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Overview of the Respiratory System

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9 views8 pages

Overview of the Respiratory System

Uploaded by

Mohamed Rouhi
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

The Respiratory System

Respiratory System
• Functions
o Provides large area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood
o Moves air along respiratory passageways to and from gas-exchange surfaces of the lungs
o Protects respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes, and pathogens
o Produces sounds for speaking, singing, and other forms of communication
o Aids in sense of smell
• Structures involved in
o Physically moving air into and out of the lungs
o Gas exchange
• Two Divisions
o Upper Respiratory System
▪ Nose
▪ Nasal cavity Filter, warm, and
▪ Paranasal sinuses humidifies incoming air
▪ Pharynx
▪ Larynx
o Lower Respiratory System
▪ Trachea
▪ Bronchi
▪ Lungs
• Respiratory Tract passageways carry air to and from gas exchange surfaces
• Functional Zones
o Conducting Zone
▪ Nasal cavity → Larger bronchioles
• Lined with respiratory mucosa
o Mucociliary Escalator
▪ Moves debris up to pharynx
• Function
o Filters, warms, and humidifies the air
o Respiratory Zone
▪ Bronchioles → Alveoli
• Function
o Gas exchange

Upper Respiratory System


• The Nose → external nares → nasal cavity → internal nares (paranasal sinuses)→ nasopharynx
• Nasal Cavity
o Cleared and flushed by respiratory mucus (from the respiratory tract and paranasal sinuses) and
tears (from lacrimal duct)
o Increase mucus production due to allergens, debris, vapors, or dust
o Nasal Vestibule- hard and soft palate
o Nasal Conchae- warms and humidifies
• The Pharynx
o Part of both the Respiratory and Digestive Systems
o Extends from the internal nares to the entrance of the Larynx and Esophagus
▪ 3 Subdivisions of the Pharynx
• Nasopharynx

1
o Internal nares to posterior edge of soft palate
▪ Pharyngeal tonsils and auditory tubes
• Oropharynx
o Soft palate to the base of the tongue
▪ Palatine tonsils
• Laryngopharynx
o Base of tongue to the entrance of esophagus
• The Larynx “voice box” made up of the true vocal cords and the space between
o 9 Cartilages
▪ Main Cartilage
• Epiglottis
o Prevents food and water from entering respiratory tract
• Thyroid
o Ridge on front “Adams Apple”
• Cricoid
o Ring
o Two pairs of ligaments
▪ False Vocal Cords
• Inelastic
• Prevent food and water from entering
• Protect the true vocal cords (lower ligaments)
▪ True Vocal Cords
• Elastic
• Connect thyroid and arytenoid cartilages
• Sound production
o Vibration of air over vocal cords
o Pitch depends on length, diameter, and tension
▪ High pitch → short and small
▪ Low pitch → long and thick

Lower Respiratory System


• The Trachea
o Posterior to cricoid cartilage to primary branch
o Tough, flexible tube (simple squamous)
▪ Anterior side supported by 15-20 c-shaped cartilages (tracheal cartilages)
▪ Posterior side opened to allow for food to move through esophagus
o Branches into 2 bronchi
• The Bronchial Tree
o Primary Bronchi
▪ Right Primary Bronchus (right lung)
• Larger and steeper angle
▪ Left Primary Bronchus (left lung)
o Secondary Bronchi
▪ Right and left branch in to the lobes of the lungs
• Right- 3 lobes Left- 2 lobes
o Tertiary Bronchi
▪ Branches of the secondary bronchi, 9-10 in each lung and supply the bronchopulmonary
segment
o Bronchioles (begins the bronchopulmonary segment)
▪ Cartilage has disappeared
▪ Smooth muscle

