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CCD-SP-01
September 2025

Greenhouses and Similar Structures

An Overview
Updated by: Qinglu Ying, Ph. D, Extension CEA specialist
Thanks to the pioneering work of Dr. Emery Emmert,
“The Father of the Plastic Greenhouse” at the University
of Kentucky in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the types
of greenhouses available today have become much more
diverse. We now have many alternative types of structures
that can effectively extend the growing season. These
range from small, simple greenhouse-like structures (low
tunnels) to high tech greenhouses (Table 1), which can be
built to form complexes of 40 acres in size or more.
Regardless of the chosen structure, the design should
protect against wind, snow, and other potential damage to
crops while maximizing light transmission.
Figure 1: Plastic high tunnel with ridge vent
A greenhouse is a “tool” that can be used to facilitate growing plants and protect them from unfavorable
climate conditions. The tool is fitted for the job, and not the other way around. Therefore, “the best”
greenhouse structure is the one that best fulfills the grower’s goals, considering crop species, geographic
location, growing season, economic feasibility, labor, and market conditions. For example, low tunnels or low-
tech greenhouses may be quite adequate to handle the job if the primary goal is an early start at the farmers
markets.
This extension publication provides an overview of key factors to consider when selecting greenhouse
structures. It covers various structure types, glazing materials, heating, and cooling systems, which will help
growers make informed decisions to optimize greenhouse performance, improve energy efficiency and crop
production.

Greenhouses in Kentucky
With the overall improvements in greenhouse technology and supportive programs, Kentucky’s greenhouse
industry has seen steady growth since the tobacco buyouts of the early 2000’s. Moreover, the increasing
demand for locally grown fresh produce, and Kentucky’s prime geographic location—being within a day’s
drive of a sizable portion of the contiguous United States (US)—have bolstered an influx of greenhouse growers
of all sizes. In Kentucky, large-scale and smaller scale greenhouse operations exist with a wide range of
technologies in use. Furthermore, Kentucky greenhouses produce a wide range of horticultural products, from
soil-grown vegetables to aquaponic-produced lettuces and fish to containerized ornamentals and fresh cut
flowers, the crop diversity of Kentucky greenhouses continues to expand.
From USDA census in 2022, there are 6,647,045 sq ft (about twice the area of a large shopping mall) of
vegetable and herbs production under glass other protection in Kentucky. This represents a 348% increase in
greenhouse vegetable and fresh cut herb production area from 2017, catapulting Kentucky into the top 5 states
in the US. When cross-comparing county data, the total production area does not account for some of the large-
scale greenhouses that have been recently constructed and are currently in operation.

Types of Greenhouse Structures

Feature Low Tunnel High Tunnel Basic Greenhouse High-Tech Greenhouse

Walk upright
Low, flexible inside, hooped Steel/aluminum frame
Structure hoops frame Rigid frame with advanced design
Plastic film, row Polycarbonate or Glass, acrylic or
Glazing Material cover Plastic film polyethylene polycarbonate

Height 1-3 ft 6-15 ft 8-20 ft 15-30 ft

No foundation, No foundation,
anchored with anchored with Concrete or metal
Foundation soil or pegs stakes base Concrete foundation
Roll-up sides or Roof vents, fans, side Automated vents, fans,
Ventilation Manual end-wall vents vents cooling pads, AC
Moderate (passive Heaters, fans, manual Automated climate
Environmental Control Minimal control) shading control, sensors
Electric, gas or
advanced heating
(geothermal, combined
None or passive Often heated (propane, heat and power,
Heating None heating gas, electric) radiant)

Seasonal,
Durability temporary Semi-permanent Permanent Highly durable
Table 1: Overview and comparison of di<erent types of greenhouses and similar structures

