FUNDAMENTALS OF MICRO

AND NANOFABRICATION

WEEK 4: LIVE INTERACTION SESSION

Course Instructor: Prof. Sushobhan Avasthi & Prof. Shankar Selvaraja, IISc Bangalore

Teaching Assistant (PMRF): Vikas Pandey, IIT Jodhpur

20-August-2024
 2

ABOUT ME
Vikas Pandey

• PhD Scholar,
• Space Technologies,
• Indian Institute of Technology Class
Jodhpur
• Tue 7:00pm
Academic Background
• [Link]
• M. Tech in VLSI (Electronics and
Communication)
• B. Tech in Electronics and
Communication Engineering
YouTube Channel

Professional Experiences • [Link]

• Research and Development Engineer
• Online Faculty
Contact
• Robotics Trainer

Area of Interest • [Link]

• HEMT • pandey.21@[Link]
• Sensors and IoT
• Machine Learning Google Shape;89;p11
Image

• Microfabrication
• Additive Manufacturing
 3

ADDITIVE PROCESSING

Chemical Vapor Deposition

 4

DEPOSITION TECHNIQUES
Deposition Methods:
a) Process: Reactants in gas form react on the wafer
surface to deposit a solid material.
b) Applications: Used for high-quality semiconductor
films (e.g., Silicon Dioxide).
• Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD):
a) Process: Pre-fabricated material is vaporized and
then condensed on the substrate.
b) Applications: Typically used for metal and
dielectric depositions.
Key Differences:
a) CVD: Better film quality, more complex, used for
semiconductor devices.
b) PVD: Simpler, cheaper, used for non-critical
layers.
 5

KEY CONCEPTS
Uniformity:
a) Consistency of film thickness across the wafer surface.
b) Critical for subsequent processing steps like etching to avoid
over-etching or under-etching.
Conformality:
a) The ability of a deposited film to uniformly cover the
underlying topology, maintaining consistent thickness.
b) Good Conformal Coverage: Uniform thickness over all
features.
c) Poor Conformal Coverage: Thinning over sharp corners or
steps.
Step Coverage:
a) A measure of how well the film covers the steps and
trenches on the wafer.
b) Good Step Coverage: Even film deposition across all surface
topologies.
c) Poor Step Coverage: Thin deposition on vertical walls or in
trenches.
 6

CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (CVD)

Utilizes chemical reactions to deposit a material onto a substrate in
the form of a thin film.
Components of CVD System:
a) Chamber: Encloses the vapor and maintains the controlled
environment.
b) Energy Source: Provides energy for the reaction (commonly
thermal, RF, or radiative).
c) Precursor: Chemical that reacts to form the desired film.
d) Substrate: Surface onto which the material is deposited.
e) Susceptor: Mechanical support for the substrate during
deposition.
Applications of CVD:
a) High-Quality Thin Films: Used in semiconductor fabrication.
b) Epitaxial Growth: Creation of single-crystalline films on a
crystalline substrate.
c) Heterojunctions: Allows materials like silicon-germanium
and gallium nitride deposition on various substrates.
 7

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
a) High-Quality Films: Low contamination and high
uniformity.
b) Wide Material Range: Almost any element can be
deposited if a suitable precursor is available.
c) Conformal Coverage: Provides uniform deposition over
complex topographies.
d) No Need for High Vacuum: Operates at low pressures
(milliTorr to Torr range).
Disadvantages:
a) High Cost: Expensive due to precursors, equipment,
and operational complexity.
b) High Temperatures Required: Limits the types of
substrates that can be used (e.g., no plastics).
c) Limited Process Control: Fewer parameters to control
compared to other deposition techniques like PVD.
 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS IN A CVD 8

1. Precursor:
S YSTEM
• Must be volatile, thermally stable, and decompose cleanly.
• Should have a wide deposition window for flexible process control.
• Byproducts must be stable, volatile, and non-contaminating.
2. Substrate:
• Must withstand high temperatures and remain non-contaminating.
• Common materials include silicon, quartz, and sometimes steel (at
lower temperatures).
3. Susceptor:
•Supports the substrate during deposition.
• Made of materials like graphite, quartz, or silicon carbide.
4. Energy Source:
• Provides the necessary activation energy for the chemical reaction.
• Methods include thermal heating (nichrome coils), infrared, and RF
induction.
 CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHOOSING A 9

PRECURSOR
Ideal Precursor Characteristics:
• Volatility: Preferably gaseous or easily vaporizable.
• Thermal Stability: Should only react under controlled
conditions.
• Clean Decomposition: Avoids unwanted byproducts or
side reactions.
• Availability and Cost: Should be readily available,
consistent, and cost-effective.
• Safety: Non-toxic, non-pyrophoric (though often
compromised).

