Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

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Research article

Microlearning beyond boundaries: A systematic review and a

novel framework for improving learning outcomes
Wali Khan Monib a,* , Atika Qazi a,b,**, Rosyzie Anna Apong c
a
Centre for Lifelong Learning, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam
b
School of Education, Taylor’s University Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya 47500, Malaysia
c
School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Microlearning has become increasingly popular not only in education sector but also in corporate
Microlearning sector in recent years. However, its definition and didactics conceptualization, integration into
Learning outcomes instruction design, and effects on learning outcomes remain largely underexplored in terms of
Conceptual framework
synthesized findings. Consequently, challenges persist in clarifying microlearning definition, and
Higher education
didactics, and designing effective microlearning instruction to yield improved learning outcomes.
And corporate sector
To address these gaps, we analyzed 40 relevant studies following PRISMA guidelines. Based on
the findings, we maintain that microlearning is an instructional approach that delivers targeted,
action-oriented, bite-sized content to achieve specific objectives within a short period, typically
within a few seconds or minutes. The most important findings from the reviewed studies indicate
that microlearning has positive impact on learning outcomes. The key learning outcomes iden­
tified, categorized according to Bloom’s Taxonomy, include cognitive (knowledge acquisition,
retention, improvement, recall, transfer, and application as well as critical thinking, problem-
solving, professional, feedback and self-regulation skills, core competencies such as digital and
pedagogical competence, and performance like test performance), behavioural (presentation
skills development, task or work performance, higher completion rates, behavioural patterns,
engagement, and collaboration), and affective (positive perceptions and attitudes, increased
motivation, satisfaction, and improved self-efficacy). Based on Andragogy in Practice Model,
Bloom’s Taxonomy, and Sweller’s CLT, we proposed a novel microlearning instructional design
framework consisting of three integral components—differences consisting of individual, situa­
tional, and subject differences; guiding principles including specific-objective, bite-sized content,
appropriate timeframe, interactive and engaging content, personalization, and selecting appro­
priate delivery medium and mode; and learning outcomes (cognitive, behavioural and affective).
The proposed framework aims to integrate microlearning into instruction to improve learning
outcomes. Educators, instruction designers, and policymakers can use the framework to design
microlearning instruction to improve learning outcomes.

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author. Centre for Lifelong Learning, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link] (W.K. Monib), atikaqazium@[Link] (A. Qazi).

[Link]
Received 19 September 2023; Received in revised form 7 December 2024; Accepted 20 December 2024
Available online 20 December 2024
2405-8440/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
([Link]
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

1. Introduction

The 21st century has accelerated the shift from traditional to computerized, learner-centred education, with technology remaining
a cornerstone for future generations [1]. The increasing flexibility and affordability of mobile devices have further democratized
education, making learning systems more accessible to both learners and educators worldwide [2]. Smart technology applications
have become pivotal in sustaining learning [3], and the learners’ busy lifestyles have shifted their information-seeking behaviours,
with many preferring small, digestible chunks of information delivered quickly. Microlearning as an instructional approach [4] to
fulfilling such preferences is one of the best options. According to Leong et al. [5], people are used to obtaining information at their
fingertips and finding answers in just a few minutes. With the information presented in small manageable segments [6], microlearning
makes knowledge transformation less arbitrary and more practical [7]. However, a largely agreed definition does not yet exist due to
the fact that microlearning is still evolving and is in the early stage [8], particularly when it comes to the extent of the duration of
instruction. Literature in this regard is scattered, with a large gap in the duration proposed for the delivery of microcontent. Hug [9]
states that microlearning lacks a precise definition and derives from diverse interpretations across dimensions like time, content,
curriculum, form, process, mediality, and learning type. The term ‘microlearning’ by itself is not agreed upon among the users and has
been referred to by different nomenclatures and with various didactics as to whether it is an approach, theory, strategy, instructional
method or mode. This reflects the diversity in how the term is understood and applied. It tends to be used to refer to small, digestible
chunks of information focused on a single learning objective that is need-based, action-oriented, and compatible with smart e-learning
tools.
With regard to content design, microlearning has several key characteristics that prove to be effective in managing cognitive load,
including intrinsic, extrinsic, and germane cognitive loads. CLT which defines cognitive load as the amount of information working
memory can hold at once, underpins the principles of microlearning [10]. To ensure optimal learning outcomes, microlearning content
is designed to be bite-sized, multisensory, interactive, personalized, and self-contained. The diverse and valuable learning resources
should be accessible to learners’ at their convenience, either independently or as part of a curriculum, all tailored to specific learning
needs.
To improve the effectiveness of the designed content, it is essential to choose the appropriate mediality for delivery. Microlearning
content can be presented in various audio-visual formats, such as videos, audio, and images [11]. Short videos, in particular, have been
identified as highly effective in microlearning [12], and the use of video clips and short animations has been emphasized [13]. In this
context, mobile devices serve as a convenient tool for microlearning activities, allowing learners to access content anytime and
anywhere [14]. While some critics raise concerns about its ability to effectively deliver complex topics , its benefits in managing
cognitive load remain significant in learning contexts. Other crucial benefits of microlearning and relevant tools include improved
learner engagement [15], flexibility [16,17], accessibility [18,19], focused content [20], device friendliness [21], short duration [22],
independence and responsiveness [23] and to name a few. These and other hallmark characteristics have led to increased adoption and
research interest in microlearning. In recent years, the volume of publications on microlearning has substantially risen with evaluating
its effectiveness [11] and design [24] as the most explored areas.
Despite the growing interest in microlearning and numerous studies on its effectiveness, the results are scattered and mixed [4].
This indicates the need for a comprehensive review of the available research to systematically synthesize knowledge and determine its
effectiveness in improving learning outcomes [25]. While there are reviews on microlearning, they vary significantly from the current
study in the methodology (e.g., [5,8,11]) and scope (e.g., [26]). For example, Taylor and Hung [8] conducted a scoping review on the
effects of microlearning, Sankaranarayanan et al. [11] performed a bibliometric analysis on microlearning in diverse contexts, and
Leong et al. [5] carried out a review of the trends in microlearning. In terms of scope, Wang et al. [26] limited their study scope to the
efficacy of microlearning in improving self-care capability. Zhang and West [27] emphasize the importance of exploring both
quantitative and qualitative evidence to gauge the impact of microlearning. It is further stated that an exploration of its efficacy in
delivering intangible knowledge becomes particulalry crucial in this endeavour.
By synthesizing the existing research on microlearning, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the effec­
tiveness of microlearning and inform the development of best practices for designing and implementing microlearning instructions.
While past reviews have often concentrated on specific aspects of microlearning—such as its effectiveness in particular contexts e.g.,
the effects of microlearning on EFL students’ English speaking [25]—the current systematic review expands its scope to provide a
comprehensive synthesis of microlearning outcomes across diverse settings. We included quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method
studies, offering deeper insights into microlearning effectiveness across varied settings while addressing gaps in previous reviews. This
review aimed at finding answers to the following research questions (see Table 1).

Table 1
Research questions, focus, and description.
Research Questions Focus Description

RQ1. How is the definition of microlearning and Understanding the RQ1 aims to explore the definition, nomenclature, and didactics of
its didactic conceptualized in the selected definition and didactics microlearning in the selected literature.
studies?
RQ2. What are the effects of microlearning on Impact on learning RQ2 aims to explore the educational effects of microlearning on learning
learning outcomes? outcomes outcomes in various fields, categorizing these outcomes based on Bloom’s
Taxonomy. It also explores how to design effective microlearning to improve
learning outcomes.

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2. Theoretical framework

CLT, introduced by John Sweller in the late 1980s, explains the concept of cognitive load, which represents the load on the
cognitive system during task performance. The term ‘cognitive load’ refers to the mental activity that occurs concurrently within
working memory [28]. CLT comprises task-based (mental load) and learner-based (mental effort) dimensions, which collectively impact
the performance of individuals [29] and the three dimensions including mental load, mental effort, and performance can measure
cognitive load [30]. Mental load pertains to the demands imposed by the task itself, including task-intrinsic aspects related to elements
interactivity, and task-extraneous aspects related to instructional design. When the intrinsic cognitive load caused by the inherent
complexity of the information and the extraneous cognitive load caused by instructional design are high, it can be detrimental to
learning [29,31]. This is because the working memory, which is responsible for processing information, may become overwhelmed and
unable to handle the cognitive demands as the cognitive load exceeds the capacity of the working memory to effectively process and
retain information [29]. They further argue that the extraneous cognitive load is a result of the instructional format rather than being
an inherent characteristic of the materials.
Mental effort, on the other hand, represents the cognitive capacity and resources allocated to address the task demands [30]. If
learners perceive their efforts as unproductive to success, they may not be motivated to put in the necessary mental effort [32]. The
mental effort level involves task or environmental characteristics, subject characteristics, and interactions between both [30]. They
further state that complex cognitive tasks that impose a high mental load typically require a high level of mental effort.
Performance reflects the outcomes achieved by the learner as a result of their engagement with the task. Performance-related load is
called germane cognitive load which refers to the cognitive effort required for meaningful learning and schema construction. Ac­
cording to Sweller et al. [29], when the total cognitive load is manageable, educators have the opportunity to guide learners’ attention
towards processes that are important for learning and constructing mental frameworks (increasing germane cognitive load). At the
same time, educators can redirect learners’ attention away from processes that are not directly related to learning (reducing extraneous
cognitive load). By employing appropriate instructional designs, educators can help reduce unnecessary cognitive load and focus
learners’ attention on cognitive processes that contribute directly to building an understanding of the subject matter and mental
schemas. The theory suggests that learning happens best under conditions that align with cognitive architecture [32]. Furthermore,
learners have limited cognitive resources, and it is important to use these resources effectively to achieve optimal learning outcomes.
Drawing from the above discussion, the present study was firmly grounded in CLT.
In addition to the CLT, two other models are also used, including Andragogy in Practice Model [33] and Bloom’s Taxonomy [34].
The Andragogy in Practice Model comprises three dimensions: (1) learning goals and purposes, (2) individual and situational dif­
ferences, and (3) core principles of adult learning. Andragogy emphasizes individual learning, which contributes to personal, insti­
tutional, and societal progress [33]. Demographic variables are derived based on the second dimension of Andragogy, capturing
individual, situational, and subject differences. Bloom’s Taxonomy categorizes learning into three domains: cognitive (intellectual
skills), affective (attitudes and values), and psychomotor (physical skills) [34], guiding the categorization of learning outcomes.