Low Tunnels
Low tunnels consist of wire or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) hoops covered with transparent plastic or row covers.
They are commonly used alongside black plastic mulch and drip irrigation. The covers remain in place for only
three to four weeks before being removed. Covers protecting bee-pollinated crops should be removed when the
first flowers appear. Besides providing an excellent means of extending the growing season, low tunnels also
offer wind protection.
Modifications have been made to this basic design to allow for daytime ventilation when temperatures
within the plastic begin to rise to levels that are detrimental to crop health. While cucurbits are more tolerant of
elevated temperatures, ventilation is necessary for some crops such as tomato and pepper. One way to provide
ventilation is to simply place slits in the plastic to allow the heat to escape. Rolling up one or both sides of the
tunnel is still another way to provide ventilation. An alternative system involves using two narrower sheets of
plastic with a seam at the peak of the hoops. This seam is secured by clothespins, which can be removed to open
the tunnel for ventilation. Another method, the double hoop system, makes use of two hoops with the plastic
sandwiched between them. Because the edges of the plastic are not buried, the sides of the tunnel can be raised
and lowered as needed for ventilation.

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High Tunnels
The field greenhouse of Dr. Emmert’s day is now
generally called a “high tunnel” or “hoop house.” A
high tunnel is a hooped frame of walk-in height covered
with plastic. Although lacking the precision of active
environmental control, these simple unheated structures
do moderate temperatures, provide soil warming, and
protect plants from wind and rain. They are used to
extend the growing season earlier in the spring and later
into fall for a wide assortment of horticultural crops.
Additionally, high tunnels maybe be used for the winter
production of various cool-season crops, such as leafy
greens and herbs. University of Kentucky researchers
have investigated the use of tunnels for organic Figure 2: Low tunnels covered with insect netting
brambles and blueberry production, as well.
Tunnels may have a rounded Quonset shape, or they may have the peaked roof of a Gothic style high
tunnel (the latter is the most popular option as a standalone structure in Kentucky, due to its superior ability to
handle snow and ice-load); they may be a single stand-alone house or form multi-bay tunnels. Standard sizes
can vary from 14’x 30’ to 30’x96’. Frames, which can be constructed of metal pipe, wood, or PVC pipe, are
covered with one or two layers of greenhouse-grade polyethylene; those covered with two layers of plastic
additionally have a blower fan to maintain an air layer in between, thus offering better insulation and
consequently, more cold protection.
High tunnels may be moveable structures that can be relocated to a new site each season, or they may be
placed in a more permanent location. Moving tunnels to different sites can facilitate crop rotation, help avoid
salt buildup in the soil and prevent the buildup of insect pests and disease pathogens. The soil in moveable
tunnels should be worked prior to erecting the structure. Once the structure is in place, tilling can be a
challenge. Pennsylvania State University has developed a design in which the end walls are hinged, and a small
tractor or tiller can be driven in. New Hampshire’s system uses plastic mulch to cover the entire soil surface
under the tunnel, making tilling unnecessary.
Passive high tunnels do not have any external connections, except for the water supply for trickle
irrigation and fertilization. There are two main systems for ventilation. In the most common system, the sides of
the tunnel are rolled up each morning to provide
ventilation as temperatures rise within the tunnel. The
sides are rolled back down again each evening for cold
protection. A system that is becoming more common
has drop-down side-walls. While high tunnels do not
have a permanent heating system, some growers
choose to keep a portable heater available for
unexpected drops in temperature. Extreme caution
must be used when doing this, because an improperly
vented tunnel can injure the plants and anyone working
inside the tunnel. When vented properly, serious foliar
and fruit diseases are often fewer since plant surfaces
remain dry while in the protective environment of the
high tunnel. Also, high tunnels can reduce plant and Figure 3: High Tunnel at UK Horticulture Farm
fruit damage by excluding animals (such as birds) and certain insects (with insect netting). Fewer diseases and
pests can mean reduced pesticide use. High tunnel production results in improved crop growth, quality, and
yields compared to plants produced in the field without the tunnel. A combination of an earlier planting date,
along with the more rapid ripening that occurs within the tunnel, can result in mature tomatoes as much as one
month earlier than field tomatoes.

