The Cardiovascular System- Blood Vessels and Circulation

Vessels
• Arteries → Arterioles
o Carries blood away from the heart
• Capillaries (gas exchange occurs)
• Veins → Venules
o Carries blood toward the heart

Gas Exchange
• Arteries • Venules
• Arterioles • Capillaries • Veins
Oxygenated Deoxygenated
Blood Blood

Vessel Walls
• Tunica Intima (Inner) epithelial tissue
o Elastic fibers
o Basement membrane
• Tunica Media (Middle) smooth muscle
o Smooth muscle
o Controls diameter of vessel (vasoconstriction/vasodilation)
• Tunica Externa (Outer)
o Connective tissue
o Helps stabilize

Contraction- Vasoconstriction ↓ size of lumen

Relaxation- Vasodilation ↑ size of lumen

Arteries Shape (round or oval), Lumen (smaller), Tunica Media (thicker); Elastic fibers and Smooth muscle,
this allows them to handle high pressure
• (Large) Elastic Arteries
o Pulmonary trunk (heart → lungs)
o Aorta (heart → body) is made to withstand high pressure
▪ Large and resilient
▪ More elastic fibers than smooth muscle
• (Medium) Muscular Arteries (distributors)
o External carotid
▪ More smooth muscle than elastic fibers
• (Small) Arterioles
o 1-2 layers of smooth muscle
▪ Diameter changes in response to stimuli → alters BP and blood flow

Capillaries
• Tunica intima ONLY
o Endothelial cells
o Basement membrane
• Blood flow slows → diffusion rate increases
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 • Allows for gas exchange to occur efficiently
o 1 layer allows for shorter diffusion distance and slow flow → ↑ diffusion rate

Capillary Beds
• Regulated by precapillary sphincters → autoregulation of blood flow (vasodilation or vasoconstriction)

Anastomosis can form alternate routes for blood flow

• Arteriovenous
o Arteries → capillaries → venules
• Arterial
o Arteries branch before they branch into arterioles
o Ensures delivery of blood to key areas (Brain)

Veins Larger lumens (openings), thin walls, lower pressure, and more blood
• (Large) Veins
o Thin tunica media
o Thick tunica externa
• (Medium) Veins
o Several layers of tunica media → prevents backflow improves venous return
o Thick tunica externa
o Have valves (tunica intima)
▪ If they don’t function causes varicose veins and hemorrhoids
• (Small) Venules
o No tunica media

Maintaining Adequate Blood Flow

Blood flow = CO Blood Flow ↑ CO ↑, Blood Flow ↓ CO ↓
Blood flow also influenced by pressure and resistance
• Pressure Gradient difference of pressure from one end of vessel to the other (P1 – P2)
• Flow Rate is directly proportional to pressure gradient
o Blood Flow ↑ Pressure Gradient ↑
o Blood Flow ↓ Pressure Gradient ↓
• Pressure regulated by hormonal and neural processes and pressure flows from high to low
o Circulatory Pressure influences blood flow (largest pressure gradient)
▪ Pbase of aorta - Pright atrium
▪ 3 Components
• Arterial Pressure
• Capillary Pressure
• Venous Pressure
• Resistance any force that opposes movement, influences blood flow, Resistance ↑ Blood Flow ↓,
circulatory pressure must be high enough to overcome Total Peripheral Resistance
o Sources of Resistance
▪ Vascular Resistance
• Vessel Diameter (primary source) and Length
▪ Viscosity
• ↑ Resistance → ↑ Pressure
• ↓ Resistance → ↓ Pressure
▪ Turbulence
• ↑ Resistance → ↓ Blood Flow

Interplay of Pressure and Resistance

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 • Arterial Pressure
o BP = systolic/diastolic= contraction/relaxation 120/80 mm Hg
▪ Depends on CO, (L) of blood, opposing pressure
o Systolic Pressure contraction of the ventricles
o Diastolic Pressure relaxation of the ventricles
o Pulse changes in pressure
o Pulse Pressure = systolic-diastolic
• Capillary Pressure pressure within the capillary bed. Causes movement of small ions and nutrients
into and out of the capillary. Pressure moves HIGH to low; pressure lowers as it goes along the length
of capillary.
• Capillary Exchange
o Functions
▪ Communication between blood and tissue
▪ Distribution of nutrients, hormones, and gases
▪ Transport of insoluble molecules
▪ Flushes out unwanted toxins to lymphatic → immune response
o Exchange Mechanisms
▪ Diffusion, Filtration, and Reabsorption
o Forces Across Capillaries
• Venous pressure gradient is low compared to arterial system. Large veins provide low resistance,
ensuring increase in flow despite low pressure. Two factors help blood flow overcome gravity when
standing.
o Muscular compression
o Respiratory pump