Availability:
• Wide range of precursors available for different
materials.
• Example: Sigma-Aldrich offers over 220 precursors for
various elements.
 10

OVERVIEW OF CVD MECHANISMS

Key Processes in CVD
1. Gas Flow Dynamics:
• Gas stream flow inside the reactor.
• Formation of a boundary layer near the wafer due to no-slip
conditions.
2. Diffusion to Surface:
• The precursor must diffuse through the boundary layer to
reach the wafer.
• Diffusion is the primary transport mechanism through the
stagnant boundary layer.
3. Surface Adsorption and Reaction:
• Precursor molecules adsorb on the wafer surface.
• A chemical reaction occurs on the surface, leading to film
formation.
4. Byproduct Removal:
• Byproducts of the reaction diffuse back through the boundary
layer and are removed by the gas stream.
 11

BOUNDARY LAYER AND ITS IMPACT

Boundary Layer Dynamics:
a) Formation: Due to no-slip boundary conditions near
the wafer and susceptor.
Thickness Variation:
a) Thinner at the beginning of the wafer.
b) Thicker further along the wafer.
Implications:
a) Diffusion Limitation: The precursor must diffuse
through the boundary layer, affecting the deposition
rate.
b) Reactor Design: The thickness of the boundary layer is
influenced by reactor design and gas flow parameters.
Key Formula:
L
a) Boundary layer thickness δ is proportional to
𝑅𝑒
where Re is the Reynolds number.
 12

FLUID FLOW IN CVD REACTORS

Types of Flow:
a) Molecular Flow: Low-density regime, no intermolecular collisions,
typically in a vacuum.
b) Laminar Flow: Streamlined flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers
and is preferred in CVD for predictability.
c) Turbulent Flow: Chaotic flow, high Reynolds numbers, unpredictable
and undesirable in CVD.
d) Reynolds Number:
i. Definition: A dimensionless number indicating flow regime.
ii. Formula: Re=ρvDμ (where ρ is density, v is velocity, D is
diameter, μ is viscosity).
iii. Laminar Flow: Re<2000 (Preferred in CVD).
iv. Turbulent Flow: Re>2000 (Avoided in CVD).
CVD Reactor Design:
a) Goal: Maintain laminar flow to ensure uniform deposition and
predictable growth rates.
b) Flow Dynamics: Controlled using mass flow controllers and pressure
regulators and designed through principles similar to electrical
circuits.
 13

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
Two Regimes of Growth:
a) Reaction Rate Limited:
i. When: Surface reaction is the bottleneck.
ii. Characteristics: Exponentially dependent on temperature.
𝐸𝑎
−𝑅𝑇
iii. Growth Rate: 𝐺𝑅 ∝ 𝑒
iv. Sensitive to Temperature: Small changes can significantly
impact the growth rate.
b) Mass Transport Limited:
i. When: Diffusion through the boundary layer is the bottleneck.
ii. Characteristics: Linearly dependent on pressure, weakly
dependent on temperature.
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
iii. Growth Rate: 𝐺𝑅 ∝
𝛿
iv. Uniformity: Dependent on the uniformity of the boundary
layer.
Practical Considerations:
Reactor design and gas flow dynamics are crucial in controlling the
boundary layer and achieve uniform deposition.
 TRANSITION BETWEEN GROWTH 14