3. Methodology

This study followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, ensuring a
comprehensive analysis and synthesis of the existing literature on the effectiveness of microlearning. With pre-defined eligibility
criteria, we included a diverse range of studies, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method empirical research for in-depth
understanding. Quantitative studies provide measurable and statistically significant data, offering insights into the extent and patterns
of the impact. On the other hand, qualitative studies capture in-depth perspectives, experiences, and contextual nuances that are often
missed in purely numerical analyses. In addition, mixed-method studies were included to bridge these two approaches, integrating
statistical data with rich descriptive insights to provide a holistic view. By incorporating all three methodologies, the study ensures
covering both the breadth and depth of microlearning effectiveness across different learning contexts and populations. This
comprehensive approach not only strengthens the validity of the findings but also offers a balanced understanding, accommodating
different types of evidence and perspectives. We employed a quality appraisal strategy based on Dybå and Dingsøyr [35] criteria to
assess the rigor and credibility of the included studies. Subsequently, we devised a coding scheme to systematically analyze the
publications in the final selection. The learning outcomes were synthesized in accordance with Bloom’s Taxonomy.

3.1. Search strategy

For a comprehensive literature review, we searched several reputable databases such as SAGE, Taylor & Francis, SpringerLink, IEEE
Xplore, Emerald, Scopus, and ERIC. Our search focused on original articles published in various disciplines from 2020 onwards. We
utilized specific keywords including microlearning, MiroLearning, micro-learning, just-in-time learning, bite-sized learning, nano-
learning, OR mini-learning AND learning outcomes, performance, OR effectiveness. Furthermore, we incorporated synonymous
terms such as small chunks, short training, short video training, segmented learning, mini-lessons, microcontent, microunits,
microtasks, snippets, nuggets, and snack-sized learning for inclusiveness. The search resulted in an initial pool of 3613 publications.

3.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Table 2 presents the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selected studies. Only papers published between 2020 and 2024 were

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Table 2
Inclusion and exclusion criteria for selected studies.
Inclusion Exclusion

Papers published between 2020 and 2024. Papers not published from 2020 to 2024.
Papers investigated microlearning effectiveness or intervention. Papers not related to microlearning effectiveness or intervention.
Papers that were accessible. Papers whose full text was not accessible.
Papers that were written in the English language. Papers published other than in English Language.
Original peer-reviewed articles. Grey literature.

considered, ensuring that the analysis is based on the most current research. Studies were included if they investigated the effec­
tiveness or intervention of microlearning, ensuring relevance to the research objectives. Only peer-reviewed articles with full-text
accessibility and those published in English and used microlearning as the primary mode of instruction were selected to maintain
consistency and prevent translation-related challenges. Additionally, studies comparing microlearning with other learning methods,
such as online and face-to-face learning, were included. The review focused on original articles. Exclusions included conference papers,
proceedings, and grey literature. Furthermore, studies outside the specified publication date range, not directly related to micro­
learning, inaccessible in full text, or published in languages other than English were excluded. This thorough selection process ensures
that the included studies align with the research objectives and meet quality standards.

3.3. Study selection

As depicted in Fig. 1, the initial search yielded 3613 articles from different databases, including SAGE (n = 700), Taylor & Francis
(n = 863), SpringerLink (n = 303), IEEE Xplore (n = 65), Scopus (n = 1639), and Emerald (n = 43). Afterward, we utilized EndNote
X9.0, a reference management software, to manage the references. Initially, duplicates were identified and removed (n = 378) using
EndNote, with any remaining duplicates manually eliminated (n = 47). Next, we screened the titles and abstracts of the articles to
determine their relevance for inclusion in the review, eliminating (n = 2800) articles and leaving us (n = 388) articles. Subsequently,

Fig. 1. PRISMA flow diagram for study selection.

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Table 3
Quality assessment.
Quality criteria

1. Does the study clearly address the research problem?

2. Is there a clear statement of the aims of the research?
3. Is there an adequate description of the context in which the research was carried out?
4. Was the research design appropriate to address the aims of the research?
5. Does the study clearly determine the research methods (subjects, instruments, data collection, data analysis)?
6. Was the data analysis sufficiently rigorous?
7. Is there a clear statement of findings?
8. Is the study of value for research or practice?

we reviewed the full text of potentially relevant articles which led to (n = 341) being removed and (n = 47) articles left for quality
assessment. After applying the quality appraisal, 40 articles were retained for analysis. Any disagreements during the screening process
were resolved through consensus, with re-evaluation of the articles using the same criteria in our regular meetings.

3.4. Quality assessment criteria

We employed three primary criteria (rigor, credibility, and relevance) to evaluate the quality of the selected articles, as suggested
by Dybå and Dingsøyr [35] (see Table 3). The quality evaluation used for each article focused on eight key aspects: (1) clarity in
addressing the research problem, (2) explicit research aims, (3) adequacy of context description, (4) appropriateness of the research
design, (5) rigor in methods (subjects, instruments, data collection, and analysis), (6) rigor in data analysis, (7) clarity of findings, and
(8) overall value to research or practice. Two researchers independently assess each study to ensure objectivity, and any discrepancies
are addressed through discussion to reach consensus in regular meetings. If inconsistencies or issues arise, the studies are reassessed
until an agreement is achieved. Out of the 47 studies subjected to quality appraisal, only 40 articles met the criteria and were included
for analysis.

3.5. Data extraction

A Microsoft Excel form was utilized to extract and record data from the selected articles. Information such as author(s) and year,
country, field of study, research question(s) or objectives, method, population, sample size, research instrument, and findings were
extracted (see Appendix A). Most of the studies were conducted in 2022, with a primary focus on medical and healthcare fields.
Notably, a significant portion of the research originated from the USA. The predominant use of quantitative methods was evident, with
a majority concentrating on learners and employing a combination of data collection tools.
Additionally, we developed a separate form to extract the findings (see Appendix B). The appendix consists of references, learning
outcomes, terms, and didactics. The outcomes included knowledge, comprehension, skills, competence, performance, engagement,
satisfaction, usefulness, motivation or interest, self-efficacy, confidence, anxiety and stress, attitude or perception, behaviour, rele­
vance, and socialization. These learning outcomes were then categorized based on Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each researcher independently
extracted data from the included studies. Following the data extraction process, the datasets were compared and carefully examined to
identify and resolve any potential discrepancies.

4. Results

In the following section, we present the results and address the research questions in detail.

4.1. RQ1. How is the definition of microlearning and its didactic conceptualized in the selected studies?

The analyzed studies present a range of conceptualizations of microlearning. Microlearning, despite various attempts to define it,
lacks a universally accepted definition [36]. It is frequently mentioned with the concepts of eLearning, mobile learning, and informal
learning [37]. Some view it as a form of eLearning [27], a successor to eLearning [38], or one of the eLearning methods or approaches
that can help thwart a swing in the objectives of the learning, with one of its functions [22]. Examples of microlearning include a 3-min
video demonstrating new software features, a 5-question quiz on grammar for quick reinforcement, or digital flashcards providing
daily vocabulary, all designed to deliver actionable information and reinforce learning in manageable segments. Although there may
be slight variations in the definitions, what this study revealed is that the core understanding of microlearning centres around
delivering small, targeted units of learning content that are tailored to specific learning objectives.
Various terms and didactics have been used to convey the concept of microlearning within the selected studies (see Appendix B).
Out of the 40 studies analyzed, the term ‘microlearning’ and its alternatives, such as ‘micro-learning,’ ‘micro learning,’ and ‘Micro­
Learning,’ were frequently employed, with a combined total of (n = 2476) mentions (see, Fig. 2). Among them, ‘microlearning’
without a space between ‘micro’ and ‘learning’ was the most commonly used, appearing (n = 2247) times. The variant ‘micro-learning’
with a hyphen was mentioned (n = 204) times, while ‘micro learning’ with space was used (n = 25) times. In addition to ‘micro­
learning,’ alternative nomenclature was also identified in the studies. The nomenclature ‘bite-sized learning’ was used (n = 181) times,

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Fig. 2. The frequency of the terms used for microlearning.

highlighting the notion of delivering content in small, manageable units. ‘Snippet learning’ was mentioned (n = 89) times, indicating
the use of brief and focused learning experiences. ‘Just-in-time learning’ was referenced (n = 7) times, emphasizing the importance of
providing learners with timely and relevant information. The term ‘bite-size’ was selectively included when referring to learning as
‘bite-sized learning,’ but it was not included when discussing other contexts like ‘bite-sized content’ or ‘bite-sized chunks.’
In some studies, notable variations were observed in the usage of ‘bite-sized learning.’ For example, Naseem et al. [39] consistently
used the term ‘bite-sized learning’ 28 times, highlighting their focus on this specific term. On the other hand, in some studies, such as that
of Ho et al. [17], the term ‘micro-learning’ appeared 10 times while ‘bite-sized learning’ was used 136 times, indicating interchangeability
between these terms within their research. Manning et al. [40] employed various terminologies including ‘Microlearning’ 2 times, ‘micro
learning’ 1 time, ‘bite-sized learning’ 19 times, and ‘bite-sized teaching’ 20 times. The findings underscore the extensive usage of the term
‘microlearning’ and its variants, reflecting its widespread recognition and adoption in the field. The alternative nomenclatures, such as
‘bite-sized learning,’ ‘snippet learning,’ and ‘just-in-time learning,’ also contribute to the understanding of microlearning.
Regarding the didactics of microlearning, 26 studies used the didactics ‘approach’: 13 studies used it alone, while 13 combined it
with other didactics such as instructional method, methodology, technique, tool, pedagogy, strategy, design, format, or model. Nine
studies did not use the didactic approach but instead employed other didactic such as learning modality, program, module, technology-
improved learning, method, format, and/or strategy. Notably, five studies did not explicitly mention the didactic aspect. The consensus
among these studies was that microlearning involves the delivery of bite-sized content or learning experiences that are tailored to meet
specific learning needs. Different synonymous words, such as nuggets, bite-sized, chunks, segmented, or small units, were utilized to
convey the idea of shortness and focused learning experiences. The current study revealed that microlearning is an instructional
approach that delivers targeted, bite-sized content to diverse learners, typically lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes, each
designed to achieve a specific objective.