2
• ANS
o Sympathetic (Fight or Flight) relaxation/bronchodilation
o Parasympathetic (Rest and Digest) constriction/bronchoconstriction
o Terminal Bronchioles
▪ Finest conducting passageways, each supply one pulmonary lobule, pulmonary arteriole,
and pulmonary venule
o Respiratory Bronchioles
▪ Gas exchange ability → leads to alveolar ducts
o Alveolar Sacs
▪ Contain multiple individual alveoli
o Alveolar Ducts
▪ Leads to alveoli
▪ ↑ surface area ~140m2
▪ Allows for extensive, rapid gas exchange
• Alveoli
o Type I Pneumocytes
▪ Primary
o Alveolar Macrophages
▪ Engulf particles
o Type II Pneumocytes (septal cells)
▪ Produce surfactant (helps reduce surface tension and keeps alveoli open between
breathes)
• Respiratory Membrane
o Diffusion of gases occur
o 3 Layers
▪ Alveolar Epithelium (lines alveoli)
▪ Fused Basement Membrane
▪ Capillary Epithelium (lines capillaries → secrete A.C.E)
• Pulmonary Capillaries and BP
o Endothelial cells secrete Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) → maintain BP
o Pulmonary embolism
▪ BP is low in pulmonary blood
▪ Masses and clots can easily occur
• The Lungs (Apex is the top and Base is the bottom)
o Right Lung
▪ 3 Lobes
• Superior
• Middle
• Inferior
o Left Lung
▪ 2 Lobes
• Superior
• Inferior
▪ Cardiac Notch
• Layers of the Lungs
o Pleura serous membrane
▪ Visceral Pleura line the lungs
▪ Pleural Cavity between visceral and parietal pleura, fluid secreted by both layers to
reduce friction
▪ Parietal Pleura lines the diaphragm and chest wall
• Pneumothorax

3
o Breaks bonds between pleural layers
• Hemothorax
o Blood in pleural cavity

Respiration
• Two Types
o External Respiration
▪ Exchange of O2 and CO2 between body and environment
o 3 Steps
▪ Pulmonary Ventilation
• Breathing, physical movement into and out
▪ Gas Diffusion
• Occurs along respiratory membrane and capillary walls between blood and body
tissues
▪ Transport of O2 and CO2
• In blood
o Internal Respiration
▪ Absorption of O2 and Release of CO2 between cells of the body
• Inadequate Oxygen Concentrations
o Perfusion amount of air in alveoli transported by capillaries
o Hypoxia low O2 in tissues
o Anoxia NO O2
▪ Results from damage from MI and strokes

Pulmonary Ventilation primary function is to maintain alveolar ventilation (amount of air in alveoli),
movement into and out, prevent CO2 buildup, continuous supply of O2
• Pressure and Airflow
o Air moves from HIGH to low
▪ ↑ in volume (or space) ↓ in pressure
}
▪ ↓ in volume (or space) ↑ in pressure Boyle’s Law (if temp is not the constant then
o Volume of Lungs depends on the Volume in the Thoracic Cavity ↑ temp ↑volume)
▪ Diaphragm
• Inversely proportional
• Contracted, lungs are expanded
o Contraction ↑ volume/space → ↓ pressure
• Relaxed, lungs are compressed
o Relaxation ↓ volume/space → ↑ pressure
▪ Rib Cage
• Directly Proportional
• Elevation uses external intercostal and accessory muscles
o Elevation ↑ volume/space → ↓ pressure
• Relaxation uses internal intercostals and other accessory muscles
• Relaxation ↓ volume/space → ↑ pressure
• Inhaling
o ↑ in volume/space, ↓ in Pi (Pressure inside)
▪ P i ↓ Po ↑
←
Air moves in
• Exhaling
o ↓ in volume/space, ↑ in Pi
▪ P i ↑ Po ↓

4
→
Air moves out
• Compliance how easy it is to breath
o Factors affecting compliance
▪ Alveolar damage (emphysema)
▪ Decrease surfactant
▪ Thoracic cage issues

Modes of Breathing
• Quiet
o Inhalation
▪ Diaphragm and External Intercostals
o Exhalation
▪ Passive
▪ No muscles needed
• Forced
o Inhalation
▪ Both Primary and Secondary muscles
o Exhalation
▪ Internal Intercostals and Abdominal muscles

Respiration
• Respiratory Cycle
o 1 breath in and out
• Respiratory Rate
o Breaths/minute
o Normal rate 12-18 bpm (in adults)

Lung Volumes and Capacities


• Tidal Volume (VT) = ERV + IRV
o Amount of air into and out during 1 respiratory cycle
• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Quiet breathing-
o Amount of air exhaled NOT forced
• Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
o Amount of air inhaled
• Vital Capacity = VT + ERV + IRV
o Maximum amount of air in and out in one respiratory cycle
• Residual Volume
o Amount of air left in lungs after maximum exhalation
• Minimal Volume
o Amount of air left in lung after lung collapse

Gas Exchange
• Gas exchange depends on two factors
o Partial pressure gradient of gases involved
o Diffusion of molecules between gas and liquid
• Atmospheric Air
o O2 in air = 20.9%
o Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mm Hg
o Partial Pressure (Pgas)
o PO2 = 760 mm Hg x 20.9% = 159 mm Hg