REGIMES
Transition Between Regimes:
a) Low Temperatures: Typically reaction rate limited.
b) High Temperatures: Transition to mass transport
limited.
c) Impact of Gas Flow (v₀): Increasing gas flow velocity
can transition the process from mass transport to
reaction rate limited.
Strategies for Uniform Growth:
a) Increase Flow Velocity: Reduces boundary layer
thickness, improving diffusion.
b) Wafer Loading Angle: Helps maintain a consistent
boundary layer thickness across the wafer, leading to
uniform deposition.
Growth Rate vs. Temperature Plot:
a) Reaction Rate Limited: Linear (log scale).
b) Mass Transport Limited: Flat region (weak
temperature dependence).
 15

CVD REACTORS
Hot Wall Reactor:
a) Chamber Heating: Entire chamber including the quartz tube is heated using
resistance heaters.
b) Thermal Mass: High thermal mass due to the entire chamber being hot.
c) Temperature Uniformity: High; temperature is uniform throughout the
chamber.
d) Precursor Consumption: High; reactions can occur on chamber walls, leading
to higher precursor usage.
e) Deposition Rate: Typically lower due to larger thermal mass and potential
gas phase reactions.
f) Application: Common in LPCVD systems where uniform temperature is
crucial.
Cold Wall Reactor:
a) Chamber Heating: Only the substrate (wafer) is heated; the chamber walls
remain cool.
b) Thermal Mass: Low thermal mass; only the wafer is heated.
c) Temperature Uniformity: Lower; non-uniformity may occur due to radiation
losses from the wafer.
d) Precursor Consumption: Lower; reactions are confined to the wafer surface.
e) Deposition Rate: Typically higher as all precursor is directed to the wafer.
f) Application: Common in APCVD systems for processes that require rapid
temperature changes.
 16

APCVD AND LPCVD

APCVD:
a) Pressure: Operates at atmospheric pressure or slightly higher.
b) Growth Rate: High due to mass transport limitation.
c) Temperature Uniformity: Less critical; temperature dependence is weak.
d) Gas Flow Dynamics: Critical; boundary layer management is essential.
e) Reactor Design: Typically simple, cold wall, and used for thick, fast
depositions.
f) Applications: Often used for dielectric deposition and thick films.
LPCVD:
a) Pressure: Operates at low pressure (e.g., 1 millibar).
b) Growth Rate: Slightly lower than APCVD but not orders of magnitude lower.
c) Temperature Uniformity: Crucial; surface reaction rate limited and highly
sensitive to temperature.
d) Gas Flow Dynamics: Less critical; focus on maintaining uniform temperature.
e) Reactor Design: Typically complex, hot wall used for high-quality
semiconductor depositions.
f) Applications: Used for high-quality, uniform thin films and semiconductors.
 IMPACT OF PRESSURE ON GROWTH 17

Pressure Reduction in LPCVD: RATE

a) Pressure Reduction: Reducing pressure from 1000 millibar to
1 millibar.
b) Gas Flow Velocity: Increases due to stronger pumping,
mitigating the impact of lower pressure.
c) Diffusion Coefficient (D): Increases significantly (1000x) due
to lower pressure.
d) Boundary Layer (δ): Thickness increases, but overall
diffusion is enhanced (300x increase in h).
e) Growth Rate: Although pressure decreases 1000x, the
growth rate only reduces by 3x due to increased diffusion.
Implications:
a) Surface Reaction Limited: Larger temperature range for
surface reaction rate-limited growth.
b) Temperature Sensitivity: LPCVD growth rate becomes highly
sensitive to temperature, requiring uniform heating.
 CHALLENGES IN CVD REACTOR 18

Mass Depletion: DESIGN

a) Problem: Precursor concentration decreases as gas flows from one
end of the chamber to the other.
b) Impact: Can cause non-uniform deposition across wafers,
especially in APCVD.
c) Solution: Flow excess precursor to minimize depletion but leads to
increased costs.
Axial Diffusion in LPCVD:
a) Problem: Gas flow between closely stacked wafers is limited,
leading to pressure non-uniformities.
b) Impact: May cause non-uniform deposition along the length of the
reactor.
c) Solution: Carefully design wafer stacking and ensure sufficient gas
diffusion.
Complexity in Reactor Design:
a) Real-World Considerations: Requires advanced fluid dynamics
simulations and experience to optimize.
b) Focus Areas: Ensuring uniform temperature in LPCVD and managing
boundary layers in APCVD.
 19