4.2. RQ2. What are the effects of microlearning on learning outcomes?

The analysis revealed that microlearning has positive effects on learning outcomes (see Appendix B). In addition, several key themes
emerged as beneficial for optimizing learning outcomes, labelled as guiding principles in this study. Based on the insights gained, we

Fig. 3. Proposed conceptual framework for microlearning instruction design.

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proposed a novel framework with three main components: (1) differences consisting of individual, situational, and subject differences; (2)
guiding principles; and (3) learning outcomes (see Fig. 3). Each part of the Framework is described in detailed in the subsections.

4.2.1. Part 1. individual, situational, and subject differences

Part 1 of the framework draws upon the Andragogy in Practice Model, particularly on the dimension of individual, situational, and
subject differences [33]. Individual differences include characteristics such as gender, age, cognitive ability, learning style, personality
traits, prior knowledge, cultural background, social and emotional factors, study habits, learning preferences, ethnicity, and others.
Situational differences refer to contextual elements like the learning environment, time constraints, support systems, access to re­
sources, learning schedule, geographical location, learning mode, economic situation, and institutional policies. Subject differences
pertain to the specific areas of study, including fields such as mathematics, psychology, biochemistry, ophthalmology, curriculum
design, arts, languages (e.g., English), music, and others. These factors influence the content and approach needed for effective
learning in any discipline.

4.2.2. Guiding principles

The key themes and sub-themes that emerged effective in improving learning outcomes are presented as guiding principles (see
Table 4 and Fig. 3). Each one is described in detail below.

[Link]. Specific objective. Microlearning is characterized by its emphasis on a single, well-defined learning objective. The content is kept
concise and to the point, allowing learners to quickly grasp the key concept. These objectives (typically one per module) are action-
oriented, guiding the design and implementation of the modules, with an immediate focus on practical application. Each module
objective is clearly defined and states indicating what learners should learn, or be able to do after engaging with the microlearning content.
Several of the analyzed studies highlighted the significance of a single definable objective (e.g. a specific concept, problem, skill, topic, or
other area) for microlearning outcomes [19,21,22,36,40-43]. By keeping the objectives concise and well-defined, learners can better
absorb and apply the concepts without feeling overwhelmed by excessive information, thereby reducing cognitive overload. McNeill and
Fitch [42] highlight the possible issue of cognitive overload in microlearning when there are too many objectives, an excessive amount of
content, or lengthy activities. A single objective in microlearning promotes efficient learning and improves retention. The focus on a single
idea or topic distinguishes microlearning from other instructional methodologies [42] and allows for precise alignment with learners’
needs. Furthermore, well-defined objectives can be achievable within a short timeframe. Effective microlearning objectives are
learner-centred and relevant, providing practical and applicable knowledge that can readily be applied in real-world contexts as Choo and
Rahim [19] state that topics should be related to future factual work situations or objectives. A focused selection of topics and examples in
microlearning minimizes arbitrariness by ensuring uniform, structured information delivery to all [7].

[Link]. Bite-sized content. The findings from the analyzed studies converge on the agreement that microlearning content should be
short and focused, using various terms to describe it such as bite-sized [19,22,23], small chunk [42], segment [44], small burst [36],
small units [38], and others. These terms collectively refer to the concept of breaking down information into more manageable pieces.
Although there may be subtle differences in emphasis among these terms, the ultimate goal remains to create concise and easily
comprehensible content to prevent overwhelming learners with cognitive load. The terms ‘short content’ or ‘small units’ used in the
literature are more generic and may not capture the sense of quick, efficient, and focused learning that microlearning aims to achieve.
Therefore, we choose to use ‘bite-sized content,’ or ‘small chunks’ instead of ‘short content’ or its alternatives which emphasizes the
idea of breaking information into easily digestible pieces that can be consumed quickly. The term ‘bite-sized’ implies that the content is
small enough to be consumed in a short period of time, just like taking a small bite of food. It conveys the notion of easy consumption

Table 4
Synthesis of the guiding principles of microlearning.
Studies Themes Description

e.g. Refs. [19,21,22,36,40,41,42, Specific objective Refers to addressing one particular concept, skill, or problem, enabling learners to grasp key
43] information quickly and efficiently.
e.g. Refs. [17,18,19,20,22,23,36, Bite-sized content Refers to easily digestible units of content, promoting efficient learning and retention. The
40,44,46,47,48,51] content is independent and self-contained, or part of a learning program allowing learners to
build knowledge gradually.
e.g. Refs. [7,17,18,19,36,38,41, Content delivery Refers to determining the optimal duration of each learning module and the frequency of
43,44,45,48,53,55] timeframe delivering these modules to balance effective learning, attention, and engagement without
overwhelming the learners. Microlearning emphasizes shorter learning durations-seconds and/
or minutes and just-in-time or need-based sessions.
e.g. Refs. [17,19,37,38,40,41,42, Interactive and engaging Refers to experiences designed to be interactive and engaging, promoting deeper
43,44,45,48,49,52,55] content understanding. It incorporates interactive elements and multimedia to improve learner
engagement, motivation, and retention of knowledge.
e.g. Refs. [37,38,41,42,52,53, Content personalization Microlearning provides individualized learning experiences by delivering targeted information
56] aligned with specific learning objectives.
e.g. Refs.[19,22,23,44-47] Content delivery medium Refers to the selection of the appropriate medium and mode to deliver microlearning content to
and mode learners, considering factors like learning objectives, learner preferences, and the learning
environment.

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and encourages learners to engage with the content without feeling overwhelmed. In microlearning, content developers assume a vital
role, responsible for creating and reviewing effective learning materials. Their instructional design skills are important in crafting
compact and user-friendly content [21]. An essential aspect highlighted is the need to chunk microlearning content to enable its
stand-alone use while ensuring its seamless integration into a larger training series [21].

[Link]. Content delivery timeframe. Microlearning modules are designed to be short to prevent cognitive overload, enabling learners
to complete them in a brief timeframe. The duration should provide sufficient information while allowing learners to process and apply
the content effectively. However, the ideal length of microlearning content is subjective and not agreed upon as the included studies
have various durations reported such as 1–3 min [44], 5–7 min [23], 5–8 min [45], 5–10 [22], and 10–15 min [46]. Nevertheless,
studies suggest that the short duration of microlearning is more engaging and productive. For instance, a study conducted by Choo and
Rahim [19] on pursuing new knowledge through microlearning found that 84 % of students were engaging with the short videos and
spending a substantial amount of time watching them (over 80 % average views duration). The frequency of accessing classes, ma­
terials, or resources in microlearning is based on individual needs and preferences. That is microlearning is inherently need-driven and
follows a just-in-time delivery strategy, allowing learners to acquire information or skills immediately when they need them. Learning
tasks should be balanced to maintain interest. Microlearning, with content delivered in smaller units over an extended period, may be a
more effective approach [47]. The study by Roskowski et al. [48] found improvement in learning, but it was stated that it is unclear if a
longer period before assessing behaviour change or repetition of content would have resulted in a different outcomes.

[Link]. Interactive and engaging content. Microlearning effectiveness extends beyond content delivery; it hinges on student utilization
and engagement [17]. In other words, it is not enough to have the content available – students need to actively use and engage with it
for microlearning to be effective. To achieve optimal engagement, microlearning content should be visually appealing and interactive.
Several studies reported its engaging nature (e.g., [17,18,22,23,37,40,42,44,45,48,49]). For instance, microlearning was found to
stimulate critical thinking, and collaboration, promoting student-student interaction and comprehension of new concepts [37].
Strategies encompass using interactive elements, gamification, and social learning features [21]. The study conducted by Fidan [37]
also found that microlearning content creates an engaging environment. Additionally, Ho et al. [17] found success in encouraging
adult learners to engage with bite-sized learning units during designated time periods.