5
• Alveolar Air
o Inhaled atmospheric air + residual volume
o Exhaled mixes with air in dead space
• Partial Pressure in Pulmonary Circuit gases move down partial pressure gradients
o Deoxygenated blood entering pulmonary arteries
▪ PO2 = 40 mm Hg PCO2 = 45 mm Hg
o Alveolar air
▪ PO2 = 100 mm Hg PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
Pulmonary Arteries Movement of Gases Alveolar Air
↓ [O2] O2 will move from the alveoli ↑ [O2]
into the blood
↑ [CO2] CO2 will move from the blood ↓ [CO2]
into the alveoli
• Partial Pressure in Systemic Circuit
o Oxygenated blood entering systemic arteries
▪ PO2 = 95 mm Hg PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
o Interstitial Fluid
▪ PO2 = 40 mm Hg PCO2 = 45 mm Hg
Systemic Arteries (Plasma) Movement of Gases Interstitial Fluid (Tissue)
↑ [O2] O2 moves from the blood into ↓ [O2]
the tissues
↓ [CO2] CO2 moves from the tissues into ↑ [CO2]
the blood

Gas Transport in Blood


• Tissues need O2 and generates CO2 (this rate needs to be equal)
• RBC carry O2 and CO2 on hemoglobin
• O2 and CO2 have limited ability to dissolve in plasma
• All reactions are temporary and completely reversible
• O2 Transport
o Attaches to Iron on heme of hemoglobin
Hb + O2 ↔ HbO2
o Rate of release depends on PO2, pH, and temperature in tissues
▪ ↓PO2, ↓pH, ↑ temperature; O2 released (tissue)
▪ ↑PO2, ↑pH, ↓ temperature; O2 is attached (lungs)
• CO2 Transport
o Attaches to globulin subunit of hemoglobin
Hb + CO2 ↔ HbCO2 (carbinohemoglobin)
o Transported 3 ways
▪ Dissolved in Plasma 7%
▪ Attached to Hemoglobin 23% 93%
▪ Transported as Bicarbonate ion 70%
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
Carbonic Acid Bicarbonate
• Reversed at pulmonary capillaries
o Exchanges Cl and HCO3 (chloride shift)

6
Figure 15-14 A Summary of Gas Transport and Exchange. Slide 4
O2 pickup O2 delivery
(PO2 = 100, PCO2 = 40) (PO2 = 95, PCO2 = 40)

Pulmonary Systemic
capillary capillary
Plasma
Red blood cell Red blood cell

Cells in
Alveolar peripheral
air space tissues

Alveolar Chloride
air space shift

Cells in
Pulmonary Systemic peripheral
capillary capillary tissues

CO2 delivery CO2 pickup


(PO2 = 40, PCO2 = 45) (PO2 = 40, PCO2 = 45)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Maintaining O2 and CO2 Levels


• Two homeostatic processes maintain equilibrium
o Local Control O2 absorption and CO2 generation
▪ Tissues
• ↑ activity → ↑ PCO2, ↓ PO2 → rapid diffusion of O2 in and CO2 out
▪ Lungs
• ↓ PO2 precapillary sphincters constrict and shunts blood to ↑ PO2 area (pulmonary
lobule)
• ↑ PCO2 bronchioles dilate
• ↓ PCO2 bronchioles constrict
o Neural Control
▪ Brain Centers changes in depth and rate of respiration
• Voluntary control resides in cerebral cortex
• Involuntary respiratory centers in 3 pairs of nuclei in pons and medulla
oblongata
o Pons adjust RR and depth of response to stimuli of emotions and speech
patterns

Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers set breathing rate


• DRG triggers every breath (inhalation)
• VRG functions only during forced breathing (forced exhalation)

Mechanoreceptor Respiratory Reflexes


• Modify activities of respiratory centers during forced breathing
• Respond to changes in lung volume or BP
o Inflation reflex
▪ Prevents over inflation of lungs Hering-Breuer
▪ Inhibits DRG Reflexes
▪ Stimulates VRG
o Deflation reflex
▪ Stimulates DRG
▪ Inhibits VRG

7
Chemoreceptor Respiratory Reflexes
• Receptors respond to changes in pH, PCO2, and PO2
o ↑ PCO2 and ↓ pH prime stimulators of RR ↑’s

Diseases/Conditions
• Allergies
• Inappropriate or excessive immune responses.
• Asthma
• Reversible constriction of smooth muscles around respiratory passageways, frequently caused by
an allergic response.
• Bronchitis
• Inflammation of the bronchial passageways.
• COPD
• Disease of the bronchial tree; characterized by chronic bronchitis.
• Emphysema
• A chronic, progressive condition.
• Hypercapnia
• An abnormally high level of carbon dioxide in the blood.
• Hypocapnia
• An abnormally low level of carbon dioxide.
• Pleurisy
• An inflammation of the pleurae and secretion of excess amounts of pleural fluid.
• Pneumonia
• An inflammation of the lungs.
• Decompression Sickness
• A painful condition that develops when a person is exposed to a sudden drop in atmospheric
pressure.
• Pneumothorax
• When air penetrates the pleural cavity, allowing atmospheric air to enter.