SURFACE REACTIONS IN CVD

Types of Surface Reactions:
• Pyrolysis:
o Decomposition of a precursor due to heat.
o Example: SiH₄ (Silane) → Si + 2H₂.
o Key Points: Lower temperature required for unstable precursors; used for elements like Si, Al, Ti.
• Reduction:
o Use of hydrogen to reduce precursors.
o Example: SiCl₄ + 2H₂ → Si + 4HCl.
o Key Points: Challenges in maintaining stoichiometry; common for Si, W, Al.
• Oxidation:
o Use of oxygen to oxidize precursors.
o Example: SiH₄ + O₂ → SiO₂ + 2H₂O.
o Key Points: Often used for oxides like SiO₂.
• Other Reactions:
o Nitrides: BF₃ + NH₃ → BN + 3HF.
o Carbides: SiCl₄ + CH₄ → SiC + 4HCl.
o Disproportionation: GeI₄ → Ge (solid) + GeI₂ (gas).
 20

OPTIMAL EPITAXIAL GROWTH

Key Factors for Epitaxy:
a) Higher Temperatures:
i. Enhance surface diffusion, allowing nuclei to reorganize
and align with the substrate, promoting crystallinity.
ii. Example: Silicon epitaxy typically performed at higher
temperatures for better quality.
b) Lower Supersaturation:
i. Lower partial pressure of precursors.
ii. Reduces nucleation rate, allowing time for proper
orientation and growth of large, uniform grains.
Trade-offs:
a) Epitaxial Growth: Slower growth rates due to the need for
precise control of temperature and supersaturation.
b) Practical Approach: Sometimes, a two-step CVD process is
used—initial low-temperature nucleation followed by high-
temperature growth.
Summary: Epitaxy requires balancing nucleation and growth rates to
achieve smooth, crystalline films with minimal defects.
 21

HYDROGEN DESORPTION IN EPITAXY

Hydrogen in Silicon Epitaxy:
a) Silicon Hydrides: Common precursors like silane (SiH₄),
dichlorosilane (SiH₂Cl₂), and disilane (Si₂H₆) contain
hydrogen.
b) Hydrogen Passivation:
i. Hydrogen forms strong Si-H bonds at the silicon
surface, passivating the surface.
ii. To add more silicon atoms and grow the epitaxial
layer, these Si-H bonds must break, requiring energy
for hydrogen desorption.
Growth Rate Limitation:
a) Bottleneck: Hydrogen desorption is often the rate-limiting
step in silicon epitaxy at moderate temperatures.
b) Open Site Fraction: The availability of "open sites" (dangling
bonds) where new silicon atoms can attach is crucial for
growth. High hydrogen partial pressure reduces open sites,
limiting the growth rate.
 22

GROWTH RATE DYNAMICS

Effect of Hydrogen on Growth Rate:
a) Open Site Fraction: Higher hydrogen partial pressure
leads to fewer open sites, slowing down the growth.
b) Growth Rate Curve:
i. Initially, the growth rate increases with silane
partial pressure.
ii. At high silane partial pressure, growth rate
becomes self-limiting due to hydrogen saturation
of open sites.
Comparison with Nitrogen Dilution:
a) Silane in Nitrogen Atmosphere:
i. Nitrogen, being inert, does not passivate the
surface like hydrogen.
ii. Leads to a significantly higher growth rate due to
more available open sites.
 23

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Hydrogen vs. Nitrogen Dilution:
a) Hydrogen Dilution: Slower growth rates, but
benefits include better epitaxial quality by
reducing the likelihood of polycrystalline
growth.
b) Nitrogen Dilution: Faster growth rates, but
may lead to lower epitaxial quality.
Selective Epitaxial Growth:
a) Selective Growth: Achieving growth only on
exposed silicon areas, not on silicon dioxide.
b) Mechanism: Manipulating desorption and
adsorption rates, often through the use of
specific precursors and etchants.
 24

