community.

Safety stakeholders are becoming

increasingly adept in recognizing opportunities
for partnerships to help attain safety goals and
objectives. This section identifies major safety
stakeholders and their roles in the safety
TRANSPORTATION SAFETY AND ECONOMICS planning process.

The 4 E’s of Safety

To plan for and shape a safer
DISCUSSION PROPER transportation system, agencies typically
Topic 1: Transportation Safety consider strategies from engineering,
The goal of safety planning is to reduce education, enforcement, and emergency
fatalities and serious injuries on all public roads. medical services (EMS) to improve safety
Safety planning is a collaborative and outcomes.
integrated approach that brings together
safety partners to leverage resources for a 1. Engineering:
common safety goal. A data-driven safety
Engineers play a critical role in
planning process can identify opportunities to
identifying and recommending solutions to
address the safety performance of a roadway.
address safety performance of the
Transportation safety is a required factor in the transportation infrastructure. Some of their
planning process and transportation planners responsibilities may include managing and
are key partners ensuring that safety is an participating in the development and
integral component of all planning processes. implementation of a State wide or regional
With knowledge and understanding of safety road safety plan; collecting and managing
crash data; analyzing crash data to identify
and safety planning, transportation planners
safety issues and projects; utilizing analysis
can enhance collaboration, communication,
methods, such as network screening, and
and coordination with their safety specialist sharing the results; identifying safety projects
partners to achieve the goal of reducing and countermeasures; designing
serious injuries and fatalities. improvements; conducting before and after
studies; managing roadway improvements;
1.1. Safety Stakeholders and coordinating safety issues with other state
wide, regional, and local engineers.
Transportation safety performance is
linked to a variety of elements, including
2. Enforcement:
roadway design, traffic law enforcement, road
user behavior, and emergency response time. Law enforcement personnel generally
Therefore, effective transportation safety are responsible for collecting crash data, traffic
warrants a multidisciplinary approach. Over law enforcement, behavioral safety
the past years, safety practitioners have found campaigns, and sharing information with
value in partnering with a variety of other transportation professionals. In the event
disciplines, such as public health, advocacy crashes do occur, law enforcement collect
groups, universities, and others to more fully data for crash reports, which provide details on
engage the community and the public in the crash itself, such as the people and
safety enhancements. The key players differ vehicles involved and the environmental
from State to State and community to circumstances. This information is critical to
planners and engineers who use it to identify Health Department Personnel:
and address safety issues
Many State and local health departments
3. Emergency Medical Services: have injury prevention programs, which often
include efforts to prevent motor vehicle crashes
This group includes first responders and and resulting injuries and
paramedics, fire and rescue personnel, law fatalities. This stakeholder group can be
enforcement, Department of Transportation particularly effective in providing safety data and
(DOT) personnel, and tow truck operators. analysis skills and insights, lessons learned from
Crash survival and injury severity are integrally other public health efforts, public health

linked to response time and the medical care approaches to transportation concerns and
received after a crash. EMS personnel advice on topics, such as transportation access,
understanding of impediments to effect walking, biking, and active lifestyles in general.
response and recovery can be critical.
Emergency responders can provide insights into Safety Advocates:

health and trauma data recorded at the crash

Many States have locally based groups of safety
scene and updated at the hospital to more
advocates committed to addressing
accurately report fatalities and serious injuries;
transportation safety concerns and can be
advise on emergency responder safety as they
effective in driving awareness and change. The
work a crash scene; discuss how to collect better
groups typically consist of citizens, law
data (i.e., blood draws) at the crash scene to
enforcement, public health, medical, diverse
understand all the factors involved; and share
groups, government, business, civic and
knowledge on roadway connectivity or other
issues, which may hinder rapid emergency
response and transport. service groups, and the general public. Where
available and effective, they serve as a useful
4. Education:
resource for advocacy, community education,
and fund raising.
Transportation systems users are not always
aware of the risks associated with their behaviors.
Tribal Governments:
This community may include school teachers and
administrators, hospital and emergency medical Tribal governments are responsible for the
services personnel, driver education instructors, transportation issues and needs of their citizens.
health educators, advocacy groups, DOTs, Tribal areas usually experience disproportionately
Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO), State high rates of transportation related fatalities based
Highway Safety Offices (SHSO), and others. on population, so it is critical to engage them in
Specific roles differ by agency or group, but the the safety planning process.
main purpose is to administer, advocate for, and
implement safety education programs for all road Planners:
users.
State DOT, MPO, local jurisdiction, and
Other Safety Stakeholders Tribal transportation planners have multiple job
functions, which may include duties related to
 safety. Safety responsibilities vary, but general ∙ Commercial driver testing and licensing ∙
tasks might include participating in safety plan
Drunk driving limits and enforcement ∙ Speed
development and implementation; cooperating
on State wide or regional safety related limits and speed limit enforcement
committees such as emphasis area teams, to ∙ Standardization of traffic control devices
discuss and collaborate on safety issues, crash
∙ Improvement of roadway geometric designs
data collection and management, and data
analysis tools, such as geographic information ∙ Managing direct access to land from arterial
system (GIS) crash mapping. roads
Transportation planners may specialize in a
∙ Aircraft safety regulation and inspection ∙
specific transportation mode, such as transit,
Post-crash investigations and analysis of crash
freight, bicycle, or pedestrian. Planners identify
existing and future short- and long ∙ Camera enforcement of speed and red light

range needs, identify projects and programs, help running

in establishing priorities, and evaluate outcomes. ∙ Road condition and weather
Experience from each of these areas may
provide insight on current safety issues and needs, Some Mitigation Strategies Reduce the
as well as effective methods for addressing them. Consequences of Crashes

Elected Officials:
∙ Wider roadway clear zones

Decision makers sometimes serve as powerful ∙ Ditch slope standards

advocates for road safety. They may champion
∙ Improved roadway medians
safety needs and direct resources towards the
most pressing safety issues; attend ceremonies to ∙ Crash testing of vehicles and roadside

publicize newly constructed safety projects; and hardware

vocalize support for safety efforts, such as a Vision ∙ Automobile safety feature requirements
Zero or Towards Zero Deaths campaigns. Some
(e.g., seat belts, air bags, tire grading,
agencies
stability control)
successfully recruit elected officials to participate
∙ Flammability standards for materials used in
in safety plan development and implementation
as executive committee members. aircraft cabins and inside automobiles

∙ Improved guard rails and breakaway

Three Types of Safety Strategies
posts

∙ Crash prevention (before the crash) ∙ Crash

Emergency Response Strategies
injury and fatality mitigation (during the crash)

∙ Improving emergency response and ∙ Improved crash fire and rescue capabilities
medicine (after the crash) at airports

∙ Training and certification of emergency

Some Crash Prevention Strategies
medical technicians
 ∙ Video surveillance of high crash locations provide economic and social
opportunities and benefits that result in
∙ Pre-positioning of emergency response
positive multiplier effects such as better
vehicles accessibility to markets, employment,
∙ Mayday systems on motor vehicles and additional investments. When
transport systems are deficient in terms
of capacity or reliability, they can have
an economic cost such as reduced or
missed opportunities and lower quality
Topic 2: The fundamental economics of safety of life.