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Basic Greenhouses
Basic greenhouses, also referred as low-tech or mid-tech greenhouses, are generally simple and basic
greenhouse structures with limited automated climate control systems. They may be 20 feet or more in width
and 100 feet or more in length with frames
of aluminum, galvanized steel, or wood.
Glazing or covering materials are typically
rigid transparent plastic, polyethylene, or
polycarbonate. If only a single greenhouse
is required, it can be built as a standalone
unit. A wide range of structures have been
used for greenhouse design, and the most
used standalone structures including free
standing Quonset (a), gable (b), gothic (c),
and round arched with vertical wall style
(Figure 1). It’s recommended to select the
greenhouse frame based on the geographic
location, production size, cycle and
methods, as well as financial
consideration. The pros and cons of
different free-standing basic greenhouse Figure 4: Overview and comparison of di<erent types of greenhouses and similar
structures are compared to help growers structures. Quonset (A), gable(B), gothic (C) and Venlo (D) style greenhouses
make decision (Table 2). However, when (photos from greenhouse and high tunnel providers)
multiple houses are needed (either initially
or as part of a future expansion), the greenhouses should be gutter connected for more efficient use. Both
standalone and gutter-connected greenhouses can collect large quantities of rainwater for irrigation.

Basic greenhouses may be carefully designed or upgraded with add-on technologies to improve
crop yield and quality. Improvement can be made through increasing ventilation, light transmission and
managing nighttime temperature.

Quonset Gable Gothic

Light transmission Low Mid Highest

Peak height Low Highest Mid

Durability Low Mid Highest

Withstanding snow load Low Mid Highest

Withstanding strong wind Highest Low Mid

Construction cost Low Mid Highest

Operational (heating, ventilation)

cost Low Mid Highest

Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of diverse types of greenhouse structure.

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 Ventilation is essential to maintain the growing environment within the greenhouse, including
temperature, relative humidity, air, and CO2 exchange. Combining side wall ventilation with roof ventilation
increases air flow that is perpendicular to dominant wind, and increasing the height of the greenhouse up to 6-
meter could promote ventilation efficiency in removing hot and humid air.
To achieve maximum light transmission for winter production, the greenhouse orientation, the angle of
the roof slope, and covering materials should be considered. In Kentucky, east-west oriented greenhouses get
more light in winter while north-south oriented greenhouses get more light transmission in summer. Steeper
roof slopes will also improve the light transmission in winter.
Since the temperature drop during night could negatively affect plant growth and fruit quality,
retractable screens could be considered to reduce nighttime heat loss for unheated greenhouse winter
production.

High-tech Greenhouse
When the greenhouse operation is scaling up, muti-span gutter-connected greenhouse should be considered for
more efficient resource use. For most high-tech greenhouses, microclimate (lighting, air temperature, humidity,
air exchange rate and CO2) and other factors, including irrigation, growing substrates and nutrient recipes, are
fully controlled through mechanical ventilation, artificial lights, heaters, fans, misting system, coolers, and an
irrigation system. Therefore, plants are more uniform with higher yield and better crop quality. Venlo
greenhouse is the most popular high-tech greenhouse in the world. However, high-tech greenhouses require
significant investment in both initial capital and ongoing operational costs.
High-tech greenhouses enable the year-round production of a wide variety of crops, from high-wire
vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, and lettuce to high-value crops such as berries, herbs, and
ornamental plants. Taking tomatoes as an example, in high-tech greenhouses, indeterminate varieties are grown
as they produce flowers and fruits simultaneously throughout the extended period of their life cycle of 10-12
months. Plants are trained vertically against strings, maximizing space usage, and ensuring optimal light
exposure. Once the plants begin producing fruits, tomato clusters can be harvested weekly, as new fruit clusters
ripen continuously. The vegetative and regenerative growth of tomato plants can be monitored through
adjusting crop maintenance (e.g., de-leafing, pruning etc.) and fertigation management. With favorable growing
conditions and crop maintenance, high-tech greenhouse tomato growers could reach an average yield of
70kg/m2 for a 10-month crop cycle. More importantly, the consistent weekly harvest not only maximizes
productivity but also ensures a steady supply of fresh tomatoes to the market, meeting consumer demand year-
round.