CVD EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES

CVD Equipment:
a) APCVD: Atmospheric Pressure CVD, simpler design, often
uses cold-wall reactors.
b) LPCVD: Low-Pressure CVD, uses hot-wall reactors, requires
precise control of gas flows and vacuum conditions.
c) MOCVD (Metal-Organic CVD):
i. Metal-Organic Precursors: Safer alternatives with lower
vapor pressure, but can lead to carbon contamination.
ii. Applications: Widely used for materials like AlGaAs
with precursors such as TMA (trimethylaluminum).
d) Special Techniques:
i. Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PECVD): Uses plasma to lower
deposition temperatures.
ii. Laser CVD: Uses laser radiation for localized high
growth rates, ideal for specific applications like wire
growth.
 25

PROBLEM 1
In CVD, the following two fluxes are in series
a) Diffusion through wafer and reaction at
wafer/gas interface.
b) Diffusion through gas and reaction at
wafer/gas interface.
c) Diffusion through gas & diffusion through
wafer.
d) Diffusion through gas & drift through
 26

PROBLEM 1
In CVD, the following two fluxes are in series
a) Diffusion through wafer and reaction at
wafer/gas interface.
b) Diffusion through gas and reaction at
wafer/gas interface.
c) Diffusion through gas & diffusion through
wafer.
d) Diffusion through gas & drift through
 27

PROBLEM 2
In CVD, boundary layer refers to
a) Region of almost static gas, near a
surface.
b) Region of high flow near the center of the
tube.
c) The wafer/gas interface where a boundary
condition is defined.
d) The gas/tube interface where a boundary
condition is defined.
 28

PROBLEM 2
In CVD, boundary layer refers to
a) Region of almost static gas, near a
surface.
b) Region of high flow near the center of the
tube.
c) The wafer/gas interface where a boundary
condition is defined.
d) The gas/tube interface where a boundary
condition is defined.
 29

PROBLEM 3
State whether true or false:
The most reliable way to obtain higher growth
rate is to increase partial pressure of precursors.
a) True
b) False
 30

PROBLEM 3
State whether true or false:
The most reliable way to obtain higher growth
rate is to increase partial pressure of precursors.
a) True
b) False
 31

PROBLEM 4
Quality of Epitaxy: Which
temperature and growth rate
conditions give better
probability of epitaxial
(oriented and lattice
matched with the substrate,
crystalline) films for silicon?

a) At higher growth rate and/or lower temperature, nucleation rate is high and
surface diffusion low, enabling epitaxial (crystalline) growth on a crystalline
silicon substrate.
b) At higher temperature and/or low growth rate, nucleation rate is low and
surface diffusion is high, enabling epitaxial (crystalline) growth on a
crystalline silicon substrate.
 32

PROBLEM 4
Quality of Epitaxy: Which
temperature and growth rate
conditions give better
probability of epitaxial
(oriented and lattice
matched with the substrate,
crystalline) films for silicon?

a) At higher growth rate and/or lower temperature, nucleation rate is high and
surface diffusion low, enabling epitaxial (crystalline) growth on a crystalline
silicon substrate.
b) At higher temperature and/or low growth rate, nucleation rate is low and
surface diffusion is high, enabling epitaxial (crystalline) growth on a
crystalline silicon substrate.
 33

PROBLEM 5
What are the levers to control Gibbs Free Energy
for a reaction?
a) Temperature
b) Flow Rate
c) Partial Pressure
d) All of the above
 34

PROBLEM 5
What are the levers to control Gibbs Free Energy
for a reaction?
a) Temperature
b) Flow Rate
c) Partial Pressure
d) All of the above
 35

PROBLEM 6
Which among the following states the features
of Hot-Walled CVD:
a) Uniform Temperature and Low Precursor
Consumption
b) Uniform Temperature and Fast
Temperature Ramp Rates
c) High Precursor Consumption and Slow
Temperature Ramp Rates
d) Non-uniform Temperature and Fast
Temperature Ramp Rates
 36

PROBLEM 6
Which among the following states the features
of Hot-Walled CVD:
a) Uniform Temperature and Low Precursor
Consumption
b) Uniform Temperature and Fast
Temperature Ramp Rates
c) High Precursor Consumption and Slow
Temperature Ramp Rates
d) Non-uniform Temperature and Fast
Temperature Ramp Rates
 37

FEEL FREE TO ASK QUESTIONS.

Next topic: Additive Processing: Physical Vapor

Deposition
 38

Vikas Pandey
Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur
[Link]
[Link]
pandey.21@[Link]