[Link]. Content personalization. Microlearning personalization refers to the process of tailoring microlearning content to meet the
specific needs and preferences of learners. Personalization in microlearning involves adapting the content, format, and delivery of the
learning materials to align with the individual learners’ needs. This can include personalizing the content to reflect the learners’
interests, job roles, or skill levels. It may also involve adjusting the delivery method or format to accommodate different learning styles,
or preferences, such as providing text-based materials, videos, quizzes, or interactive exercises. Customizing microlearning can
improve learner engagement, improve knowledge retention, and increase the effectiveness of the learning experience. It allows
learners to receive targeted and relevant information in a format that suits their learning needs, leading to more efficient and
personalized learning outcomes. With its personalized and inherent flexible nature, microlearning has been well-received by partic­
ipants with high satisfaction. For instance, Manning et al. [40] found that microlearning content was engaging and highly relevant for
the participants. However, when the content becomes less relevant or feasible, learner engagement tends to decrease. For example, in
Beste [7] study, participation in later modules decreased due to time constraints or relevance concerns. However, the series received
positive feedback, with nearly 50 % completing all modules 75 % completing the first lesson and 91 % evaluating the course as
relevant.

[Link]. Content delivery medium and mode. The analyzed studies utilized various media formats, platforms, and devices for delivering
microlearning instruction content. They used a diverse range of media formats, including printed and non-printed [38]. The media
elements, such as videos, podcasts, and flashcards, facilitate quick comprehension and retention of knowledge [37]. For example,
Rahbar et al. [50] delivered microlearning materials through different formats, including ten 4-min audio podcasts on key diabetes
management topics, twenty-five short text messages with reminders and tips, and twelve text messages with photos for improved
engagement. In addition, incorporating interactive multimedia elements improves learner engagement, while students have shown a
clear preference for video-based microlearning content [38]. Similarly, Shabadurai et al. [23] state that video is the primary and highly
effective element for delivering microlearning content. Slideshows [45] and white drawings can also be used.
The studies used various platforms and apps including specialized, traditional, and social. They included Gnowbe [17], NeNA [21],
Axonify [51], and EdApp [41] which are designed to host and deliver microlearning content to learners. Additionally, Learning
Management Systems (LMSs) [36,37] like Moodle learning platform [45] were found to be used for microlearning. They often include
features such as content creation tools, progress tracking, and analytics to monitor learners’ performance and engagement. The se­
lection and utilization of appropriate technology platforms are vital for the successful implementation of microlearning interventions.
In addition, social learning platforms such as Twitter (X) [47,52], Facebook [47], LinkedIn [52], TikTok [49] and Instagram can be
used for microlearning delivery. The rapid adoption of social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook has opened up new pathways
for communication using condensed content [47]. Learners favour interactive, visual-based microlearning content within a social
learning setting, and the periodic sharing of bite-sized material via platforms like Edmodo served as a motivating factor [37].
Microlearning content was accessed through various devices. These include mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets [21,38,
39,49,53], and computers [38]. These devices allow learners to access microlearning content on the go or in other different learning

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environments, promoting flexibility and convenience. Learners primarily learn microlearning content through personal mobile de­
vices, promoting a seamless and convenient learning experience [21].
Regarding the modes of microlearning delivery, they vary including face-to-face, online, or blended approach [54]. Deciding on the
microlearning mode is critical to align with the learning objectives, audience preferences, content complexity, resource availability,
and overall learning experience. It is noteworthy, however, that these modes differ from traditional modes by being underpinned by
the foundational principles of microlearning.

4.2.3. Microlearning in improving learning outcomes

The effectiveness of microlearning in improving learning outcomes was consistently reported in the analyzed studies. The included
studies demonstrate positive impact of microlearning on learning outcomes. These outcomes have been categorized according to
Bloom’s Taxonomy into three domains: cognitive (intellectual), affective (emotional), and psychomotor (behavioural) [57].

[Link]. Cognitive outcomes. The cognitive domain involves acquiring knowledge and intellectual skills [58]. Based on this domain,
the findings indicate that microlearning leads to knowledge acquisition, improvement, transfer, and/or application (e.g., [7,19,21–23,
36,39–44,48,51,52,59–61]). In addition, microlearning resulted in improved information processing, retention, and/or recall (e.g.,
[17,19,21,23,38,40,42,44,48,59,73]), improved ability to apply new knowledge in related settings (e.g., [19,20,40–42,51,60,61]). For
instance, Manning et al. [40] highlighted the noteworthy impact of using a bite-sized teaching approach (BST), resulting in improved
knowledge acquisition and immediate knowledge recall, outperforming traditional case-based teaching methods. Furthermore,
microlearning was found effective in the development of self-regulation of learning and/or metacognitive skills [18,37] such as
improved critical thinking, and/or problem-solving skills [37]. The improved skills also included peer feedback skills and second
language skills or basic English communicative skills [53]; digital skills required for text processing, creating presentations, infor­
mation seeking, and email management [38]; professional skills [41]; skills in developing learning goals and objectives [20]. The
analysis also reported improved core competencies including digital competence and/or digital pedagogy [62,74]; self-assessed ability
to effectively create and use faculty development (FD) snippets [43], and competence in specific subject areas [49]. Performance
included learning performance and test performance such as improved scores [19,72], improvement from unit to unit [53], and final
exam scores or overall academic achievement [63]. For example, Roskowski et al. [48] observed that both microlearning and the
traditional method improved knowledge and self-efficacy scores compared to the baseline. However, the majority of participants
expressed a strong preference for microlearning over the traditional method, underscoring its appeal and effectiveness. In another
study by Choo and Rahim [19], knowledge was found to be comparable in online distance micro-learning and traditional face-to-face
active learning, suggesting that microlearning can be just as effective as traditional methods. Some of these studies focused on
technology-oriented microlearning and demonstrated improved outcomes in related skills and competencies [e.g., 41, 49, 53]. For
instance, a TikTok-based microlearning environment received positive feedback on content and competencies [49], the Pebasco
mobile microlearning app improved peer feedback skills and L2 proficiency [53], and the mobile microcourse improved learners’
confidence and achieved its learning effectiveness goals [41]. Microlearning proved effective in virtual environments. For instance,
Choo and Rahim [19] studied pharmacy students’ perceptions and performance in a microlearning-based virtual practical on the
elucidation of drug absolute configuration. The study found that the virtual micro-learning design was practical and economical,
requiring minimal technology and training, and was well-suited for open distance learning environments, especially post-COVID.
Furthermore, microlearning integrated into other teaching methods, such as microlearning flipped classroom (m-FC), improved
learning performance compared to non-flipped classroom settings [37].

[Link]. Behavioural outcomes. The psychomotor (behaviour) domain involves acquiring manual and physical skills [58] and actual
behaviours occur [64]. The outcomes included presentation skills and teaching skills [40]; and practical performance such as work
performance [53]. In the study by Manning et al. [40], the majority of residents who participated as bite-sized teaching (BST) speakers
reported that the experience helped develop presentation skills and intended to apply the learned skills in their own teaching. In
another study on the NeNA microlearning app, improved job performance, socialized learning, and personal growth were revealed
[21]. Microlearning also led to higher completion rates [59], and engagement such as involvement in-class activities, an active role in
the learning process [18], contribution, collaboration [17,18,21,22,37,40,45,48,49], and/or usage [12,17,18,37,43,56,60]. For
instance, Hegerius et al. [61] found that almost all learners (98.5 %) expressed the intention to put into practice what they had learned
through microlearning. Furthermore, it included behavioural patterns (e.g., correct answer requests, top audio) [53]; learning days
(time between first and last login), number of events (clicks, text written, and other student input), the total number of visits, length of
each visit, type of device (smartphone, tablet, desktop computer), and course components used by students [38]; helping behaviour
[59]; perceptive behaviour [48].

[Link]. Affective outcomes. The affective domain involves integrating beliefs and ideas (Attitudes) [58]. This domain focuses on
attitudes, emotions, feelings, and values, rather than on knowledge and skills. Learning outcomes found related to this category,
included increased motivation in learning activities [7,17,21-23,37,40,45,49,52], such as intrinsic motivation (e.g., learning as a
hobby) and extrinsic motivation (e.g., learning digital marketing to get a promotion) [65], enjoyment [19], interest and goal
achievement [47], and encouragement [18]. Furthermore, the analyzed studies reported increased satisfaction [17,18,20,36,38,48,49,
51,59–61,75]. For instance, Hegerius et al. [61] evaluated microlearning-based modules developed and found that participants were
highly satisfied with the modules, with nearly all recommending them to colleagues, noting their effectiveness in improving

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knowledge and skills. Microlearning also improved self-efficacy, confidence, and/or social connectedness) in the subject matter [18,
19,37,41,45,48,60], positive attitudes or perceptions and feelings toward the learning content [7,38-40,47,56,59,60]. Examples
included favourable comments and well-received feedback [19], and positive reactions [51]. The approach contributed to positive
learning experiences [37,44,63]. Participants had a sense of belonging and social connectedness through specifically designed plat­
forms such as NeNa, and Edmodo or social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter [18,21,23,37,39-41,49,51,52,59], devel­
opment of ethical and moral values or reasoning in decision making [39], and heightened willingness or curiosity about content or
participation [37,49]. Microlearning was found to be effective [18,38], with the potential to contribute significantly [56] and offer
both effectiveness and efficiency [48], reduced anxiety and stress [18,46] and perceived relevant.