∙ The impacts of transportation are not

∙ In terms of traditional economic models,
always intended and can have
safety is most likely an important part of unforeseen or unintended
both the demand and supply functions.
The possibility of loss, injury and death
presumably enters travel demand and
mode choice decisions, albeit that the
profession is still hard pressed to quantify
consequences. For instance, congestion
the exact magnitude of the relationship.
is often an unintended consequence in
∙ Safety also pays a large (if somewhat ill the provision of free or low-cost
defined) part of the costs of transport infrastructure to the users.
transportation. The cost of automobiles However, congestion is also an
is inflated by the inclusion of many types indication of a growing economy where
of safety-related design features. capacity and infrastructure have
Commercial transportation providers difficulties keeping up with the rising
invest in higher quality equipment and mobility demands.
staff training to reduce the probability of
mishaps. TYPES OF IMPACTS OF MITIGATION

∙ At some level, safety can be regarded as

∙ Core. The most fundamental impacts of
“quality” attribute of transportation, and
transportation-related to the physical
economists can ask the usual question
capacity to convey passengers and
concerning “how much quality should
goods and the associated costs to
be provided?”
support this mobility. This involves the

Topic 3: The Economic Importance of setting of routes enabling new or

Transportation existing interactions between economic

entities.

∙ Because of its intensive use of ∙ Operational. Improvement in the time

infrastructures, the transport sector is an performance, notably in terms of

important component of the economy reliability, as well as reduced loss or
and a common tool used for damage. This implies a better utilization
development. High-density transport level of existing transportation assets
infrastructure and highly connected benefiting its users as passengers and
networks are commonly associated with freight are conveyed more rapidly and
high levels of development. When with fewer delays.
transport systems are efficient, they
 ∙ Geographical. Access to a broader system is developed, the more likely additional
investment would result in lower returns. The most
market base where economies of scale
common reasons for the declining marginal
in production, distribution, and
returns of transport investments are:
consumption can be improved.
Increases in productivity from the ∙ High accumulation of existing infrastructure.
access to a larger and more diverse Where there is a high level of accessibility
base of inputs (raw materials, parts, and where transportation networks that is
energy or labor) and broader markets already extensive, further investments
for diverse outputs (intermediate and usually result in marginal improvements. This
finished goods). Another important means that the economic impacts of
geographical impact concerns the transport investments tend to be significant
influence of transport on the location of when infrastructures were previously
activities and its impacts on land values. lacking and tend to be marginal when an

∙ The economic importance of the extensive network is already present.

Additional investments can thus have a
transportation industry can thus be
limited impact outside convenience.
assessed from a macroeconomic and
microeconomic perspective: ∙ Economic changes. As economies develop,

∙ At the macroeconomic level (the their function tends to shift from the primary
(resource extraction) and secondary
importance of transportation for a
(manufacturing) sectors towards

whole economy), transportation and advanced manufacturing,

the mobility it confers are linked to a distribution, and services. These sectors rely
level of output, employment, and on different transport systems and
income within a national economy. capabilities. While an economy depending
∙ At the microeconomic level (the on manufacturing will rely on road, rail, and
port infrastructures, a service economy is
importance of transportation for specific
more oriented towards the efficiency of
parts of the economy), transportation is
logistics and urban transportation. In all
linked to producer, consumer, and
cases, transport infrastructure is important,
distribution costs. The importance of
but their relative importance in supporting
specific transport activities and
the economy may shift.
infrastructure can thus be assessed for each
sector of the economy.
∙ Clustering. Due to clustering and
Topic 4: Economic Returns of Transport agglomeration, several locations develop
Investments advantages that cannot be readily
reversed through improvements in
Transport investments tend to have accessibility. Transportation can be a
declining marginal returns (diminishing returns). factor of concentration and dispersion
While initial infrastructure investments tend to depending on the context and the level of
have a high return since they provide an entirely development. Less accessible regions thus
new range of mobility options, the more the do not necessarily benefit from transport
 investments if they are embedded in a While resources remain the foundation of econ
system of unequal relations. omic activities, thecommodification of the
economy has been linked with higher levels of
Topic 5: Transportation Impacts material flows of all kinds. Concomitantly,
resources, capital, and even labor have shown
The relationship between transportation
increasing levels of mobility. This is particularly the
and economic development is difficult to formally
case for multinational firms that can benefit from
establish and has been debated for many years.
transport improvements in two significant markets:
In some circumstances, transport investments
appear to be a catalyst for economic growth,
∙ Commodity market. Improvement in the
while in others; economic growth puts pressures
efficiency with which firms have access to
on existing transport infrastructures and incites
raw materials and parts as well as to their
additional investments. Transport markets and
respective customers. Thus, transportation
related transport infrastructure networks are key
expands opportunities to acquire and sell a
drivers in the promotion of more balanced and
variety of commodities necessary for
sustainable development, particularly by
industrial and manufacturing systems.
improving accessibility and the opportunities of
less developed regions or disadvantaged social ∙ Labor market. Improvement in access to
groups. labor and a reduction in access costs,
Transport, as a technology, typically follows mainly by improved commuting (local
a path of experimentation, introduction, scale) or the use of lower-cost labor (global
adoption, and diffusion and, finally, scale).
obsolescence, each of which has an impact on
the rate of economic development. The most Transportation provides market accessibility