Common questions

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The upper respiratory system, comprising the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, mainly filters, warms, and humidifies air, helping in speech and olfaction. In contrast, the lower respiratory system, which includes the trachea, bronchi, and lungs, focuses on conducting air to the alveoli for gas exchange. The trachea and bronchi have structural differences such as cartilage support, which diminishes in the bronchioles where smooth muscle becomes predominant, allowing for regulation of airflow .

Partial pressures drive gas movement between alveoli and blood; oxygen moves from high to low partial pressure from alveoli (PO2 = 100 mm Hg) to capillary blood (PO2 = 40 mm Hg), while CO2 moves from blood (PCO2 = 45 mm Hg) into alveoli (PCO2 = 40 mm Hg). Any alterations in these pressures, as seen in pulmonary diseases or high-altitude exposure, disturb the gradients, impeding efficient gas exchange and potentially leading to hypoxia or hypercapnia .

Gas exchange at the alveolar level relies on the diffusion of gases across the respiratory membrane, which is composed of the alveolar epithelium, fused basement membrane, and capillary endothelium. The movement of O2 and CO2 depends on the partial pressure gradients; O2 moves from the alveoli (PO2 = 100 mm Hg) into the blood (PO2 = 40 mm Hg) and CO2 moves from the blood (PCO2 = 45 mm Hg) into the alveoli (PCO2 = 40 mm Hg). Factors influencing this process include the surface area of the alveoli, membrane thickness, and the difference in partial pressures .

The respiratory system maintains blood pH through the regulation of CO2 levels, which influence the bicarbonate buffering system. CO2, when dissolved in blood, forms carbonic acid, which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. By adjusting respiration rates, the body controls CO2 levels, thus influencing blood pH. An increase in respiration rate expels more CO2, shifting the reaction to reduce hydrogen ion concentration and raise pH (reduce acidity), while decreased respiration does the opposite .

Pulmonary ventilation involves the mechanical processes of inhalation and exhalation governed by Boyle's Law. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and the rib cage elevates, increasing thoracic volume and decreasing intrapulmonary pressure, which draws air in since external air pressure is higher. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and rib cage drops, decreasing thoracic volume, increasing pressure inside, and expelling air as internal pressure surpasses external pressure .

Diseases like COPD, bronchitis, and emphysema significantly impair gas exchange efficiency by damaging alveolar structures, increasing mucus, and reducing airway diameters. This impairs airflow and reduces the surface area available for gas exchange. Emphysema, for instance, destroys alveolar walls, diminishing surface area for diffusion and causing hypoxia. Similarly, asthma results in reversible bronchoconstriction, impeding air movement and reducing gas exchange efficiency during episodes .

Surfactant, produced by Type II pneumocytes in the alveoli, reduces surface tension, preventing alveolar collapse by stabilizing alveoli during exhalation. A deficiency in surfactant leads to increased surface tension, predisposing alveoli to collapse, a condition known as atelectasis, which results in reduced lung compliance and impaired gas exchange as observed in conditions such as neonatal respiratory distress syndrome .

The Hering-Breuer reflexes, comprising the inflation and deflation reflexes, protect the respiratory system by preventing lung over-inflation and promoting efficient ventilation. The inflation reflex inhibits inspiratory neurons to prevent excessive lung expansion, while the deflation reflex stimulates inspiration to counteract excessive lung deflation. These reflexes help maintain optimal lung volume and prevent damage from overdistension .

The autonomic nervous system regulates bronchiole constriction and dilation primarily through its sympathetic and parasympathetic inputs. Sympathetic activation leads to bronchodilation, allowing for increased airflow during 'fight or flight' responses, while parasympathetic activation causes bronchoconstriction, reducing airflow during 'rest and digest' states. This ensures that the body can adjust airflow in response to varying metabolic needs .

The nasal cavity plays a critical role in the respiratory system by filtering, warming, and humidifying incoming air. It is lined with respiratory mucus that captures debris and pathogens and is flushed by mucus from the respiratory tract and tears from the lacrimal duct. The nasal conchae within the cavity further enhance the warming and humidification of air before it moves into the lower respiratory tract .

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