5. Discussion

5.1. RQ1. How is the definition of microlearning and its didactic conceptualized in the selected studies?

The findings of this SLR substantiate and strengthen the existing body of research, affirming the core understanding of micro­
learning as an instructional approach that effectively delivers bite-sized targeted learning content to accomplish specific objectives.
‘Approach’ was the most dominant didactic used in the selected studies. This finding is consistent with the review of Nikkhoo et al.
[66], who emphasize that microlearning is an engaging educational approach that promotes the acquisition of new skills and infor­
mation through the use of small learning parts at a time. Similarly, Prior Filipe et al. [20] state that it is an effective instructional
approach that delivers concise and targeted learning units through short-term activities, focusing on specific skills or knowledge areas.
Microlearning is considered need-based, specific-objective driven, action-oriented, self-contained, and flexible (accessible anytime,
anywhere, and through any learning tool).
However, depending on the specific aspects being emphasized, ‘microlearning’ was also referred to using various didactics such as
instructional method (e.g., [18,20,40]), technique [22], learning tool [22], pedagogy [47], strategy (e.g., [40,43,48]), learning format
[20,43], concept [67], module [46] or model [43]. Other reviews such as that of Leong et al. [5] describe microlearning as a new topic,
while Sankaranarayanan et al. [11] consider it as a format of learning. This diverse range of terminology and didactic demonstrates the
various dimensions and perspectives associated with the microlearning approach. Each term emphasizes a distinct aspect of micro­
learning enriching our understanding of how microlearning is conceptualized and implemented in different educational contexts. The
authors have differing views regarding microlearning, and its spelling varies (e.g., ‘microlearning,’ ‘micro-learning,’ ‘micro learning,’
‘MicroLearning’). ‘Microlearning’ is commonly used, showing broad acceptance, while ‘micro-learning’ and the other alternatives
might be used per style guides. Consistence is important in its usage as it improves uniformity, clarity, and understanding. With regard
to the wide usage of ‘microlearning,’ similar findings were also observed in a scoping review conducted by Taylor and Hung [8]. Other
nomenclatures (‘bite-sized learning,’ ‘snippet learning,’ ‘just-in-time learning or teaching’) help capture the various ways it can be
applied and understood in diverse contexts. The unified use of ‘microlearning’ underscores its established role, while varied terms may
reflect its evolving nature. This reflects its novelty in education and corporate training [7,51].
Microlearning seems to have emerged primarily as a response to the evolving demands of modern education and training,
particularly within the context of the digital age. The rise of technology and the increasing prevalence of eLearning, mobile learning,
and informal learning environments have played a crucial role in its development and adoption. As learners increasingly prefer
personalized, on-demand learning, microlearning is likely to remain sustainable and continue growing.

5.2. RQ2. What are the effects of microlearning on learning outcomes?

The findings from the analyzed studies revealed that microlearning is effective in improving learning outcomes. Key factors that
may have contributed to the improved learning outcomes were identified and synthesized. The analysis led to the development of a
novel instructional design framework comprising three main components: (1) differences consisting of individual, situational, and
subject differences; (2) guiding principles; and (3) learning outcomes.

5.2.1. Individual, situational, and subject differences

This part of the framework draws upon the Andragogy in Practice Model [33]. Individual factors such as gender, age, and cognitive
ability can shape the design of microlearning content. For instance, Javorcik et al. [38] study found that men studied significantly
longer, surpassing women in study duration. In another study by Iqbal et al. [60] who investigated perceptions of residents regarding
the microlearning environment in postgraduate clinical training found that while residents generally had positive perceptions and
satisfaction with the microlearning environment, female residents and those aged 25–30 reported higher satisfaction. Modules can be
adapted to offer content of varying complexity, ensuring relevance for a broad age range. For example, a language learning app might
provide basic vocabulary exercises for younger users and more advanced grammar challenges for adults. This adaptability ac­
knowledges diverse cognitive levels. Similarly, adaptability extends to personality traits, with extroverts favouring group activities and
introverts leaning toward solitary reflection. Learning styles, such as visual learners benefit from videos, interactive quizzes engage
kinaesthetic learners, and concise audio suits auditory learners. The study by Javorcik et al. [38] revealed that students preferred
videos and video tutorials over text materials, with preferences varying according to the chapter thematic focus. Another critical
consideration is prior knowledge which influences the learning process, serving as a foundation upon which new information is built.
For instance, in language learning, individuals with prior exposure to related languages might grasp new vocabulary and grammar
rules quickly. Microlearning needs to integrate culturally relevant examples for diverse learner engagement. In addition, social and

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emotional aspects are pivotal, with instant feedback and gamification addressing emotional needs and improve motivation through
rewards. For example, gamified elements, such as earning points or badges, inspire motivation and create a sense of achievement.
To effectively address situational differences, microlearning must be adaptable, accessible, and responsive to the dynamic learning
environment, time constraints, support systems, access to resources, and more. For example, McKee and Ntokos [45] examined online
microlearning and student engagement in computer games in higher education. They found significant variation by year of study:
first-year students preferred videos lasting 6–12 min, whereas second and third-year students preferred videos under 8 min. Overall,
engagement was highest with videos lasting 5–8 min. Situational differences may influence the effectiveness of microlearning, shaping
its design to cater to learners’ unique circumstances. The learning environment plays a pivotal role; whether it is a classroom, online
platform, or workplace setting, microlearning can be adapted to the context. Microlearning concise format suits busy times, allowing
learners to fit short modules into their daily routines. Flexibility in scheduling is essential, accommodating those with limited
availability. Learners’ access to instructors, peers, or online communities provides opportunities for discussions, clarifications, and
knowledge sharing. Incorporating such support mechanisms ensures that learners never feel isolated, fostering a sense of engagement
and belonging. Making microlearning accessible regardless of learners’ physical location is also significant. Microlearning aids in
facilitating adaptable digital learning across geographically dispersed locations [7]. In addition, institutional policies play a role in
facilitating or hindering microlearning adoption. Alignment with institutional guidelines and regulations ensures smooth integration
and optimal utilization of microlearning.
In terms of subject differences, it can significantly impact the design, implementation, and effectiveness of microlearning. While
microlearning can simplify complex topics, the approach will differ based on the subject intricacy. For example, Conde-Caballero et al.
[49] found significant differences in the effectiveness of microlearning based on the subject in which it was deployed. The development
of the module should consider whether the content is theoretical, practical, or complex, even content within the same subject can vary
in complexity. For example. in a complex topic such as English language verb tenses due to the various forms and usage rules, the
microlearning module could provide concise explanations of verb tense (e.g., present, past, future), and offer real-life examples in
sentences. Visual aids, such as timeline diagrams or charts, could help learners visualize the progression of time and tense changes. For
a simpler English language topic like ‘Basic Vocabulary: Colours,’ the microlearning content might include short audio clips pro­
nouncing different colours, accompanied by colourful visuals of each colour name. Interactive drag-and-drop activities could reinforce
learners’ ability to match the word with relevant colours. In these instances, microlearning aligns with the subject complexity,
ensuring learners understand the fundamental concepts and apply them in practical language use.

5.2.2. Guiding principles

The common practices were identified from the analyzed studies that may have contributed to effective microlearning. These
practices were then synthesized into specific themes labelled as guiding principles. One of the crucial principles is choosing a specific
objective that is action-oriented, guiding the design and implementation of microlearning module, with an immediate focus on
practical application. A single definable objective can be a specific concept, problem, skill, or other area [21,22,36,40-43].
By keeping the objectives concise and well-defined, learners can better absorb and apply the key concepts without feeling over­
whelmed by excessive information, thereby reducing cognitive overload. McNeill and Fitch [42] highlight the possible issue of
cognitive overload in microlearning when there are too many objectives, an excessive amount of content, or lengthy microlearning
activities. The objective should be learner-centred, relevant, and practical in real-world contexts. For example, a single objective, such
as performing CPR in an emergency, may be targeted in the microlearning module. The relevant content guides the steps of CPR
through interactive simulations, allowing learners to practice the correct rhythm and compression depth on a virtual mannequin,
thereby reinforcing life-saving skills. The content should be concise, often described as ‘bite-sized,’ ‘small chunk,’ or ‘nugget’ to
prevent cognitive overload. Chunking content is crucial for both standalone use and integration into broader training. For example,
extensive learning materials can be condensed into bite-sized materials which can be managed to be delivered through short media
such as videos (1–3 min) and can even be conveyed through single-sheet infographics [44]. As the world is rapidly evolving, embracing
advanced technology in microlearning is vital. Cutting-edge technologies, such as generative AI, can particularly help in condensing
large amounts of learning materials into bite-sized formats. For instance, lengthy documents can be summarized by Generative AI
tools, making the content easier to understand, retain, and utilize. These can be delivered through varied delivery modes including
face-to-face, online, and blended [54].
The timeframe of bite-sized content is subjective and there is an ongoing debate about the optimal duration of microlearning lessons,
with reported ranges varying from a few seconds to a few minutes [e.g., 23, 44, 46]. However, the short duration is prioritized to prevent
cognitive overload. Microlearning, with content delivered in smaller units over an extended period, may be a more effective approach [47].
For instance, in the Choo and Rahim [19] study, the recorded demonstrations uploaded as videos on YouTube ranged from 12 to 62 s.
Extended explanations were offered through longer videos: an introductory video (9:27 min) and a ‘Question 1’ video (2:34 min)
explaining the R and S assignment. These videos, along with quizzes, were embedded into a newly designed Google Form (GF). Students
had a week to complete the assessment, featuring 11 sections with 55 questions translated from a face-to-face practical session.
Microlearning effectiveness extends beyond content timeframe and delivery; it hinges on student utilization and engagement [17]. To
achieve optimal engagement, microlearning content should be visually appealing and interactive. Strategies encompass interactive ele­
ments, gamification, social learning features [21], simulation, interactive flashcards, and feedback mechanisms such as instant feedback
and peer feedback. The study conducted by Fidan [37] found that microlearning creates an engaging environment, offering numerous
opportunities to foster critical thinking, student-student interaction, collaborative learning, and the understanding of new concepts or
subjects, while Ho et al. [17] found success in encouraging adult learners to engage with bite-sized learning units during the designated
time.