significant benefits and productivity gains are by linking producers and consumers so that

realized in the early to mid- diffusion phases while transactions can take place. Transportation is an
later phases are facing diminishing returns. economic factor of production of goods and

Containerization is a relevant example of services, implying that it is fundamental in their

such a diffusion behavior as its productivity generation, even if it accounts for a small share of
benefits were mostly derived in the 1990s and input costs. This means that irrespective of the
2000s when economic globalization was cost, an activity cannot take place without the
accelerating. If relying upon new technologies, transportation factor and the mobility it provides.
transportation investments can go through what is Thus, relatively small changes in transport cost,

called a “hype phase” with unrealistic capacity, and performance can have substantial
expectations about their potential and benefits. impacts on dependent economic activities. An
efficient transport system with modern
Topic 6: Transportation as an Economic Factor infrastructures favors many economic changes,
Contemporary trends have underlined that most of them positive. The major impacts of
economic development has become less transport on economic factors can be
dependent on relations with the environment categorized as follows:
(resources) and more dependent on relations
across space. ∙ Geographic specialization.
Improvements in transportation and reliability advantages enable goods to be
communication favor a process of transported over longer distances. This
geographical specialization that facilitates mass production through
economies of scale because larger
markets can be accessed. The concept of
increases productivity and spatial
“just-in-time” in supply chain management
interactions. An economic entity tends to
has further expanded the productivity of
produce goods and services with the most
production and distribution with benefits
appropriate combination of capital, labor,
such as lower inventory levels and better
and raw materials. A region will thus tend
responses to shifting market conditions.
to specialize in the production of goods
Thus, the more efficient transportation
and services for which it has the greatest
becomes the larger the markets that can
advantages (or the least disadvantages)
be serviced, and the larger the scale of
compared to other regions as long as
production. This results in lower unit costs.
appropriate transport is available for trade.
Through geographic specialization
∙ Increased competition. When transport is
supported by efficient transportation,
efficient, the potential market for a given
economic productivity is promoted. This
product (or service) increases, and so does
process is known in economic theory as
competition. A wider array of goods and
comparative advantages that have
services becomes available to consumers
enabled the economic specialization of
through competition, which tends to
regions.
reduce costs and promote quality and
innovation. Globalization has clearly been
∙ Scale and scope of production. An efficient
associated with a competitive
transport system offering cost, time, and
environment that spans the world and

enables consumers to have

access to a wider range of goods
and services.

∙ Increased land value. Land which is

adjacent or serviced by good
transport services generally has
greater value due to the utility it
confers. Consumers can have
access to a wider range of
services and retail goods. In
contrast, residents can have
better accessibility to
employment, services, and social
networks, all of which transcribes
in higher land value. Irrespective
of if used or not, the accessibility
conveyed by transportation is
impacting the land value. In
some cases, due to the
externalities there generate
transportation activities can lower
land value, particularly for
residential activities. Land
located near airports and
highways, near noise and
pollution sources, will thus be
impacted by corresponding
diminishing land value.