Glazing Materials
Plastic film (polyethylene film), rigid plastics (polycarbonate and acrylic), and glass are the most common
greenhouse glazing materials. Each material has unique characteristics that should be carefully evaluated based
on light transmission rates, lifetime, and costs (Table 3). Key factors to consider include PAR transmittance,
UV transmittance, heat retention, durability, and cost. Some materials offer diffuse or non-diffuse light options
and UV-transmissible or UV-blocking properties. Diffuse materials promote uniform light distribution,
enhancing photosynthesis in the lower canopy, reducing crop temperature, and increasing leaf count compared
to direct lighting. UV-absorbing chemicals may also be added to extend the material's lifespan.
UV transmission into greenhouses has both positive and negative impacts on plants, beneficial insects,
pollinators, pests, and pathogens, and should be assessed based on specific production priorities. UV light can
promote plant bioactive compounds, enhance stress tolerance, and induce compact growth with smaller and
fewer leaves. It can also kill fungal spores and reduce the severity of many fungal pathogens. However, UV
light can affect insect navigation and orientation and increase activity from pests like aphids and whiteflies.

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Materials PAR transmission Thermal transmission Lifetime Costs
(years) ($/ft2)
Glass Highest Low > 25 1.25-7.00

Polycarbonate Mid-high Mid-Low 10-15 1.25-2.50

Acrylic Mid-high Low 20 1.50-3.50

Polyethylene film Low High 3 0.06-0.09

Table 3: Photosynthetically active radiation transmission rates, thermal transmission rates, lifetime and costs (based on material ar
ea) of common greenhouse glazing materials.

Ventilation
Ventilation refers to the process of air exchange, removing the air inside the greenhouse and replacing it with
air from the outside. Ventilation is one the most essential tools to maintain appropriate growing condition (CO2,
temperature, and moisture levels) in the greenhouse.
Greenhouse ventilation is crucial for plant health and growth by regulating greenhouse growing environment,
promoting transpiration and nutrient uptake, preventing diseases and pests, and ensuring proper pollination and
CO2 levels. Venation in controlled environment structure could be poor in summer, associated with insufficient
ventilation methods and surface, leading to significant crop damage and loss. High-tech greenhouses usually
have a sophisticated system to actively manage the airflow combining natural ventilation, roof vents, and
circulation fans. Lower-tech systems also have some tools to improve ventilation.

The primary ventilation method in high tunnels is rolling up and down the sidewalls, which can be done
manually, or using a crank or motorized system. This passive ventilation method relies on natural airflow.
Additionally, end wall openings also help improve air exchange.

Figure 5: Greenhouse ventilation of sidewall roll- up vent, roof flap vent and exhaust fan system.

basic greenhouses, ridge vents and sidewall vents could be operated manually or thermostat-connected to
motorized openers, cranks, or fans, allowing warm air to escape and cool air to enter. However, these fans are

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often small-scale which may result in non-uniformed airflow, hot spots, and insufficient CO2 distribution. Fans
need to be properly sized to provide enough air exchange volume in the greenhouses. In general, an air
exchange volume per minute to a height of 8 to 10 feet is required for summer ventilation, and ¼ volume is
needed for winter ventilation. For example, a 30x96 greenhouse would require an air exchange volume of at
least 30x96x8 = 23,040 cubic feet per minute (CFM) in the summer. When choosing the fans, it is common to
have two or more fans achieving the target CFM to allow for air circulation and to have backup in case of
malfunctions. To prevent stagnant air pockets, fans should not be spaced over 25 feet away.