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Personalization in microlearning involves adapting the content, format, and delivery of the learning materials to align with the
individual learner’s requirements. This can include personalizing the content to reflect the learner’s interests, job role, or skill level. It
may also involve adjusting the delivery method or format to accommodate different learning styles [68], or preferences, such as
providing text-based materials, videos, quizzes, or interactive exercises. It allows learners to receive targeted and relevant information
in a format that meets their learning needs, ultimately leading to more efficient and personalized learning outcomes.
In terms of medium, the findings indicate that microlearning can be delivered through a variety of tools including various media
formats, platforms, and devices. The media format can be videos, podcasts, and text, fostering rapid understanding and retention [23,
37] with videos as an effective medium for delivering microlearning content [23]. For instance, the Choo and Rahim [19] study
delivered micro-content through short videos that highlight specific aspects of an earlier lecture, where the lecturer demonstrated 3D
molecular structures of a chemical substance using molecular model kits. These demonstrations were recorded, trimmed, and uploaded
as videos on YouTube. Innovative technologies like generative AI can be used to create microlearning content in various formats such
as animated videos, graphs, and text. The platforms include specialized ones like EdApp [41], Learning Management Systems (LMSs)
[36,37] like Moodle [45], and social media platforms like TikTok [49]. Bannister et al. [52] exemplified this by converting educational
case study clinic and podcast segments into concise 30-180-s media clips, tailor-made for standalone microlearning content on social
media. The distribution strategy involved posting these microlearning units on both Twitter and LinkedIn, with a consistent frequency
of two posts per platform per week, spanning three months. As most platforms have integrated Generative AI, they can be employed to
further optimize content delivery by offering real-time assistance, language translations, or adaptive pacing based on learner
behaviour. The available content can be accessed through various devices including mobile devices like smartphones and tablets [21,
38,49] as well as computers [38,55,69]. These devices enable learners to access microlearning content at their convenience, with
personal mobile devices being the primary means of engagement [21]. For example, Lee et al. [41] designed a mobile microcourse,
using a comprehensive three-stage development process for effective microlearning delivery. Initial microlessons were crafted by an
expert journalist using EdApp, and subsequently refined through expert and researcher reviews. User input from a pilot test further
honed the course, leading to the creation of ‘The 5 Cs of Writing News for Mobile Audiences.’ This course specifically caters to
journalism students and professionals seeking to elevate their news writing capabilities for mobile readers.
The prepared microlearning content can be delivered through various modes. Selecting the appropriate mode is critical and can be
influenced by factors such as learner preferences, content complexity, and available resources. For instance, some learners may prefer
face-to-face interactions, while others may prioritize the flexibility of online microlearning. With respect to complex content that
necessitates high interactivity face-to-face delivery may be better suited, facilitating discussions, and personalized guidance. Alter­
natively, they may be more suitable for online asynchronous microlearning, such as short iterative videos. Blended microlearning,
combining face-to-face and online elements, offers a harmonious way. It fosters interactive in-person learning and sustains rein­
forcement through online modules. For instance, Ho et al. [17] in the 6-week Cognitive Psychology course, a blended course, 3 weeks
of face-to-face sessions, and 3 weeks of online learning investigated microlearning. Bite-sized learning activities were introduced 10
days in advance to act as catalysts for upcoming topics for face-to-face sessions. These activities, designed as pre-class tasks, not only
engaged learners but also facilitated concept exploration. Subsequently, the instructor expanded on these concepts during in-person
sessions, explicitly establishing the connections between bite-sized activities and classroom teachings. Another important factor is
resource availability, encompassing time, budget, and technology which can influence the mode chosen.

5.2.3. Learning outcomes

To assess learning outcomes aligned with Bloom’s Taxonomy, evaluation should be tailored to the specific domain of learning
(cognitive, behavioral, or affective) being addressed. Each domain represents a different aspect of learning, encompassing knowledge,
skills, and attitudes. The cognitive domain focuses on intellectual abilities, knowledge acquisition, and thinking processes. Cognitive
learning outcomes involve various levels of understanding and application of concepts related to the subject matter. Examples include
knowledge acquisition, improvement, transfer, and application; improved critical thinking and problem-solving skills; improved in­
formation processing, retention, and recall; development of metacognitive skills, and self-regulation of learning. Sankaranarayanan
et al. [11] highlight that microlearning allows for the efficient acquisition and application of knowledge and skills. Similarly, in a
systematic review and meta-analysis, Prasittichok and Smithsarakarn [25] found that microlearning significantly outperformed
traditional lectures in improving English-speaking skills for EFL students. The findings emphasize microlearning effectiveness in
English language teaching and improving EFL speaking skills. In another study, Wang et al. [26] found in their SLR that microlearning
can improve cognitive self-care abilities and, under conditions, can also be effective in improving actual self-care behaviours.
The behavioural domain focuses on the development of manual and physical skills [58] and actual behaviours [64]. Learning
outcomes in this domain pertain to observable behaviours and actions that learners can demonstrate. Behavioural outcomes include
the development of psychomotor skills, task completion, improved performance, engagement, contribution, collaboration, and uti­
lization. De Gagne et al. [70] in their review reported that microlearning positively affected health professions students’ engagement in
collaborative learning, alongside their knowledge, confidence in performing procedures, knowledge retention, and studying.
The affective domain focuses on attitudes, emotions, and values. Learning outcomes in this domain involve changes in learners’
feelings, motivations, and beliefs. In microlearning, affective outcomes included increased motivation—both intrinsic (learning as a
hobby) and extrinsic (learning for career advancement). Satisfaction, self-efficacy, and positive attitudes toward microlearning were
frequently reported. Other examples include increased confidence, a sense of belonging and social connectedness, development of
ethical and moral values or reasoning in decision-making.

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6. Implications

The findings from this study have both theoretical and practical implications. The study reinforces the preference for ‘micro­
learning’ as the established term, ‘approach’ as the favoured didactics, ‘bite-sized content’ as the preferred measure for brief
instructional segments, and ‘seconds or a few minutes’ as the delivery time. Therefore, microlearning can be defined as an instructional
approach focused on delivering bite-sized, targeted content to diverse learners within seconds or a few minutes. This approach aligns
closely with Sweller’s CLT. The theory suggests that breaking information into manageable chunks reduces cognitive overload and
improves learning efficiency. The alignment between microlearning and CLT underscores its effectiveness in optimizing cognitive
processing and retention. The use of microlearning as a practical application of CLT could lead to further exploration and validation of
the theory’s principles in different learning contexts. Additionally, the study contributes to the understanding of Andragogy by
highlighting individual, situational, and subjective differences observed in the analyzed studies.
In terms of practical implications, a microlearning instruction design framework is proposed for its future implementation, encompassing
three main dimensions including differences, guiding principles, and learning outcomes. Educators, instruction designers, and microlearning
educational app developers can utilize this framework to design and deliver effective micro modules. For instance, by focusing on factors
such as individual, situational, and subject differences and the guiding principles during micro module design and delivery, educators can
create more effective and personalized learning modules. They should consider the guiding principles. First, microlearning module is
specific-objective driven, ensuring a clear focus on specific learning outcomes. Second, the content is delivered in bite-sized portions,
allowing learners to grasp information efficiently and effectively. Third, careful consideration of the duration and frequency of micro­
learning activities, can optimize knowledge retention and application. Fourth, interactive and engaging activities should be incorporated to
foster active engagement. Fifth, personalization is to cater to individual learning needs and preferences. Lastly, the selection of appropriate
instruction delivery medium and mode diversifies the learning experience, accommodating various learning preferences.
The potential for microlearning to improve cognitive, behavioural, and affective learning outcomes suggests that it can be a valuable
approach to learning. It can be used for improving learners’ specific cognitive outcomes (e.g., knowledge), behavioural outcomes (e.g.,
engagement), and affective outcomes (e.g., motivation). For instance, instead of a full-day workshop on company policies, employees
receive brief, 5-10-min micro modules in the form of video tutorials on specific topics like compliance, IT security, or company values. This
reduces cognitive overload, allowing learners to better retain important information and gradually build their knowledge base.

7. Limitations and future recommendations

While this study provides valuable insights, it has several limitations. First, the study was limited to microlearning outcomes. Future
research should address meso and macro-level learning outcomes. Research should also extend to exploring microlearning across diverse
educational and cultural contexts to capture a broader spectrum of applications and outcomes. Second, the date range of 2020–2024 may
have excluded relevant research outside this timeframe. Future reviews could use AI-powered tools to include and analyze relevant
literature more comprehensively, providing a richer perspective. Additionally, the study only included articles published in English,
thereby excluding those in other languages. The study focused solely on peer-reviewed academic journal articles, excluding other forms of
grey literature where relevant reports on microlearning might also exist. Although a sufficient range of search terms was used, the defined
and keyworded search terms might still affect comprehensiveness. Using specific keywords in search engines may risk excluding relevant
literature. Future research could explore alternative synonyms to capture a broader range of papers describing microlearning. Decisions
about language and meaning in the framework may introduce bias, as researchers interpret the language used by the original authors. We
aimed to limit subjectivity by involving two coders and double-checking the process with co-authors. The framework can be used as a basis
for developing more comprehensive theoretical models that integrate microlearning with other instructional strategies and educational
theories. The framework needs to be tested for validity and reliability.

8. Conclusion

This study adds to the ongoing discussion on the definition and didactics of microlearning, and its effects on learning outcomes.
Findings from the analyzed studies reveal that microlearning is an effective instructional approach that delivers bite-sized, targeted
instructional content within a short period, typically in seconds or a few minutes. This specific objective-driven approach aligns with
CLT and learner-centred principles. Regarding the characteristics of the studies, most of them were conducted in 2022 and focused on
medical fields, with a significant portion originating from the USA. The predominant use of quantitative methods was evident, with
most research targeting learners and utilizing a combination of data collection tools. The key findings indicate that microlearning can
potentially improve learning outcomes in all three domains including cognitive, behavioural, and affective. In addition, the proposed
instructional design framework consisting of three integral components—differences including individual, situational, and subject
differences; the key guiding principles; and learning outcomes—provides educators and curriculum designers with valuable guidance
to effectively design and implement microlearning for improving learning outcomes.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Wali Khan Monib: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Atika
Qazi: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.
Rosyzie Anna Apong: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Conceptualization.

