an external load of P at B as shown in fig.

P
x

A B
10 m
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:11, Solution:

2. Internal Moment M: Apply both actual and external load P to calculate the internal

moment M as a function of P. Also, compute the partial derivative 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑃 and

or for each coordinate x.

x P 12x
12 kN/m 𝑥 P
𝑀 𝑃𝑥 2

A B
10m x
V
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:11, Solution:

2. Internal Moment M: Apply both actual and external load P to calculate the internal

moment M as a function of P. Also, compute the partial derivative 𝜕𝑀/𝜕𝑃 and

or for each coordinate x.

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:11, Solution:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem: Apply Castigliano’s theorem to determine the desired

displacement Δ
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:12
Determine the slope at point B of the steel beam shown in the figure below. Take

E = 200 GPa, I = 60(106) mm4.

3kN
5m
B
A C
10 m
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:12, Solution:
1. External Couple Moment Mʹ: Since the slope at point B is to be determined, an

external couple Mʹ is placed on the beam at this point.

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:12, Solution:

2. Internal Moment M: Two coordinates, 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 and must be used to determine

the internal moments within the beam since there is a discontinuity, Mʹ, at B. As

shown in Figure, 𝑥1 ranges from A to B and 𝑥2 ranges from B to C. Using the method

of sections, Fig. 9–28c, the internal moments and the partial derivatives are

computed as follows:
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:12, Solution:
2. Internal Moment M:
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:12, Solution:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem: Setting Mʹ = 0, its actual value, and apply Castigliano’s

theorem we have

-ve sign shows opposite direction

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13
Determine the displacement of point C of the steel beam shown in the figure below.
Take EI = Constant.
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:
1. External Force P: A vertical force P is applied at point C as shown in figure. Later

this force will be set equal to a fixed value of 20 kN.

 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:

2. Internal Moment M: Two coordinates, 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 and must be used to determine

the internal moments within the beam since there is a discontinuity in load at C.

The internal moments and the partial derivatives are computed as follows:
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:
2. Internal Moment M:
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem: Setting P = 20 kN, its actual value, and apply Castigliano’s

theorem we have
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:14
Determine the horizontal displacement of point C of the steel beam shown in the
figure below. Take EI = Constant.

5m
B C 4 kN

EI
2 kN/m
1.5 EI 6m

A
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:14, Solution:
1. External Force P: A vertical force P is applied at point C as shown in figure. Later

this force will be set equal to a fixed value of 4 kN.

5m
B C P

EI
2 kN/m
1.5 EI 6m

A
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:
2. Internal Moment M: Two coordinates, 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 and must be used to determine
the internal moments within the beam since there is a discontinuity in load at B.

x2
B 5m C P
2 kN/m
EI 36 6𝑃
12 kN 5 5
1.5 EI 6m
x1

A 12 + P

36 6𝑃
5 5
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:
2. Internal Moment M:

For x1 : For x2 :
M1= 𝑃 12 𝑥1 𝑥12
36 6𝑃
M2= 𝑥2
V1 5 5
x1 C P
2x1
x2
V2
A 12 + P 36 6𝑃
36 6𝑃
5 5
5 5
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:13, Solution:
3. Castigliano’s Theorem: Setting P = 4 kN, its actual value, and apply Castigliano’s

theorem we have

6 5
0 0
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:14

Determine the slope at point C of the two-member frame shown in Fig.

9–30a. The support at A is fixed. Take E = 29,00 ksi and I = 600 in4
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:14 External Couple Moment M’
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:14: Internal moment M
 8. Castigliano’s Theorem
o Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames:
Example:14
 Appendix

A1. Castigliano’s first Theorem

 Appendix
A1. Castigliano’s first Theorem
Castigliano’s first theorem is similar to his second theorem; however, it
relates the load Pi to the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the corresponding displacement, that is,

𝜕𝑈𝑖
𝑃𝑖
𝜕Δ𝑖
Castigliano’s first theorem applies to both elastic and inelastic material behavior.
This theorem is another way of expressing the equilibrium requirements for a
structure, and since it has very limited use in structural analysis, it will not be
discussed in this book.
 References

• Structural Analysis by R. C. Hibbeler

• Structure Analysis by Alexander chajes

• Online Civil Engineering blogs