Homeostatic Regulation of Perfusion

• Tissue Perfusion or blood flow AFFECTED by:
o CO
o Peripheral Resistance
o BP
• Tissue Perfusion or blood flow REGULATED by:
o Autoregulation
▪ Precapillary sphincters
• Vasodilators ↑ blood flow, Vasoconstrictors ↓ blood flow
o Neural Process
▪ Cardiovascular Center
• Cardio acceleratory (Epi) ↑ CO
• Cardioinhibitory (Ach) ↓ CO

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 ▪Vasomotor center
• Control diameter of arterioles and peripheral resistance
• Controls venoconstriction
▪ Baroreceptors
• Respond to changes in BP
o ↑ BP→ vasodilation
o ↓ BP → vasoconstriction
o Endocrine Processes
▪ Short Term
• Epi and Norepinephrine
• ↑ CO and peripheral vasoconstriction
▪ Long Term
• Increase BP
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
o Angiotensin II
o Erythropoietin (EPO)
• Decrease BP
o Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Reflexes regulated by negative (-) feedback

• Baroreceptors stretch → carotid sinus & brain
o Changes to arterial pressure
• Chemoreceptors
o Respond to changes in chemical composition
▪ CO2, O2, and pH
o Activated by ↓ pH, ↓ O2, ↑ CO2
o Stimulates the cardioaccelatory center and vasomotor center
• Example Baroreceptors- both cardiac centers and vasomotor center
o ↑ bp = ↑ CO = ↑ HR
o ↑ baroreceptor output results in:
▪ Inhibits cardioaccelatory center
▪ Stimulates cardioinhibitory center
▪ Inhibits vasomotor center
▪ Causes ↓ CO2 and vasodilation in tissue

Response to exercise
• ↑ CO
• ↑ venous return
• Extensive vasodilation (in response to ↑ in temperature and ↓ pH)

Response to Hemorrhage (↓ BV → ↓ BP)

• Short Term Response to Hemorrhage
o Sympathetic activation
▪ ↑ CO and venous blood reservoir mobilized
▪ Triggers arteriolar constriction
▪ Causes release of epinephrine, norepinephrine, ADH, and renin
• Long Term Response to Hemorrhage all mechanisms increase blood pressure by increase blood
volume, may take several days
o Recall fluids
▪ ADH and Aldosterone (promote fluid retention)
• Increase thirst

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 • EPO (increase red blood cell production)

Disease/Condition
• Shock
o When the body is not getting enough blood flow
• Arteriosclerosis
o A thickening and toughening of arterial walls
• Atherosclerosis
o Formation of fatty plaques in arteries
• Hypertension
o Chronic and persistent blood pressure measurements of 140/90 mm Hg or above
• Hypotension
o Low blood pressure
• Edema
o Swelling caused by excess fluid
• DVT
o A blood clot in a major vein, usually in the legs

Blood Flow (BF) influenced by:

• Cardiac Output (CO)
• Pressure liquid moves from HIGH to low ↑ pressure ↑ BF, ↓ pressure ↓ BF
o Arterial Pressure (BP)
o Capillary Pressure
o Venous Pressure
▪ Large veins provide low resistance ensuring ↑ blood flow despite the low pressure
• Resistance
o Vascular Resistance
▪ Length and diameter of the vessel
• ↑ length ↑ resistance, ↓ length ↓ resistance
• ↓ diameter ↑ resistance ↓ BF ↓ pressure
• ↑ diameter ↓ resistance ↑ BF ↑ pressure
o Viscosity
▪ Relatively constant
• ↓ viscosity ↓ pressure ↓ BF
• ↑ viscosity ↑ pressure ↑ BF
o Turbulence
▪ Relatively constant
• ↓ turbulence ↓ resistance ↑ BF ↑ pressure
• ↑ turbulence ↑ resistance ↓ BF ↓ pressure
• Proportional to
o Pressure
o Diameter
o Viscosity
• Inversely proportional to
o Length
o Turbulence