13
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

Data availability statement

Not Applicable.

Funding statement

The work is supported by Universiti Brunei Darussalam under research grant UBD/RSCH/URG/2024/012.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

APPENDIX A

Characteristics and findings of the analyzed studies

Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

[71] USA Computer science To explore the Exploratory Students and Student Quizzes, exams, Learners scored
and information influence of the case study instructor (33), reflection significantly higher,
technology, online microlearning instructor prompts, experienced less
introductory instructional (1) perception survey, cognitive load, and
database approach in an interviews were more motivated
programming class online introductory and engaged.
database Microlearning was
programming highly useful,
classroom contextually relevant,
accessible, and
flexible, leading to
better knowledge
retention. However,
issues included
fragmented learning
experiences, the need
for relevant feedback,
and difficulties in
learning without prior
background
knowledge.
[72] India MBA program To evaluate Experimental Students 104 Quizzes and Students in the
microlearning research, post- reaction survey microlearning module
effectiveness. test control scored significantly
group design higher and showed
improved performance
and satisfaction
compared to those in
the regular module.
[50] Iran Diabetes Clinic to investigate the Pre-test-post- Patients 80 Questionnaires The social media-based
impact of social test microlearning (SMBM)
media-based intervention appears to be an
microlearning effective tool for
(SMBM) on improving self-
enhancing the efficacy, self-care, and
knowledge, self- knowledge among
care, and self- patients with type 2
efficacy behaviours diabetes.
[62] Hong Kong English language To explore teacher Exploratory Teachers Survey (67) Survey and Microlearning was
teaching context professional and interview perceived as flexible
development interview and stress-free and
(TPD) for online (12) allowed teachers to
and blended focus on relevant and
learning (OBL) via immediate tasks to
microlearning achieve digital growth,
(continued on next page)

14
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

with the skills

necessary to teach
effectively in the
context of the ‘new
normal’; development
of teachers’
technological
competence and digital
pedagogy
[75] UAE Instructional To assess the Quasi- Students 100 Pre and post-test/ Students expressed
technology course impact of an experiment Achievement test, general satisfaction
innovative questionnaire with using the module
microlearning during their learning
module on and flipped
postgraduate microlearning courses.
students’ The ANCOVA test
perceptions and revealed a significant
academic progress difference between the
two groups, with an F
value of 4.427
favouring the
experimental group
and a significance level
of 0.038. Additionally,
the questionnaire
findings indicated a
high level of student
acceptance of the
module.
[15] – Education Does the micro- Random study Students 30 Formative and The results showed
Technology reading activity summative that all students met
promote students’ evaluation the reading objective
reading and maintained high
effectiveness? engagement in the
Which micro- micro-reading activity.
reading style can Summative evaluation
achieve better revealed both groups
reading had high average
effectiveness? scores, but the
electronic book
reading (e-reading)
group outperformed
the paper book reading
(p-reading) group,
with significant
differences noted.
Thus, the 6-week
micro-reading activity
improved reading
effectiveness, with e-
reading proving more
effective.
[65] Spain Business To uncover student Qualitative, Students, Student Primary source: Findings reveal that
satisfaction and case study experts, and (12), experts individual learning effectiveness
learning company (4), interviews, is influenced by the
effectiveness of company (2) quantitative and training’s relevance to
microlearning qualitative students’ jobs, leading
questionnaires, to four outcomes:
documentary entertainment,
reviews, and knowledge updating,
observations; unexpected learning,
secondary sources: and effective learning.
public data This paper addresses
(website, press gaps in research on
news, Google, learner satisfaction
social networks) and microlearning
effectiveness,
(continued on next page)

15
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

emphasizing that these

are not guaranteed.
[73] Bulgaria Orthopaedics and To compare the Random Students 150 Mid and final- Microlearning
Traumatology effectiveness of control study semester tests significantly improved
microlearning students’ knowledge
alongside retention, practical
traditional skills, and overall
teaching methods performance compared
to traditional methods.
Integrating
microlearning into
orthopaedics and
traumatology curricula
can improve learning
outcomes and better
prepare students for
real-world practice.
[63] Saudi Education Examines the Quantitative Students 19 Survey The results suggest that
Arabia effects of a Flipped multiple questionnaire the Flipped Mobile-
Mobile-Based methods Based Microlearning
Microlearning approach (FMM) approach may
(FMM) approach positively affect
on postgraduate accessibility,
students’ engagement, retention,
accessibility, learning experience,
engagement, and exam scores
retention, learning compared to
experience, and traditional methods.
academic The findings support
achievement. FMM’s efficacy,
highlighting its
potential to improve
learning and academic
outcomes and
underscore its value in
educational practice
and research.
[74] Malaysia Medical Describes the – Students and 52 Pre-test and post- Microlearning and
implementation alumni test, quizzes, simulations effectively
and preliminary feedback, enhanced virtual
evaluation of a checklist consultation
competency-based competencies in
virtual medical students.
consultation
training module for
undergraduate
medical students.
[53] Japan CLT-focused EFL To evaluate how an Quantitative Students 87 The Pebasco app Pebasco (mobile
course/faculty of asynchronous microlearning app)
letters microlearning app indicates that many
might improve participants improved
students’ skills for or maintained
providing peer desirable patterns of
feedback on behaviour and
spoken content in outcomes, suggesting a
the context of positive impact on the
English as a foreign quality of peer
language (EFL) feedback skills and
education. second-language (L2)
skills.
[38] Czech Pedagogy To determine if Quantitative Students First phase Survey/ Six different
Republic there are (378) + questionnaire, approaches lead to the
differences in second learning analytics successful completion
approaches to phase (156) of ML course. Gender is
studying a not influenced by the
microlearning choice of strategies.
course The number of days to
complete the course
(continued on next page)

16
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

was the significant

parameter. Detailed
descriptions of
learners’ study
strategies in ML
courses can improve
the effectiveness of
ML. Students preferred
videos and video
tutorials over text
materials, with the use
of educational
materials influenced
by the chapter’s
thematic focus.
[56] Netherlands Hospital and Development of a A multi- Older adults, – 30 statements Based on a well-
homecare microlearning methods nurses, nursing founded and
intervention approach assistants, comprehensive
regarding nursing experts, and procedure, the
nutritional care for other microlearning
older adults professionals intervention was
involved in developed. This
nutritional car intervention has the
potential to contribute
to nursing nutritional
care for older adults.
[48] USA Pharmacy To evaluate Quantitative Preceptors 531 Pre and post-test, Primary outcomes
microlearning as a and 4-point Likert were satisfaction,
preceptor qualitative/ scale changes in knowledge,
development crossover- questionnaire self-efficacy,
method compared controlled perception of
to a traditional study behaviour, confidence
method of scale, and self-reported
learning. frequency of
behaviour,
respectively. Most
participants preferred
microlearning over the
traditional method.
Free text satisfaction
responses were
analyzed using
inductive coding and
thematic analysis.
Participants reported
that microlearning was
more engaging and
efficient. There were
no significant
differences in
knowledge, self-
efficacy, or perception
of behaviour between
microlearning and the
traditional method.
[37] Turkey Education Explores the effects Mixed method Students 128 Quasi-experiment The findings indicated
of the pre-test and post- that FC model (in both
microlearning- test, experimental groups)
supported FC on questionnaires, increased learning
PTs’ learning and interview performance, intrinsic
performance for motivation, and
professional emotional, and
development, behavioural
motivation, and engagement compared
engagement. to a group that was not
used to FC. Moreover,
m-FC group had better
intrinsic motivation
(continued on next page)

17
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

and engagement than

both t-FC and non-FC
groups. Most PTs had
positive perceptions
that it improves the
willingness to
participate in pre-class
activities.
[49] Spain Nursing Shared Quantitative Students 213 Questionnaires The findings indicate
pedagogical and high satisfaction levels
insights from qualitative/ in terms of
implementing a longitudinal engagement, content
TikTok-based quasi- quality, and
microcontent experimental technology
program across acceptance. While
nursing degree gender-specific
modules differences were not
observed, slight
variations were noted
based on the subject
where the
microlearning tool was
implemented.
[21] USA Military design NeNA Quantitative Employees/ 108 Two survey/ The microlearning
content user questionnaire mobile app was
effective in enhancing
the performance and
support of NATO
employees. The app
provided quick access
to relevant information
and training material,
and the user feedback
helped to improve the
design of the app
[47] USA Workplace Compare the Quantitative Employees 228 Questionnaire Supports all three
effectiveness of modes but highlights
three different notable advantages/
interventions (face- effectiveness of online
to-face, online, and and microlearning.
micro-learning) in
developing
psychological
capital in
individuals
[59] Japan Workplace To evaluate the Quantitative Workers 150 Survey/ The process
microlearning questionnaire evaluations confirmed
program high satisfaction and
effectiveness completion rates of the
program among
participants. The
intervention group
exhibited significant
improvements in
attitude and
knowledge compared
to the control group
after 1 month. All
outcomes remained
significantly improved
after 4 months.
[45] UK Bachelor of Arts and Online Quantitative Students 94 Questionnaire Engagement favoured
Bachelor of Science microlearning and an optimal range of
student 5–8 min overall.
engagement in Significant variation
computer games emerged based on the
higher education year of study: first
years preferred videos
(continued on next page)