Shading
During the summer months, Kentucky experiences intense solar radiation and heat, which can negatively impact
plant growth. Ventilation alone is insufficient to control the greenhouse temperature. To maintain optimal
growing conditions, shading is essential for regulating temperatures and light intensities, alleviating plant stress,
and preventing excessive strain on cooling and ventilation systems. The two most common methods of
greenhouse shading are commercial shading compounds, also known as whitewash, and shade cloth or curtains.
Shading compounds are liquid coatings applied to greenhouse glazing materials to reduce light intensity. The
level of shading can be controlled by adjusting the concentration and volume of the application. Shade cloth or
curtains can be placed on the interior or exterior of the greenhouse, controlled manually or automatically, and
are rated in light transmission percent

Heating
Appropriate temperature is essential to plant health and high-quality yields. In Kentucky, greenhouses need to
be heated for early production in the early spring and extended production in late fall. Heating could be a
financial concern for growers due to high energy prices. Therefore, the type of heating systems must be
considered carefully based on the size and structure of the greenhouses, outdoor climatic condition, plant
requirement and productivity to justify the costs. Heat can be generated by electricity, combustion of gas, oil,
coal, wood, agricultural waste plant materials, or using geothermal energy, waste heat from other industries or
solar energy. Heat can be delivered through a hot air system (like unit heaters, poly tubes, and horizontal air
flow), or hot water boiler system (like fin pipe, root-zone, and plant canopy heating pipe). Heating systems must
be well controlled as the whole crop can be destroyed with one night of heating shut down.

Cooling
In Kentucky, greenhouses often require supplemental heating to maintain suitable temperatures during winter,
however; cooling is equally important during the hot and humid summer months. Cooling is typically achieved
through air exchange between the greenhouse and the outside environment. Common methods include natural
ventilation and mechanical ventilation using fans. Cooling pads can be used alongside fans to lower
temperatures, though evaporative cooling is less effective in Kentucky's humid summer climate compared to
arid regions and introduces temperature and humidity gradients in the greenhouses. Shading is another option to
reduce both air temperature and light intensity during summer. Additionally, some high-tech greenhouses
employ high-pressure fogging systems to regulate both temperature and humidity effectively.

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 Additional Resources
• American Society of Agriculture and Biological Engineers. 2008. ANSI/ASAE EP406.4. Heating,
Ventilating and Cooling Greenhouses. ASABE. Joseph Michigan.
• National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association. Design Manual for Greenhouses. Chapter 3. Structure
Design. [Link]
• ACME Engineering & Manufacturing Corporation. The Greenhouse Climate Control Handbook.
[Link]
• Ball RedBook: Greenhouses and Equipment (Volume 1). Chris Beytes, editor. 2011 (18th ed). Ball
Publishing, Inc.: West Chicago, IL. 800 pp. [Link]
• Byrd, C. (2025). Insuring Horticultural Investments: Insurance Check List. CCD-FS-33. Lexington, KY:
Center for Crop Diversification, University of Kentucky Martin Gatton College of Agriculture, Food
and Environment.
• Portable Field Hoophouse (Washington State University Extension, 2009).
[Link] [Link]
• Ventilation for Greenhouses (University of Massachusetts Amherst Extension, 2005) https://
[Link]/agriculture-food-environment/greenhouse-floriculture/fact-sheets/ventilation-for-
greenhouses

Suggested Citation:
Ying, Q. (2025). Greenhouses and similar structures. CCD-SP-01. Lexington KY: Center for Crop
Diversification, University of Kentucky Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food and Environment.

Original Authors: Cheryl Kaiser and Matt Ernst

2025 Revisions: Arundathi Sharma, Extension Associate and Casey Byrd Extension Agent

Photos courtesy of UK College of Agriculture, Food & Environment amd Dr. Ying