18
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

lasting 6–12 min,

while second and third
years leaned towards
videos under 8 min.
[42] USA Education To explore how Qualitative Students 12 Quiz, Focus group Eight Gagnies’ event
learners experience interview was found: gain
online attention, explain
microlearning objectives, stimulate
activities recall of prior learning,
present the content,
provide learning
guidance, elicit
performance, provide
feedback, assess
performance, improve
retention and transfer,
trust in content, design
principle, purpose, and
application.
[22] Malaysia Accounting Investigating the Qualitative Students 40 Rubric The outcome of the
impact of assessments and study showed that
microlearning on observations, students’ participation
student checklists and is at an excellent level.
participation and reflections Micro learning has
learning interest helped boost the
interest of students in
their learning.
[23] Malaysia Education industries To identify the Quantitative Employees: 190 Survey and focus Beyond videos,
perspective and role of both group interview employees lacked
towards Qualitative trainers and awareness of other
microlearning and trainees microlearning content
the significance of elements for design.
the design of Two distinct
micro-sized architectures, namely
content for online Dual Architecture and
training for Integration Domain
employees Architecture, are
introduced. Dual
Architecture offers
topics learnable
through microlearning
content with set
durations or
unrestricted gamified
content. Integration
Domain Architecture
combines learning and
evaluation, with each
learned topic assessed
through gamification
techniques from the
evaluation domain.
[12] UK Business Aims to explore Quantitative Students 77 Questionnaire The control function
how learners prefer and expression
to interact with functions of
microlearning multimedia ML was
videos; in what high and perceived as
ways do learners useful. More
prefer to interact respondents preferred
with multimedia to have more control
microlearning? on multiple-choice and
open questions. No
difference was found in
the preference of the
participants on when
to attempt the
assessment.
(continued on next page)

19
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

[44] Indonesia Curriculum To explore the Qualitative Students 45 Questionnaire, Microlearning

development courses effectiveness of document effectively mediates
microlearning as a analysis, and cognitive load
mode of interview (intrinsic, extrinsic,
asynchronous and germane) in online
learning in online curriculum
learning. development. ML
usage is flexible and
user-friendly in the
online setting, leading
to excellent learning
outcomes. Most
students hold positive
perceptions and
endorse
microlearning’s utility.
They find the content
easy to comprehend,
adaptable to their
learning style and
appreciate its various
formats. Asynchronous
online activities
support independent
learning, granting easy
access, control, and
repetition of quality
content. The presence
of narration aids in
material
understanding.
[39] Pakistan Medical and Nursing To test the Mixed Students, 29 Pre-and post- Bioethics knowledge
effectiveness and methods residents, and questionnaire and test scores displayed
feasibility of a approach practicing knowledge tests, improvement post-
mobile just-in-time nurses discussion logs, intervention,
learning (m-JiTL) focus group particularly evident
method for discussions, among medical
bioethics education document review, students. EthAKUL, the
and open-ended pioneering bioethics
questions teaching app, provided
valuable insights into
novel pedagogies and
technological
integration for
bioethics education.
The study also
highlighted design
concerns in the app
and m-JiTL pedagogy
that require resolution
before wider
curriculum
implementation.
[17] Singapore Cognitive To examine Quantitative Students 81 Gnowbe platform The results showed
psychology course whether adult and and classroom that adult learners
learners utilized Qualitative observation were keen to learn
bite-sized learning from bite-sized
activities during learning activities
pockets of ‘down during these pockets of
time’ in their busy down time.
schedules
[7] Norway Public sector To investigate the Action Employees 334 Questionnaire Microlearning is
organization role of research relevant and reduces
microlearning on arbitrary knowledge
cost-efficiency on transfer among project
knowledge transfer teams, facilitating
in a project-based knowledge sharing in
organization; project-based
(continued on next page)

20
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

reflects on the organizations. This

design process of indicates that the short
the lessons lessons were of interest
to the participants.
This is also confirmed
by the fact that 91 % of
the participants
responded that the
microlearning series
was relevant to them.
The reception was
good.
[43] – Medical Education Faculty Quantitative Physician and 132 out of Questionnaire, Ninety-four percent of
development with and qualitative non-physician 310 narrative feedback participants
a snippet workshop educator acknowledged the
through positive impact of
microlearning snippets on
educational practices,
deeming the session a
valuable use of their
time. A concise
professional
development train-the-
trainer workshop of
snippet learning
effectively facilitates
the creation and
utilization of this
approach as well as
expressing interest in a
snippet repository.
[19] Malaysia Pharmacy Perceptions and Qualitative Students 116 YouTube video Online microlearning
performance analytics, quiz delivered knowledge
learning new assessment, and equivalent to face-to-
knowledge through online face active learning.
ML questionnaire YouTube videos and
Google Forms enabled
real-time monitoring
and intervention.
The virtual
microlearning design
improved student
knowledge and skills
using 3D molecular
models and quizzes.
Microlearning grants
convenient access to
new knowledge, while
its structured format
facilitates flexible
learning for distance
learners. The virtual
micro-learning design
is practical,
economical, and
requires minimal
technological
investment or training,
offering easy access in
open distance learning
environments,
especially post-COVID.
[46] USA Nursing To determine the Quantitative Students 142 Questionnaires Integrating wellness
effectiveness of interventions into
short wellness nursing curricula is
interventions feasible and well-
(microlearning) in received, showing a
nursing courses on positive trend in
(continued on next page)

21
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

reducing stress and decreasing anxiety and

anxiety and stress while enhancing
enhancing healthy health and lifestyle
lifestyle beliefs behaviours (HLB).
[41] USA Journalism The design and Qualitative Users 35 Pre-course survey Mobile microlearning
effects of mobile and and post-course led to improved
micro-course on quantitative survey/pe and knowledge, increased
learning efficacy post-test, Semi- skill confidence, and
and learner structured greater decision-
experience questionnaire making certainty.
Opportunities for
improvement lie in
automating feedback,
implementing timed
gamified exercises, and
incorporating
interactive real-world
content.
[40] USA Medical Education/ Assess the impact Quantitative Postgraduates 106 Cross-sectional Most participants
Internal Medicine of ML on learners’ and Survey, case-based reported bite-size
knowledge Qualitative teaching control training (BST) was the
acquisition and pre-and post-test best conference type.
their attitudes Important elements of
BST were found to be
distilled content,
multiple short talk
formats, and peer
teaching. Participants
taught via BST scored
higher compared to
case-based teaching in
the immediate post-
test.
[36] Hong Kong Post-secondary RQ1: How was ML Quantitative Students & 496 Post-course Learning is presented
Educational implemented in the and teachers evaluation through small bursts of
Institutions selected Qualitative questionnaire and training materials that
institutions? teacher can comprehended in a
RQ2: How did the reflections; short time with regard
introduction of ML researchers’ to their preferred time
impact T&L in the observation and and location. Help
selected unstructured institutions to survive
institutions? interview follow- and may provide post-
up pandemic improved
teaching and learning
experiences. The
current
implementation is
faced with practical
and pedagogical
challenges. 90
satisfaction
[60] Saudi Clinical training To investigate Quantitative Postgraduates 129 Questionnaire The majority of
Arabia perceptions of residents had positive
residents on the perceptions and were
microlearning satisfied of the
environment in microlearning
postgraduate environment in
clinical training. postgraduate clinical
training. Female
residents and those
aged 25–30 showed
higher satisfaction
relative to males.
[52] France, Continuing medical Can microlearning Quantitative Students – Evaluation form, Slight improvement in
German, education (CME) modules increase pre-and post- the completion of
Italy, engagement in assessment evaluation activities
Spain, UK, continuing medical associated with ML
USA education (CME) program. ML is
(continued on next page)

22
W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

(continued )
Author Country Field of study Research Method Population Sample size Research Findings
(S) & Question(s)/ Instrument
Year objectives

and, consequently, associated with an

improve learning increase in
outcomes? participation/
engagement.
Microlearning
demonstrates a
remarkable 100-fold
increase in
participation
compared to
traditional eLearning,
enabling broader
reach.
[51] South Africa Retail bank To determine the Quantitative Employees 7673 A questionnaire, Learners responded
effectiveness of ML standardized test positively to
and a correlation microlearning (ML),
test. with an 80 % positive
rating on its
effectiveness. The
knowledge gained
through ML led to
improved work
performance and
business metrics.
However,
microlearning fell
short of fully
embracing the social
aspect of learning.
[18] Iran English Institute ML-based flipped Qualitative Students 26 Questionnaires Flipping a
classroom effect on and and focus group microlearning-based
students’ self- quantitative interview EFL classroom
regulation significantly improved
learners’ self-
regulation compared
to traditional
classroom instruction.
[20] Canada and Ophthalmology To improve CPD Quantitative Educators Phase 1 Survey/ The majority of the
Portugal learning outcome (125), phase questionnaire participants found
2 (182) MLE clear and useful.
Effective in
communicating clearer
message of what they
intend their learners to
learn.
[61] From 137 Industry, national Microlearning Quantitative Healthcare Modules Two surveys/ Microlearning-based
countries pharmacovigilance based module professionals/ 1–4 (550); questionnaires modules developed by
centres, and evaluation learners module 5 Uppsala Monitoring
academia (223) Centre (UMC) were
including effective in improving
completed the knowledge and
and partly skills of healthcare
completed professionals in
responses pharmacovigilance.
The participants were
highly satisfied with
the microlearning
modules and nearly all
would recommend
them to their
colleagues or others.
Note. Dash (− ): cannot determine.

23
 W.K. Monib et al.
APPENDIX B

Microlearning outcomes, and didactics

24

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W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413
. (continued).
25
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. (continued).
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. (continued).
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W.K. Monib et al. Heliyon 11 (2025) e41413

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